MACHINE SHOP THEORY

Machines Used in Machining Operations;

Lathe- is a machine tool used to remove metal from a workpiece to give it the required
shape and size.

1. Lathe machine- a machine tool in which the work revolves on a horizontal axis and
acted upon by a cutting tool.

2. Shaper- a machine tool in which the cutter moves in a reciprocation motion to

produce flat or partly curved surfaces on metals pieces which are held securely in a
vise
.
3. Planer- a machine tool which is used to produce flat surfaces on pieces which are too
large or too heavy to be worked in a shaper.

4. Drill press- a machine tool which is used mainly to produce holes in metal parts by
the use of a rotating drill bit which acts on a securely hrld piece.
5.Grinding Machine or Grinder- a machine tool which uses rotating abrasive wheels to
smoothen metal parts and to sharpen or shape tools.

6. Boring Machine- machine tool purposely designed for finishing holes.

7.Milling Machine- a machine tool which is used to produce a variety of surfaces by

using a circular type cutter with multiple teeth.

8. Band Saw- a machine tool which is used to cut metal parts by the use of an endless
band with saw teeth moving around two pulleys.

9. Power Hacksaw- a machine tool which is used to cut metal parts of light, medium and
large sections using a reciprocating hacksaw blade.

10. Hydraulic Press- a machine tool which consists of a ram which is being actuated by
the pressure of hydraulic fluid, which is used in various operations such as bending,
drawing, forged fitting, or disassembling of parts.

11. Mechanical Press- a machine tool which is driven by an electric motor or

mechanical power source and is used in sheet metal work like punching, shearing,
bending, drawing and other sheet metal forming operations.

12. Turret Lathe- a type of lathe which consists of multiple station tool holders or turrets
allowing the production of multiple cuts.

13. Engine Lathe- it is a lathe machine which always has a tailstock which can be
moves longitudinally along the bed.
14. Precision Lathe- is a lathe machine that is built for delicate operation or when too
much precision is needed in the work.

15. Automatic Screw Machine- only one spindle is used for turning screw machine
products or either four to ssix spindles which enable an operation to machine four to six
pieces simultaneously.

16. Welding Machine- is a machine designed to join light and heavy metal of all kinds by
means of a process using electric current.

Areas of a Machine Shop:

1. Mass Production Area – this is an area in the machine shop where the same jobs are
performed throughout by each machine operator.

2. Tool and Die Area – is an area wherein necessary dies and jigs needed for other
machine shop areas are formed and accomplished.

3. Assembly Area – is an area where finished products are assembled to form them into
a tool, machine parts, equipment or a machine

4. Foundry Area – is area where metal is melted to form them into a bloom, billet, cast,
etc.

5. Welding Area – is an area where different kinds of welding machines are used to
perform the necessary joining and cutting of metals wherever necessary.

6. Quality control Area – is an area considered as the heart of the machine shop for
reason that the quality of the finish products represents the name of the company.

7. Stock Area – is an area where finish products are kept. It is in this area that proper
maintenance such as oiling and ventilation is required to kept the products in good
condition.

Lathe Machine
Classification of Lathe Machine:

1. Engine Lathe – is one of the common machines used to remove excess metal on a
given stock by rotating the work.

2. Precision Lathe – used for delicate operation or when too much precision is needed
in the work.
3. Turret Lathe – have at least one turret mounted at the end of the bed.

4. Automatic screw machine – only one spindle is used for turning screw machine
products.

Principal Parts of Lathe Machine:

1. Head stock
2. Tailstock
3. Bed
4. Carriage
5. Threading mechanism

Parts of Head Stock:

a. Headstock spindle – when an attachment such as chuck, faceplate and others are
meshed or locked-in to add the work piece for turning.

b. Back gear – used to transmit power from the spindle.

c. Motor – converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, which gives more power to
lathe.

d. Switches – “off” or “on” and “reverse” are common signs in the lathe for easy
machining operation.

e. Belt adjustment – used to tightened or loosen the belting system in the lathe.

Parts of Tailstock

a. Tail stock spindle – where the dead center is held.

b. Tailstock handwheel – used to drive the spindle for necessary required length.

c. Tailstock knob – controls the adjustment of the hand-wheel to fix the spindle to the
required length.

d. Upper casting – holds the upper mechanism of the tailstock.

e. Lower casting – holds the lower mechanism of the tailstock

f. Tailstock set over screw – responsible for the amount of adjustment necessary for the
tailstock off, set when tapering by the use of tailstock method.
g. Tailstock clamp nut – used to loosen and tightened the tailstock along the bed of the
lathe.

h. Tailstock bed clamp – a cast of material meshed in through the bed to fix the tailstock
at the required distance.

Parts of the Bed:

a. Bedway – where the other parts of the lathe such as the carriage assembly are
moved longitudinally.

b. Chip pond – where the chip is deposited to free the operator from any action if the
chips fly out.

c. Base – supports the bed, headstock, carriage, and tailstock commonly made of cast
iron.

d. Leg – support the base.

Parts of the Carriage:

a. Carriage handwheel – moves the entire carriage system longitudinally along the bed
manually or automatically.

b. Tool post – where the cutter is held.

c. Compound rest assembly – commonly used when threading and tapering operation is
performed.

d. Cross feed assembly – responsible for the necessary feed adjustment set in the
micrometer collar.

e. Half nut lever – engaged and disengaged to cut the required number of pitch of the
screw when threading.

f. Thread chaser – denotes the necessary line in the dial when cutting any pitch or
thread per inch of a screw.

g. Apron – the lower part that holds the gearing mechanism to move the carriage either
manually or automatically.

h. Automatic longitudinal lever – used for engaging or disengaging for automatic

longitudinal action.

i. Cross feed automatic lever – used for engaging or disengaging to move the cross
feed automatically.
j. Feed clutch – can be directed to the right, left, or neutral position to move the carriage
as required in work.

k. Saddle – where a followed rest is attached sometimes used for mounting the
workpiece.

l. Rack gear – located in the bed, specially at the bottom of one of the bedways and
screwed longitudinally to guide the carriage when moving.

Parts of Threading Mechanism:

a. Spindle gear – attached by bolt or pinned at the left end of the spindle to transmit
power from the spindle.

b. Reverse gear – composed of two gears having the same

c. Reverse gear lever – pulled and meshed in to complete the engagement of the
reverse gear

d. Fixed stud gear – transmit power to the idler or intermediate gear.

f. Lead screw – a solid shafting threaded either by a square thread or acme thread.

g. Gear box – made up of cast iron inside of which is a group of gears in a conical order.

h. Lead screw gear – gives power to move the carriage automatically in any of the
longitudinal or cross-sectional directions.

i. Thumbling lever – pulled and meshed-in to the correct hold for threading.

j. Lead screw and feed rod lever – engaged or disengage for the necessary operation to
move the feed road and lead scew.

k. Feed rod – a solid shaft necessary to move the carriage along the bed automatically.

j. Thread table chart – indicated the correct number of pitch or thread per inch to mesh
the tumbling lever.

Gearing:

Thumbler gear – is a set of gears-fitted in different position on a plate which are

controlled by a lever. This is used to transmit power to the stud gear.

Intermediate gear – is use to connect the lead screw and stud gear and to change the
direction of rotation.
Idler gear – is use to connect the stud gear and lead screw gear.

Function of Norton gear box:

1. To reduce the number of change gear.

2. To obtain various speeds to the lead screw and feed shaft quickly.

3. To cut various pitches of threads without changing gears.

The top rake engine is provided for shearing action.

The side rake angle is provided to support the top rake.

The clearance angle is provided to reduce the rubbing action.

The side clearance is provided to support the tool for free feeding.

The cutting angle of a generally turning loot is 74” to 78”.

The top rake angle to copper-brass is 0.

Drilling is an operation of producing of round using drill bit.

Boring is an operation of enlarging drilled hole using a boring tool.

Thread chases – is a tool used to finish the threads at final stage. It removes sharp
edges from the crest of thread.

Common Lathe Machine Attachments and Accessories:

1. Chuck – holds the material to be turned

2. Dead center – attached to the tailstock spindle to support one end of the material to
be turned.

3. Taper attachments – where the necessary amount of taper is set for tapering
operation.

4. Mandrel – holds the material to be turned in proper place for easy and mass
production machining purpose.

5. Lathe jig – it helps to hold the material of having small diameter which is mounted on
lather between two centers.
6. Face plate or drive plate – is used as a chuck when turning work that are mounted
between two centers.

7. Tool holder – used to hold cutting tool especially the tool holder for a right hand
turning and left t hand turning.

8. Drill chuck – used to hold drills, reamer, counterstrinker and other necessary parts in
the work held in the lathe.

9. Chuck key – used to tightened and loosen the chuck where the work is being held.

10. Knurling tools – used to cut different forms of surfaces by the use of different forms
of knurling tools.

11. Steady-rest – used to support long and slender shafts with one end held in the
chuck or mounted on lathe center.

12. Follower rest – is attached to the saddle of the lather to support workpieces that are
liable to spring away from the cutting tools.

Different Kinds of Chucks:

1. Independent chuck – has four jaws that must be moved independently when
centering a workpice.

2. Universal chuck – has three jaws that move automatically as an amount of

movements in one of the three jaws is done by using chuck keys.

3. Combination chuck – has six or seven jaws that can be used to act as universal or
independent chuck.

4. Magnetic chuck – has a bar of magnet inside that tends to hold the material in proper
place.

5. Collect chuck – used to hold the material by meshing it inside.

6. Step chuck and closer – used to hold thin workpieces without damaging the outside
diameter of the work.

Different kind of Centers of Lathe Machine:

1. Dead center –is a center which is being attached and meshed into the tailstock
spindle.

2. Live center – one of the centers being used when mounting the work between two
centers.
Kinds of Mandrel:

1. Homemade mandrels – made of soft metals or hard wood. Used to prevent the
workpiece to be meshed, especially soft metals of thin cylinders.

2. Tamper mandrel – used to hold taper works such as internal tapers.

3. Threaded mandrel – used to hold workpieces with either external or internal threads.

4. Gang mandrel – used to turn the same materials of many places and lock materials
of different forms and sizes and turn these at the same time.

5. Expansion mandrel – especially made for mass production that hold materials of
different forms and sizes and turn these at the same time.

Methods of Centering a Workpiece

1. Toolbit method – holding a workpiece in the chuck where the toolbit is properly held
in the cross-sectional center of the workpiece.

2. Surface gage method – is similar to the toolbit method the only difference is that the
surface gauge is used for centering.

3. Wiggler gauge method – used to check the center of the drill hole performed in the
lathe.

4. Dial indicator method – considered to be the precise method of centering.

Lathe cutting tool materials:

Lathe cutting tools are generally made of high speed, an alloy or carbon, tungsten and
vanadium. Molybdenum may also be used instead of vanadium.

Cutting tools may also be made of “stellite” a combination of cobalt, chromium, and
tungsten.

Stellites are commonly used for machining hard steel, cast iron, bronzes and others.

Thungsten carbide tipped tools are used when the work required maximum cutting
speeds.

Classification of Cutting Tools:

1. Single point cutting tool – has only one cutting edge and commonly used in the lathe,
shaper, and planer machine.
2. Multiple point cutting tool – has two or more cutting edges as in drill press and milling
machine cutters.

The Single Point Cutting Tools:

Surfaces:

a. Shank – the part on one end of which the point is formed or the tip or bit supported.

b. Point or nose – shaped to produce cutting edges and face.

c. Neck – an extension of the shank but of reduced sectional area.

d. Base – the side of the shank which bears against the support taking the tangential
pressure of the cut.

e. Base end – the end of the base immediately below or supporting the face.

f. Base Surface – surface on which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.

g. Profile – a plan view when looking at the face from a point at right angles to the base.

h. Cutting edge or lip – seperates the chips from the work.

i. Flat – a straight portion of the cutting edge intended to produce a smooth machined
surface.

j. Flak – the surface below the cutting edge.

Types of tools

a. Ground tools – a tool steel where the point is formed on the end of the bar.

b. Forge tool – a tool steel which is forged roughly and shaped in one end of the bar and
then hardened and ground to require shape.

c. Tipped tool – a cutting tool in which a tip of cutting material is permanently attached
to the shank of a non-cutting tool.

d. Bit tool – a small part of tool material is held in the end of the holder or shank.

e. Tool bit – a tool material ground to the required shape and clamped to the tool holder.

f. Right cut single point tool – cutting point is on the right side when looking at the point
end of the tool.
g. Left cut single point tool – cutting point is on the left side when looking at the point
end of the tool.

h. Straight tool – the point is in the forward edge of a straight shank.

i. Bent tool – the point is bent either to the right or left.

j. Off set tool – the point is at the side but parallel to the shank.

Tool angles:

a. Back rake angle – is the angle between the face of the tool and the shark base,
measured in a plane at right angle to the base and parallel to the center line.

b. Side rake angle – the angle between the face of the tool and the shank base,
measure in a plane at right angle to the base and to the center line of the nose.

c. Relief angle – the angle between the plane perpendicular to the base of a tool or tool
holder and that portion of the flank immediately adjacent to the cutting edge.

d. Side relief angle – measured in the plane of the side rake angle to the center line of
the tool nose.

e. End relief angle – measured in the plane of the back rake angle.

f. Clearance angle – an angle plane perpendicular to the base of a tool and that portion
of the flank immediately adjacent to the base clearance.

g. Side cutting edge angle – the angle between the cutting edge at the end of the tool
and line at right angle to the edge of the tool shank.

h. End cutting edge angle – the angle between the cutting code at the end of the tool
and the line at right angle to the edge of the shank.

i. Nose angle – the angle included between theh side cutting edge and the end cutting
edge.

Working angles:

a. Setting angles – the angle made by the shank of a tool with a line at right angle to the
finished surface of the work.

b. Entering angle – the angle which the side cutting edge of the tool makes with the
finished surface of the work.
c. True rake angle – the actual slope of the tool face from active cutting edge in the
direction of the chip flow.

d. Lip angle – the angle included of the tool material between the face and the ground
flank, measured in the plane at right angle to the cutting edge.

e. Working relief angle - the angle between the ground flank of the tool and the line
tangent to the cut surface, passing through the active cutting edge.

f. Cutting angle – equal to a lip angle plus the working relief angle at the point of section.

g. Working end cutting angle – the angle between the straight and cutting edge and the
plane tangent to the machined surface of the work ahead of the tool.

Cutting fluids:

Purpose of cutting fluids

1. Cooling the tool

2. Cooling the work
3. Improving the quality of the surface finish
4. Lubricating the surfaces in contact between the tool and the work preventing welding
of the chips or work to the tool.
5. Flushing away the chips
6. Reducing the pressure of the chips on the tool

Common cutting fluids for metals:

1. Air last
2. Soluble
3. Water with borax or soda
4. Sulfurized mineral oil
5. Light mineral oil

Forms of Cutting Tools:

1. Thread cutting tools

2. Bound nose cutting tool
4. General parting or cutting tool
5. Right hand forming cutting tool
6. Left hand forming cutting tool
7. Right hand tuning tool
8. Left hand turning tool
9. Right hand facing tool
10. Left hand facing tool
11. Right hand roughing tool
12. Left hand roughing tool

Cutting Speed Recommended for High Speed Toolbits:

Material SAE No. Speed, fpm

Cold rolled steel 1010 100 – 110

Machine steel 1015 100 – 110
High carbon 1095 60 – 70
High speed steel 1160 50 – 60
Nickel Chromium 3250 50 – 60
Cast iron 55 – 65
Aluminum 200 – 250
Copper 200 – 250
Bronze 200 – 250

Different Lathe Machine Operations:

1. Rough turning – removing of excess materials with a remaining tolerable allowances

for finish turning.

2. Finish turning – removing the excess material into the required dimension given in the
plan by the use of a finishing tool.

3. Parting – process of dividing or cutting the workpiece into the required number of
pieces by the use of a parting tool.

4. Drilling – producing a hole in the workpiece settled in the chuck by attaching a drill
chuck into the tailstock spindle and locked on the drill bit in the drill chuck.

5. Boring – enlarging the drilled hole by the use of a boring tool.

6. Counter boring – enlarging the bored hole by using the counterbored cutter.

7. Counter sinking – enlarging the upper part of the hole producing a conical shape as
for the fillister head screw to be placed.

8. Spot facing – enlarging one side of the hole to serve as the lock a bolt with oblong
head.

9. Reaming – the process of sizing-up the hole by the use of a rearmer.

10. Threading it is the process of cutting grooves in a cycling, either internally or

externally, by using the correct and required form of cutter.
11. Knurling – it is the process of designing the surface of the workpiece by the use of
two round steel tools connected on the same lever with many varieties of sizes and
forms, moving at opposite direction.

12. Filing – is the process of removing excess material by the use of a file.

13. Champering – the process of removing the edge of the workpiece to allow the easy
entrance of the toolbit.

14. Facing – removing the excess material in the cross-section of the workpiece by
using facing tool.

15. Grinding – removing the excess materials, either internally or externally by using
special attachment for grind in a lathe.

16. Tampering – is producing stock having two different diameter at the end of being
turned.

17. Polishing – is the process of producing surfaces of different categories described as

smooth, dead smooth, and minor finish.

18. Shouldering – an operation of removing the excess material in the workpiece

forming a shoulder by using round nose cutting tool.

19. Squaring – removing excess materials and forming square corners by using square
nose cutting tool.

20. Hacksaw – process of cutting the given material held in the chuck, into the required
number of pieces by the use of hacksaw.

Steel is the generic term for a large family of iron-carbon.

Shaper

Main parts of shaper:

1. Base
2. Column
3. Ram
4. Tool head
5. Cross rail
6. Table

Functions of bull gear:

1. To reduce the friction

2. To adjust the stroke
3. To provide oscillating motion

The function of rocker arm in the shaper is to give reciprocating motion to the ram.

Ram – carries the tool head at its from end and reciprocates on the top sideways of the
column.

The stroke positioning lever is located on the ram of shaper.

Slotter

Slotter – is a reciprocating type machine tool, used for machining flat, cylindrical and
irregular surfaces. It also used in machining slots, keyways, grooves etc.

Parts of Slotter:

1. Base
2. Column
3. Saddle
4. Cross side
5. Rotary table
6. Ram

Punches slotter – is generally used in mass production

Production slotter – is generally used in mass production

Tool Room Slotter – is also known as precision slotter, generally used for precision
works.

Planer

Planer – is a machine tool of large construction. It is designed to do the jobs that would
be large.

The job is clamped and reciprocated against the stationary cutting tool.

Main parts of Planer:

1. Bed
2. Table
3. Housing
4. Cross rail
5. Saddle
6. Tool head
Operations performed by a planer:

1. Flat horizontal surfaces

2. Vertical surfaces
3. Planning at an angle
4. Slots and grooves
5. Curved surfaces

Difference between shaper and planer:

Planer – is suitable for large jobs and more than one tool can be used at a time.

Shaper – is suitable for small jobs and only one tool can be used at a time.

Milling Machine

Milling machine – is machine tool which is used to machine plane curved surfaces,
slots, grooves, teeth, etc. with a fast rotating multi-point cutter. Operations that can be
performed in a universe milling machine:

1. All classes of milling work which can be performed on a plain milling machine

2. Milling helical gears

3. Milling twist drills

4. Milling cams

Classification of milling machines:

1. Column and knee type milling machines

2. Planer type milling machines
3. Planer type milling machines
4. Special type milling machines

Indexing

Indexing – is the operation to divide the periphery of the job into number of equal parts
accurately, using a special attachment called an indexing head or dividing head.

Common basic measuring tools:

1. Steel rule – are one of the most widely used measuring tools for such work as laying
out.
2. Inside caliper – are used to measure inside diameters, width of slots and the like.

3. Outside calipers – are used to measure inside diameters.

4. Hermaphrodite caliper – maybe used to scribe areas, or a making gage in a layout

work.

5. Scriber – is a sharp, pointed tool used to scribe lines on metal being laid out.

6. Divider – used for measuring the distance between points for transferring a measured
distance between points for transferring a measuring directly to the rule.

7. Trammel – also called a beam compass, a type of divider for scribing large circles.

8. Try square – is used to checking the squareness of many types of small work when
extreme accuracy is not required.

Micrometers

1. Outside micrometer – is designed for measuring outside diameter.

2. Inside micrometer – it is used for taking internal measurements where greater

accuracy is required.

3. Tube micrometer – is designed to measure the thickness of the material piping,

tubing and similar shapes.

4. Screw thread micrometers – is similar to an outside micrometer except that the

spindle is pointed to fit between 60 V threads.

5. Depth micrometer – is designed to measure accurately the depth of grooves,

recesses, and holes.

Common Hand Tools for Bench Works

1. Hard hammer – is made of carbon steel. It is used for striking punches, cold chisels
and also used for forging metal, riveting, bending, straightening, peening, stretching and
swaging.

2. Drift punch – is a long tapered used for loosening straight pins, taper pins, rivets and
other small pans being dismantled.

3. Drive pin punch – is used to set in place or remove straight and some types of small
parts requiring a drive fit.
4. Prick punch – it is made of hardened tool steel and ground to a slender point use to
locate hole center.

5. Center punch – is use to enlarge a prick punch mark so that the drill can be started in
the exact location.

6. Screw drivers – is a hand tool that is designed to turn screw.

7. Long-nose pliers – is use for placing and removing small items in narrow places.

8. Diagonal pliers – used exclusively for cutting and stripping of electrical wires.

9. C-clamp – is an all-purpose clamp, made in the shape of letter C. Used for all kinds of
works.

10. Toolmaker hand vise – used by toolmakers at the bench for small machining
operations such as drilling and tapping.

11. Adjustable wrench – has a movable jaw, which make it adjustable to various sizes of
nuts.

12. Strap wrench – is used for turning cylindrical parts, pipes.

13. Pipe wrench – is designed with adjustable jaws that are serrated making it possible
to grip round pipes and other cylindrical parts.

14. Torque wrench – is used when it is necessary to know the amount of turning or
twisting force being applied to a nut.

15. Files – is a hardened steel cutting edges, or teeth in its surface.

16. Chisels – is a tool made from hexagon or octagon shape tool steel of a size
convenient for handling one end shape for the cutting operation.

17. Tinner snips – are common cutting tool used for cutting thin sheets of metal, plastic,
fiber, and others.

Pattern Maker and Moulding

Pattern – is use to form cavity in the sand from which a desired casting is product.

Pattern making tools:

1. Marking tools – are used for marking patterns.

2. Cutting tools – are generally used for cutting purposes in pattern making.
3. Planning tools – are used to make the surface plane, smooth and truly square with
the adjacent surface in pattern making.

4. Striking tools – are used for striking purposes in pattern making.

Pattern making tools:

1. Boring tools – are used in for making round holes in pattern.

2. Holding and supporting tools – are used to hold and support the job in pattern
making.

3. Rasping tools – are used for filing the pattern.

4. Contraction rule – is used for giving shrink allowance to the product.

Generally following rates of contraction are considered for metals:

1. Steels ------------------------------ 2%
2. Cast iron -------------------------- 1%
3. Brass ------------------------------ 1.4%
4. Aluminum ------------------------- 1.8%

Types of pattern:

1. Solid patterns – is a simple form of pattern which is made in one piece and is
moulded entirely in the cope.

2. Split pattern – a pattern that is made of two

3. Match plate pattern – when one half of the two piece split pattern is mounted on one
side of the plate and the other half is mounted directly opposite on the other side of the
plate.

4. Gated patterns

5. Skeleton patterns

6. Sweep patterns

7. Loose piece patterns

8. Shell patterns

9. Segmental patterns
10. Left and right hand patterns

Moulding – is the important branch hof engineering in which the metal is melted in a
furnace followed by pouring the molten metal into moulds to obtain the casting of the
desired shape and sides.

Types of moulding

1. Green sand moulding

2. Dry sand moulding
3. Loam moulding
4. Pit moulding
5. Sweep moulding
6. Bench and floor moulding

Sand used for moulding

1. Green sand
2. Dry sand
3. Loam sand
4. Facing sand
5. Backing sand
6. System sand
7. Parting sand
8. Core sand

Core – is a sand facsimile of hollow portion of a casing

Facing materials – are used to provide smooth surface on the casting.

Cupola – is used to produce cast iron.

Furnace is divided into four zones:

1. Crucible zone
2. Melting zone
3. Charging zone
4. Stack zone

Classification of forging:

1. Drop forging – is a process by which a hot plastic metal is made to flow into dies by
the application of sudden blows to the material.
2. Press forging – large articles can be forged by the application of slow, steady
pressure.

3. Extursion forging – is a process of forging by which the metal in the plastic state is
made to flow with in a die by the application of plunger pressure.

4. Smith forging – is an open frame hammer adapted to the production of many parts.

5. Machine forging – the manufacture of nuts and bolts other small forging has been
greatly simplified by the development of upsetting of forging machines.

Advantages of forging:

1. Metal can be forged to any shape

2. Metal can be forged in short time without wasting

3. During the forging the strength and granular structure of the steel can be improved.

4. The manufacturing cost of the forged parts is lesser than that of machined parts.

Function of hood in the forge:

1. To collect gasses through the fire

2. To control the smoke and sparks

Jumping – is a process by which the length of a workpiece is reduced

Drawing out – is a process by which the length of a workpiece is increased by reducing

the cross-sectional area.

Upsetting – is a process for bulging on one end of a workpiece to bring required shape.

Drifting – is a process of enlarging and smoothing the punched hole by means of

tapered drifts of various sizes and shapes.

Cast iron cannot be forged because it will break a heated and beaten by hammer.

Blacksmith tools:

1. Anvil – it is generally used to support the job and tool when forging a workpiece.

2. Swage Block – contains a number of slots of different shapes and sizes along its four
side faces through holes of different sizes and shapes.
3. Flatter – consist of square body and a flat square bottom, fitted with a handle. It is
used to finish or level a flat surface after any forging operation.

4. Swages – used to increase the length of circular rod or finish the circular piece of job
after forging.

5. Fullers – are used for making neck by reducing the cross section of the job and also
for drawing out.

Sheet material operations:

Different sheet metal operations:

1. Flattening
2. Planishing
3. Hollowing
4. Bending
5. Stretching
6. Wiring
7. Folding
8. Swaging
9. Soldering

Uses of wire edges in sheet metal:

1. To strengthen the workpiece
2. To avoid sharp edges

Tools used in sheet metal works:

1. Snip – is use to cut thin sheets

2. Hammer – is used for striking purposes in sheet metal work.

3. Mallet – is used on thin sheets to remove the bends or to make it in desired places.

Welding tools:

1. Chipping hammer – used to remove the slag and spatter while wielding.

2. Electrode holder – is attached at the end of a cable which is used to hold the
electrodes.

3. Earthing clamp – is a clamp which is used for perfect ground connection or earthing.

4. Tongs – are used to hold heated jobs.

5. Wire brush – is used to clean the workpiece while welding.

Oxygen cylinder is use to store gas with a pressure of 120 – 150 kg/.

Acetylene cylinder has a volume of 6 and pressure of 15 – 16 kg/.

Forge welding – is aprocess in which the parts to be forge welded are heated in a forge
to white heat (about 1300) and forged together by hand or power hammering.

Spot welding – is a welding process in which overlapping metal strips, sheets or plates
are joined at small areas.

Arc welding – is a welding process in which an electric arc is produced when two
conductors of an electric current are brought together which form an electric currentand
then separated for a distance in such a way that the current continues to flow through
the gaseous medium between solid conductors.

Types of Joints:

Butt joint – the plates to be welded are brought edge to edge with each other and
welded.

Lap joint – the plates to be welded are overlapped each other and welded.

T joint – the plates to be welded are placed at 90 degrees to each other and welded.

Edge joint – two thin plates are placed parallel and welded. Generally used in sheet
metal work.

Corner joint – the edges of two plates are placed at right angle to each other and
welded.

Fitting

Marking media – is a substance which is found in the form of power or crystal or

solution.

It is applied on the surface to be marked to make visible the scribed lines clearly.

Aluminum workpiece is marked with lead pencil.

Method of marking the center of round rod end:

1. By jenny caliper
2. By center head of a combination set
3. By surface gauge and V block method
4. By bell punch

Trammel – used for scribing large radius of circles and arcs.

Punches required to a machine shop:

1. Prick punch – its angle is 30 which is used for giving sharp impression on soft metals.

2. Dot punch – its angle is 60which is used for dotting after marking the lines on general
work.

3. Center punch – its and is 90 which is used to give deep marks for location of drill.

4. Hollow punch – it is used on soft metals and non metals for making holes.

The best material for manufacturing the surface plates is cast iron because:

1. Cast iron is easy for moulding

2. It is easy for machining
3. It is cheaper
4. It has less wear and tear

The standard temperature is taken at 20 temperatures.

Method of checking the flatness of surface:

1. By straight edge
2. By surface plate
3. By dial indicator

Hammers are made from high Carbon steel.

Purpose of using woods as handle of hammer:

1. To give slight springy action
2. To absorb shocks

Peening – is an operation of stretching or spreading over the metal by means of the

plane of the hammer.

Swaging – is an operation in which round rod is placed between the top and bottom
swages and hammered to remove the bends and marks.

Vise – is a holding device which is used to hold or grip workpiece while fitting, chipping
or any other work or while machining or drilling them.

Chisel
Chisels are generally made of high carbon steel having a carbon content of 1 to 1.2%.

Purpose of cutting angle in chisel:

1. Cutting angle – is to provide form a cutting edge.
2. Clearance angle – is to provide to avoid friction between the chisel and the
workpiece.
3. Rake angle – helps the chisel in penetration.

Chisel gets blunt easily if not properly heat treated.

Hacksaw

Hacksaw material are made of high carbon steel, high speed steel and low tungsten
steel.

Cause of breakage of hacksaw blade:

1. Blade fixed too loosely in the frame
2. Workpiece is not held firmly in the vice
3. Too much pressure
4. Rapid jerky stroke
5. Twisting the blade to bring on line
6. Proper pitch of blade is not used.

File

File – is a small pointed hand cutting tool used to remove materials from metallic and
non-metallic workpieces to match with drawing, shape and size.

Die tap – is used to cut screw threads in dies.

A die nut is a thread chasing die having external hexagonal shape to suit a spanner and
internal screw threads.

The diameter of the blank size should be less than 1/10th of the pitch of the thread.

Reamer – is a side cutting tool used for accurately finishing the straight or tapered holes
already drilling or bore.

The cutting edges of reamer are designed to ream in clockwise only.

Reaming with machine reamer is done generally at half the speed used for drilling the
hole.

The cutting angle of a flat drill is 90 and its clearance angle varies from 5 to 20
depending upon the material to be drilled.
Material used in twist drill is high carbon steel, high speed steel and twist drill with
carbide tips.

Different angles of point of a twist drill.

1. Cutting angle or point angle ------------------------- 118
2. Helix angle ----------------------------------------------- 20 to 30
3. Rake angle ----------------------------------------------- 25 to 30
4. Lip clearance angle ------------------------------------ 12 to 15
5. Chisel edge angle -------------------------------------- 135

Before drilling a large size hole a small hole which is about half of the large drill is to drill
first which is called pilot hole drilling.

Spot facing – is the operation of squaring and smoothing the surface around the hole.

Counter boring – is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole cylindrically to a certain
depth.

Cause of overheating the drill:

1. Drill point is blunt
2. Cutting speed is too high
3. Feed rate is too high
4. Lip clearance angle is not correct
5. Coolant is not used

Cause of drill breakage:

1. Cutting speed and feed rate is too high
2. Cutting angle of drill bit is incorrect
3. Drill point is blunt
4. Drill or work is not held correctly
5. Clogging of flutes with chips