AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 1 : SOURCE OF AIRCRAFT POWER - BATTERIES

The main uses of batteries in aircraft systems are:

1. To supply power for engine or APU starting.
2. To provide emergency power for the Inertial Navigation System (INS) or Inertial
Reference System (IRS).
3. To provide under emergency conditions limited amounts of power to operate
essential flight instruments and radio communications equipment.
4. To provide power for emergency lighting.

DCAM Airworthiness Notice No 19, 19A and 20 requires that in the event of total failure
of the main electrical generating system an adequate supply will be available
automatically to support those systems essential to the continued flight and safe landing
of the aircraft for a minimum period of 30 minutes.

The two main types of battery in use are:

1. Lead Acid
2. Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cad)

LEAD ACID BATTERIES

Basic Cell Construction

Consists of two groups of plates, each plate group is made of lead-antimony grids into
which the active materials are pressed in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid. The
positive set of plates has its plates packed with lead peroxide (Pb0 2) and the negative
plates are packed with pure spongy lead (Pb). The plates are inter-leaved
alternately to permit both sides of each plate (except the end plates) to be
effective. This keeps the internal resistance of the cell as low as possible and
therefore gives good capacity for the size of cell. In practice it is found the positive
plates tend to distort when chemical action is restricted to one side, the plates are
therefore arranged so that, using an extra negative plate, the outside plates are both
negative.
To prevent the plates touching and still allow free circulation of electrolyte, microporous
plastic separators are used.

The electrolyte of pure sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water must be of the correct
specific gravity (relative density), typically 1.25 to 1.27.

Note: Specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of a given volume of liquid to the weight of a
comparable volume of water at the same temperature. If one cubic centimeter of

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 water weighs one gram and one cubic centimeter of electrolyte at the same
temperature weighs 1.2 grams, the ratio, i.e. specific gravity of the electrolyte, is
1.2 : 1.0 this is simply written as 1.2.

Each cell is fitted with a vent plug to permit the escape of gas generated by chemical
action. Aircraft batteries are fitted with special non-spill vent plugs, these allow the gas to
escape but prevent leakage of the electrolyte irrespective of the position of the battery.

The cell container must be impervious to the action of dilute sulphuric acid and is
typically made of a plastic material.

Figure 1 Plate in the Lead Acid Battery

Chemical Action

When discharging, i.e. when there is an external circuit between the positive and
negative plates, the current flows causing both plates to be converted to lead sulphate
(PbSO4) and the sulphuric acid is diluted further by the formation of water, therefore
causing the specific gravity to fall.

When charging, i.e. connecting the cell to a dc voltage higher than the cell voltage, the
chemical reactions are reversed and the active material is converted back to lead
peroxide on the positive electrode and to spongy lead on the negative electrode. The
specific gravity of the electrolyte is restored to its original value.

Indications of a fully discharged cell are when the:

1. Voltage on load falls to 1.8V.
2. Specific gravity falls to its minimum value (stated in the manufacturer's
instructions).

The two indications should always be considered together as a single indication may be
misleading.

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Indications of a fully charged cell are:
1. While still on charge the voltage of the cell will reach approximately 2.7V.
2. The specific gravity rises to its maximum value.
3. The chemical action in the cell during the charging process releases hydrogen
and oxygen, which is mostly absorbed into the electrolyte. On completion of the
charge the electrolyte can no longer absorb these gases which are released by
the plates and rise to the surface in the form of a constant stream of bubbles.
This is known as ‘gassing’ and is the third sign of completion of the charge.

The charge must not be considered complete until all three indications have been
sustained for one hour.

Summary of Voltages

Fully Discharged 1.8 volts

Nominal Voltage 2.0 volts
Fully Charged (Off Charge) 2.2 volts
Fully Charged (On Charge) 2.7 volts

A typical aircraft lead acid battery consists of 12 cells to give a nominal voltage of 24V.
Early battery containers were made of moulded rubber. Later types have an acid proof
metal container or a compression moulded glass fibre container.

Figure 2 shows a typical lead acid battery. It consists of two 12-volt cell blocks moulded
in high impact plastic material and housed in an acid-proofed aluminum container. The
links interconnecting the cells are sealed and suitably insulated to prevent contact with
the container. Ventilation plugs are fitted at each end for connection to the ventilation
system.

Figure 2 Typical LEAD Acid Battery

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Another type of lead acid battery is known as the ‘Varley’ type. It differs from the
conventional battery in that the electrolyte is almost completely absorbed into the plates.
This specialized form of construction eliminates ‘shedding’, (material falling from the
plates to the bottom of the cell) which can cause internal short circuits between the
plates. It also has a lower internal resistance and a higher capacity/weight ratio than a
conventional battery.

Figure 3 Varley Type of Battery

There are now a number of ‘sealed’ batteries in use. One such battery uses
Recombination Electrolyte (RE) technology. The acid electrolyte is absorbed into highly
porous glass fibre separators. RE technology means that the oxygen released by the
positive plate during charge, it is able to pass through the separators and combine with
the highly reactive negative plate. This slight discharge of the negative plate prevents
evolution of hydrogen. This recombination process is highly efficient during normal
operation. As a result there is only a small water loss during service life and no topping
up is required.

Should gases build up to a certain value in the battery a release valve opens to vent the
gases to atmosphere. The term ‘Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries’ is used. This
type of battery has a tough flame retardant fibreglass case. The advantages of
this type of battery over the normal ‘flooded’ type are:
1. Longer service life
2. More power (less internal resistance)
3. Less maintenance
4. Higher power to weight ratio.

There are arguments between manufacturers of sealed lead acid and Ni-Cad batteries
as to which is better on safety, cost and performance.

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 Figure 4 Typical Sealed Battery

NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES

Basic Cell Construction

The positive plates containing nickel hydroxide Ni(OH) 2 are interleaved with the
negative plates containing cadmium hydroxide Cd(OH) 2 . The separators are
usually of the triple layer type, being cellophane inside woven nylon cloth, folded in a
continuous sheet between alternate positive and negative plates. Cellophane is used
because it has low electrical resistivity and is a good barrier material, which contributes to
the electrical and mechanical separation of the positive and negative plates. It also acts
as a gas barrier, preventing oxygen given off at the positive plate during overcharge from
passing to the negative plate where it would combine with active cadmium, reduce cell
voltage and produce heat as a result of chemical reaction.

The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide and distilled water with a relative
density of 1.24 to 1.3.

The cell has a removable 6 ± 4 psi vent plug for electrolyte adjustments and gas venting.
The cell container is made of a polyamide.

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 Figure 5 Ni Cad Cell

Chemical Action

With the application of charging current the negative material (cadmium hydroxide Cd
[OH]2) gradually loses its oxygen and is converted to metallic cadmium (Cd). The
positive material (nickel hydroxide Ni [OH] 2 ) is gradually brought to a higher state of
oxidation to form nickel oxides.

Toward the end of the process and during overcharge, gas will be evolved and released
through the cell vent. This gas results from the electrolysis of the water component of
the electrolyte. The gas evolved at the negative plates is hydrogen and at the positive
plates is oxygen.

After complete conversion of the active materials has occurred, the further application of
charge current will only cause further electrolysis of the water and produce heat.

During discharge, the chemical reactions that occurred on charge are reversed. The
active material in the negative plate (cadmium) regains oxygen and changes to
cadmium hydroxide. The active material in the positive plates (nickel oxide) changes to
nickel hydroxide. No gassing occurs during a normal discharge.
The electrolyte does not play an active part in the chemical reaction; it is used only to
provide a path for current flow. The electrolyte specific gravity does not change from
charge to discharge.

Voltages of Ni-Cad cell

Fully discharged 1.0 volts

Nominal voltage 1.2 volts
Fully charged 1.5 volts

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The Ni-Cad Battery

The Ni-Cad battery has 20 cells giving a nominal voltage of 24V. The individual cells are
enclosed in polyamide a container, which allows them to be fitted side by side in the
battery case without additional insulation between the cells. Interconnection between
cells is via high conductivity nickel-plated copper link bars. The battery case may be
made of stainless steel, plastic coated sheet steel or painted sheet steel.

Figure 6 A Typical Ni Cad Battery

State of Charge

There is no way of determining the precise state of charge of nickel cadmium batteries
without discharging the battery at a known current rate, checking the time for discharge
and then calculating what the state of charge had been.
Neither the specific gravity or the electrolyte nor the terminal voltage of the battery or of
its individual cells is an indication of the state of charge. The specific gravity of the
electrolyte does not change with state of charge. The terminal voltage will remain
almost constant over a wide range of charge levels and its measurement will not provide
a valid state-of-charge indication.
Advantages/ Disadvantages of Ni-Cad batteries compared to Lead Acid (Non-Sealed
Type)

Advantages: Better power to weight ratio

Lower internal resistance
Longer life
Easily replaceable cells
Higher peak performance
More robust

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 Higher charging rate
Wider operating temperature range

Disadvantages: Higher cost

Prone to thermal runaway (more of this later)
Needs expensive and complicated charging and control circuitry

The manufacturers of sealed Lead Acid batteries argue that these have lower costs, are
'maintenance free' and their performance is at a par, or better, than Ni-Cads.

Safety Precautions (Lead Acid and Ni-Cads)

1. Sulphuric acid electrolyte is highly corrosive and could result serious.

2. Potassium hydroxide is a caustic material and again could result serious burns.
3. To prevent contamination, wear rubber gloves, a rubber apron and protective
goggles when handling the electrolyte.
4. If electrolyte gets on the skin, the area should be irrigated with large quantities
of water.
5. If electrolyte gets in the eyes, irrigate with large quantities of water and seek
immediate medical attention.
6. The neutralising agent for sulphuric acid is bicarbonate of soda.
7. The neutralising agent for potassium hydroxide is a 3% solution of acetic acid,
vinegar, lemon juice or a 10% solution of boric acid.
1. When breaking down sulphuric acid, always add acid to water and in small
quantities to keep the heat of reaction to a safe level.
8. During overcharging, hydrogen and oxygen gases are generated, any form of
flame or spark must be avoided as an explosion is possible.
1. A battery room must have completely separate areas for servicing lead acid
and Ni-Cads. All equipment and containers must also be kept separate.
1. Electrolytes are highly corrosive. Keep off all aircraft parts and structure. If any
structure becomes contaminated treat immediately. (See text later in this book
and other books in this series entitled Corrosion and Non Destructive Testing.)

Capacity

The capacity of a battery is the quantity of electricity measured in ampere-hours (the

number of amps times the number of hours during discharge), that the battery can deliver
from its completely charged state to its discharged state at normal temperature. (A close
analogy is the capacity of a hydraulic accumulator to do work. Charge it fully. Allow it to
discharge at a controlled rate and note the amount of fluid pushed out. The amount of
fluid would indicate the capacity of the unit to do work. It would have to recharged again
of course).

The capacity of a battery depends on the current rate at which the battery is discharged;
the discharge rate must be stated (by the manufacturer) along with the ampere-hour (Ah)
capacity in order for the capacity rating to be meaningful.

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For example, a battery may be rated at ‘20Ah at the 5 hour rate’. This means the battery
will deliver 4 amps for 5 hours (4 x 5 = 20Ah).

Listing the capacity at 20Ah without any qualifying discharge time would imply that the
battery could be discharged at any rate, and the current multiplied by the time would
equal 20Ah. This is not true. Our battery rated at 20Ah at the 5-hour rate could not deliver
20 amps for 1 hour or 10 amps for 2 hours. At higher current drains it would have less
capacity.

A battery rated at 40Ah at the 5-hour rate would have a capacity of 34Ah at the one-hour
rate. Most aircraft batteries are rated at the one-hour rate.

Figure 7 shows some typical discharge rates of lead acid and Ni-Cad batteries.

Figure 7 Graph or Terminal Voltages against Ah

Battery Room Tests

All tests on batteries must be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions, which are supplied with each battery. The following descriptions are typical
tests, these include:
1. Capacity test
2. Cell balance test (Ni-Cad only)
3. Insulation test
4. Cell vent pressure test

Capacity Test

This test is typically carried out at three-month intervals and 80% of its capacity must be
achieved for aircraft use.
1. Fully charge the battery and allow to stand for 15 - 24 hours.
2. Connect to discharge test panel, which must incorporate a variable-load
resistance, ammeter and ampere-hour meter and a voltmeter. If the control panel
is not of the automatic type, then accurate monitoring and control of current must

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 be maintained manually throughout the test.
1. The battery should be discharged at a rate corresponding to the rating of the
battery. For example, if the battery is rated at 18Ah at the one hour rate then
the discharge would be set to 18 amps. Note the time of switch-on.
2. Monitor the voltage until it falls to the discharged value 21.6V (1.8 volts/cell) for a
lead acid battery, 20V (1 volt/cell) for a NiCad battery. Note the time.
3. Calculate the capacity as follows:

Actual time
x 100%
Rated time

For example, if the time to discharge was 54 minutes then the capacity will be:

54 x 100 = 90%
60

Generally the minimum acceptable capacity for aircraft use is 80%. However,
inspection of the battery record card should be made to check the previous
capacity tests to see if there is any 'trend'. Note the capacity on the battery
record card together with the date.

Cell Balance Test / Deep Cycle (Ni-Cads only)

If a Ni-Cad battery fails its capacity test then a cell balance test should be carried out as a
follow-on test as follows:

1. Discharge at the 1-hour rate and monitor the cell voltages.

2. Short circuit any cell which falls below 1V in the first 48 minutes (less than 80%
capacity).
3. Continue the discharge until the terminal voltage is an average of 1V per cell.
4. Short out each cell with a 1 Ohm, 2-watt resistor.
5. Allow to stand for 15 - 24 hours.
6. Check each cell voltage in less than 50mV.
7. Replace the short circuited cells. If five or more cells are short circuited, either at
one time or over a period of time, then all the cells should be replaced as it is
most likely that the remaining cells have been damaged and will need to be
replaced in the near future.
8. Recharge the battery and repeat the cell balance procedure (all cells should meet
the 80% capacity).
9. Recharge the battery and Insulation Testing.

A breakdown in electrical insulation between the cells and the battery case will result in a
'
leakage' current which, over a period of time can discharge the battery. The most
common cause for loss of insulation is the leakage of electrolyte from the cells which
can act as a conductor between the cell plates (or terminals) and the battery container.

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The procedure is as follows:

1. Place the (clean and dry) battery on a clean corrosion free metal plate.
2. Connect a 250V insulation tester between the metal plate and the battery
terminals.
3. Operate the tester and the minimum acceptable value should be 1 MOhm for a
lead acid and 10MOhm for Ni-Cads with a steel case.

Figure 8 Insulation Test

An alternative method is:

1.Disconnect the battery.

2.Connect a 500 resistor, 100mA ammeter and a 50-volt dc power supply.
3.Place one probe of the test apparatus to the battery negative terminal and the
other probe to the battery case.
4.Check the current leakage does not exceed 50mA.

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 Figure 9 Insulation Test

Cell Vent Pressure Test

For lead acid batteries, remove the vent caps. Hold the tester firmly over each vent in
turn and pressurize each cell to 2psi. There should be no detectable leakage after a
period of not less than 15 seconds.

For Ni-Cads each cell vent is typically checked by applying a pressure via a compressed
air line with the valve immersed in water. The pressure is raised and the valve should
open between 2 and 10 psi.

Figure 10 Battery Pressure Test

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Thermal Runaway

This is also known as ‘Vicious Cycling’ and is most prevalent in Ni-Cad batteries. It can
be started in two ways.

1. High overcharging rates for long periods of time causes gas bubbles to rise
rapidly which are scrubbing against the cellophane part of the separator. If
broken, the oxygen evolved at the positive plates migrates to the negative
plate where it recombines with cadmium and produces heat and lowers the
voltage of the cell. More overcharge current is taken (as the voltage is lower), this
causes more breakdown of the cellophane and more oxygen to the negative
plate and more overcharge current, and so on. Thermal runaway has started. It
should also be noted the electrolyte has a negative temperature coefficient and
its resistance decreases as temperature increases further increasing charging
current. The sequence of events will continue until the battery is destroyed.
2. If the battery is exposed to any combination of high busbar voltage, excessive
ambient temperature and is unable to dissipate the heat, then runaway may be
initiated, i.e. its internal resistance goes down and the charging current gets
higher, the resistance goes down further and so on.

The high overcharge current resulting from either method causes a heat generation rate
that is greater than heat dissipation rate and this causes a rising and accelerating
battery temperature up to its boiling point (220°250°F).

Most modern systems, especially those using Ni-Cad batteries have a temperature
monitoring system. This involves a temperature sensor in or attached to the battery with
monitoring by a battery charger or by a flight deck indication of overheat. It will give
warning to the flight crew of battery over-heat who can switch the battery out, or may
provide for automatic switch-out if a certain temperature is reached. It should also be
noted that a system of Constant Current charging reduces the possibility of thermal
runaway considerably.

BATTERY INSTALLATIONS

Depending on the requirements for the operation of the essential services under
emergency conditions, a single battery or several batteries (usually connected in
parallel) are used.

The batteries are installed in areas where adequate heat dissipation will occur and
ventilation of gases can take place. They are normally mounted and clamped to a tray,
which is secured to the aircraft structure.

The gases generated by the battery are usually vented to atmosphere via holes in the
side of the fuselage. One such method uses non-corrodible piping connected from the
battery to the outside vent. The airflow outside causes a venturi effect which draws the
air from the battery.

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 Figure 11 Battery Venting 1

Some systems use an acid trap. These traps are bottles inserted in the line between the
battery and the fuselage which have a neutralizing agent in them to prevent acid being
sprayed on to the aircraft fuselage.

Most modern aircraft use the effect of pressurization to cause air to flow across the top
of the battery to atmosphere.

Figure 12 Battery Venting 2

Batteries are usually connected to the aircraft dc system using a single screw attached
two pole plug. A typical battery connector is shown in figure 13. Clockwise rotation of the
handwheel causes the sockets to engage with the pins. Reverse rotation of the
handwheel disengages the sockets and pins. Note also the electrical connection to the
internal thermostat, which monitors the temperature of the battery.
The battery will have structural clamps to secure it in position.

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 Figure 13 Battery Connections

Figure 14 shows the battery installation of the BAe 146. There are two 24v 23Ah nickel
cadmium batteries which supply their respective battery busbars (hot bus) at all times
and to provide power to the emergency dc busbar (essential bus) should there be a
failure of all generated power.

Figure 14 BAe 146 Installation

The batteries consist of twenty individual cells linked in series and assembled in a steel
case with a detachable lid. Each cell vent incorporates a safety valve set to avoid internal
pressure build-up beyond the limit of the cell. Inside the battery case, the cells are held
tightly packed by insulator linings. Vertical movement of the cells is further restrained by a
moulded silicon rubber linear attached to the inside of the lid assembly. The lid assembly
also includes a non-return valve and an integral hold down bar and strap which accepts
hold down securing attachments.

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The non-return valve, in conjunction with a ventilation pipe fitted at the side of the battery
case, provides passage for cooling air and the extraction of battery gases. Battery
temperature sensing is provided by two thermostats, one set at 57°C to give a flight deck
indication of HI TEMP and the other set at 71 °C will inhibit the battery supply to the
emergency dc busbar.

Electrical connection is by an ELCON quick release connector, and a six-pin connector on

the battery front face connects the temperature sensing elements to their respective
circuits.

Figure 15 shows the battery/ battery charger layout for a Boeing 757 aircraft.

Figure 15 B757 Installations

The main battery/battery charger provides a dedicated source of dc power for the
operation of the standby and auto-land systems. A separate APU battery/battery charger
provides power for the APU start.

The main and APU batteries are identical 20 cell Ni-Cad batteries with individual cell
venting pressure at 2 to 10 psi. A thermistor thermal sensor provides the battery charger
with battery temperature information. If the battery reaches a set temperature the
battery charger is de-energized.

The chargers are identical and have an input of 115V, 400Hz, 3 phase. They have
forced air and convection cooling and can be used as an alternative 28V dc supply.

Figure 16 shows the battery shunts and current monitors. The main battery shunt is
connected on the ground-side of the main battery and the APU battery shunt is
connected on the ground-side of the APU battery charger. This provides a signal to the

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CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display in the flight deck known as EICAS (Engine Indicating
and Crew Alerting System) of sensed current flow. The battery current monitor senses
current flow into and out of the battery to give an indication on EICAS of battery
discharging.

Figure 16 Battery Locations

Figure 17 Battery Indication System – Boeing

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 Figure 18 CRT EICAS Display

Many aircraft have analogue ammeters to indicate current flow into and out of the battery.
Usually the ammeter is split into negative and positive sectors. When the needle is in the
negative sector the battery is discharging and when in the positive area it is being
charged.

Charging Methods

There are three methods of charging a battery on an aircraft.

1. Constant voltage
2. Constant current
3. Pulse

Some systems may involve a combination of more than one method.

Constant Voltage Method

This refers to a method where the supply to the battery is of a constant potential, either
from a voltage regulator controlled 28V dc generator or a battery charger with a constant
voltage output.

The applied voltage produced by the charging source carries current to flow into the
battery. As charging proceeds and the voltage of the battery increases, the difference
between the fixed voltage of the charging source and the rising battery voltage becomes
less and less resulting in a continual decrease in charging current.

The initial charging current will depend on the:

a) Ampere hour capacity of the battery.
b) State of charge of the battery - in a fully discharged state a battery will
initially accept a higher current than when it is partially charged.

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It is important, if the battery is being charged from a voltage regulator controlled dc
generator, that the regulator is set correctly. If the dc generator output is set too low the
battery will not receive a full charge. If it is set too high the charging current remains too
high even after the battery has been fully charged. ‘Overcharging’ may cause excessive
water loss which will result in increase battery temperature, and continued charging may
also lead to damage of the cellophane portion of the separator in a Ni-Cad battery which
may lead to thermal runaway.

The advantages of Constant Voltage charging are:

1. It permits relatively rapid charging.

2. A constant voltage is available on dc generator systems, so batteries can be
connected direct to the main dc busbar.
3. Under normal conditions it minimizes water loss.

Note : Water loss results from electrolysis through hydrogen and oxygen
evolvement. Water droplets are entrapped in cell gases given off during
overcharge and evaporation occurs.

Disadvantages of constant voltage charging are:

1. It may cause cell imbalance and possible thermal runaway.

2. It requires periodic reconditioning treatment of the battery.
3. It tends to overcharge if charging voltage is set too high and undercharge if set
too low.

So the basic layout for a constant voltage system would be, for a dc system figure 19,
and that for an ac system figures 20 or 21.

Figure 19 Constant Voltage Charging Circuit DC System

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 Figure 20 Constant Voltage Charging Circuit AC System - 1

Figure 21 Constant Voltage Charging Circuit AC System - 2

With reference to figure 22 which show a constant voltage charging system. Four
batteries are connected in parallel to the battery busbar to feed the essential services.
Note this bus is live all the time the batteries are connected. When the power selector
switch is placed from ‘off’ to ‘battery’ the current will flow from the battery through the
battery relay coil across the switch to a made contact of the reverse current circuit
breaker. The battery relay is energized and its contact makes. Current now flows from
the main busbar (dc generator supply) to flow through a contact of the reverse current
circuit breaker and its coil and through the battery relay contact to charge the battery.

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With failure of the main supply, the power selector is put to ‘off’ which de-energizes the
battery relay, isolating the battery from the main busbar. The battery will now supply the
essential services (e.g. essential instruments, fire bottles, flight controls etc) to enable
flight to continue under these emergency conditions for a minimum period of 30 minutes.

Figure 22 Typical Aircraft Charging Circuit

The reverse current breaker protects the battery from excess current from the busbar.
The charging current flows through the reverse current breaker coil and should this
current exceed a certain value the reverse current circuit breaker will trip. This will
do two things:

a) Isolate charging current to battery.

a) Trip the battery relay.

Constant Current Charging

In this method the battery charger maintains a pre-determined and relatively

constant current throughout the charge and overcharge intervals. This method is
generally slower than the constant voltage charging method. It is, however, the
preferred method of charging for Ni-Cad batteries as it is much more effective in
maintaining cell balance and full capacity.

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Advantages of constant current charging are:

1. No excessive gassing.
2. Charging current is easily monitored.
3. Keeps cells in a 'balanced' condition, there is less chance of thermal runaway.

Disadvantages of constant current charging are:

1. Greater water loss on overcharging

2. Longer time generally required charging the battery.

A simplified layout for a medium/large passenger carrying aircraft is shown in figure 23.

Figure 23 Simplified Battery DC/AC Relationship Layout

One aircraft (Canadair Challenger) has a constant current charging system, with the
battery charger operating in one of three modes. The correct operating mode is
automatically selected, based on the temperature and voltage of the battery. The
operating modes are as follows:

Main Mode charger supplies approximately 30 ampere charging current to the

battery.
Topping Mode charger supplies approximately 10 ampere charging current to the
battery.
Off Mode charger is shut-off.

Another very popular system (e.g., Boeing 757, 767, 747-400) uses a combination of
constant current and constant voltage charging.

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 Figure 24 Charging Graph – Example of Boeing Aircraft

Each charger (main battery and APU) operates from 115V 3 phase 400Hz power
supplied from the ac ground service busbar and operates in three distinctive modes.

1. In the constant current charge mode. The charger provides a constant current
charge of 38 amps to the battery. Battery temperature, as measured by the
thermistor inside the battery and battery voltage are sensed by the charger. The
charger monitors the time for the voltage to rise to a particular point known as
the 'voltage inflection point', this point depends on temperature. At room
temperature the voltage is 31V. When this point is reached the charger
continues the charge for an additional 12% of the time taken to reach the
inflection point.
2. The charger, at the end of this 12% time overcharge, will switch to a constant
voltage charging at approximately 28V with a current limit level of 38 amps.
1. The charger can also provide a separate constant voltage supply known as the
‘TR mode’ which acts as a voltage regulated power at approximately 28V dc
with a current limit level of 64 amps.

Note: In order for a Ni-Cad battery to deliver 100% capacity it has to be recharged to
140%, hence the overcharge period in this type of charging system.

In this system battery charger shutdown occurs under any of the following circumstances:

a) Battery voltage below 4.0V.

b) Battery temperature sensor disconnected.
a) Charger input volts over 134 or under 94V ac.
b) Battery temperature greater than 155°F.
c) Loss of input to the charger.

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Pulse Charging

A typical pulse charger used on the earlier Boeing 747's worked along the lines of the
graph given in figure 25. Study the figure carefully and note the pulsing of the voltage with
the subsequent changes in the charging current.

Figure 25 Pulse Charging

The charging of a discharged battery will begin at 60 amp 28V. The current will slowly
fall and the voltage slowly rises.

At 26 amps 33V the charge ceases. The current drops to zero and the battery voltage
slowly falls. As the battery voltage falls to 28V the charger switches 'on' again and, in a
sudden pulse both voltage and current rise to 35A 30V. As the current falls to 26A, the
voltage rises to 33V, at this point the charge is again removed, the current drops to zero
and the voltage slowly falls to 28V causing the next pulse.

This pulse cycle is repeated for a total of eight pulses the battery charger then switches
to a constant voltage output of 28V just trickle charging the battery at less than half an
amp.

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BATTERY SYSTEMS

Figure 26 shows the battery system of a small helicopter but it could equally be a
system on, a single engine fixed wing aircraft.

Figure 26 Battery System Small Aircraft

When the battery switch is placed to on, current will flow from the positive terminal of
the battery to contact A2 then via X2 and X (battery relay coil) through the battery switch
to earth. The battery relay energizes and current will flow from A2 (battery relay) to A1
and then to A2 of the external power relay on to TB2 and then to the main busbar. If the
generator was 'on line' then current would flow in the reverse direction to charge the
battery, ie from the main busbar to TB2, A2 of external power relay through the contacts
A1 and A2 of the battery relay to the positive of the battery.
On these aircraft the battery may be charged from the external power supply. When the
external power supply is plugged into the external power receptacle, the small pin
positive supply energizes the external power relay.

Then a positive supply from the larger pin goes through contacts A1 and A2 of the
external power relay, then through contacts A1 and A2 of the battery relay (when battery
switch is placed to ON), to the positive of the battery to charge the battery.

Figure 27 shows the battery system and relevant busbars of a medium size passenger
carrying aircraft.

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 Figure 27 Battery system - Medium Sized Aircraft

The battery charger is normally powered by three phase 115v ac from the ground service
busbar (GSB). The GSB is normally fed in-flight from the generator busbar No 1. The
charger delivers 28V dc to charge the battery. In the event of loss of power to the GSB,
the battery charger transfer relay energizes automatically to provide an alternate source
of power from main bus 2, which is fed from No 2 generator.

On the ground and the ac supply plugged into the external receptacle, the ground
service relay is energized, allowing the supply from the external ac bus to feed the GSB
and hence the charger. During APU start, to prevent overloading the charge the APU
interlock relay is energized to interrupt the input to the charger while the starter motor is
turning, when the engine reaches 50% RPM the relay is de-energized and the charger
supply is remade.

It is important to note on the larger aircraft that the battery can feed various busbars.
The hot battery bus is directly connected to the battery, i.e. this busbar is live at all times
the battery is connected in the aircraft. The hot battery bus typically powers fire
extinguisher bottles, engine fuel shut off valves, standby power control. The hot battery
bus can be connected to a battery busbar via a battery bus relay. This relay is normally
de-energized and the battery bus is normally powered from a Transformer Rectifier Unit
(TRU), however, in the event of failure the battery bus relay will automatically be
energized and the battery bus is fed from the hot battery bus. The battery bus normally
feeds the passenger address system, fire and smoke detection system, flight deck,
cabin and service interphone system. The standby dc bus normally powers, flight
controls, standby attitude indicators, radio systems which in the event of failure of its

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normal supply from a TRU, R2 will energize, to allow a supply from the battery, hot
busbar and battery busbar to maintain these essential services.

Figure 28 shows a typical system for a large passenger carrying aircraft with the dc
busbars being capable of being fed from the battery.

Figure 28 Typical Large Aircraft – Battery System

The hot battery busbar is connected directly to the battery feeds, fire bottles, fuel shut-
off valves, emergency evacuation warning and the electronic clock. This busbar, as
before, is fed directly from the charger if the GSB is live.

In this aircraft the battery busbar is fed from the essential dc busbar (fed from a TRU).
Should there be a failure of the essential busbar the battery busbar is automatically
transferred to the hot battery busbar, providing the battery switch is 'ON'. The busbar
supplies engine start, fire detection, fuel valves, manual pressurization control and
standby background lighting.

The standby dc busbar is fed from the essential dc busbar with the standby power switch
in normal or manual. Should the essential dc busbar fail, the standby dc busbar will be
powered from the hot battery busbar providing the battery switch is on. The busbar
supplies No 1 VHF Nav and Comets, standby attitude indicator, engine N 1 tacho-
generators, fuel and engine anti-ice valves.

MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Batteries should be inspected at the periods specified in the approved Maintenance

Schedule.

The following paragraphs serve as a guide to the checks typically required.

The battery tray should be checked for security, signs of electrolyte spillage and
corrosion. The latches holding the battery should operate smoothly and firmly secure the
battery in position.

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The battery should be checked externally for signs of overheating, damage, leakage the
connector pins and the connector socket should be checked for signs of contamination,
burns, cracks, pitting etc. The connector may be subject to a GO-NO-GO gauge test to
ensure there is no slackness between plug and socket when connected.

Cable insulation should be checked for signs of damage, contamination, burning, and
security.

The ventilation system should be checked to ensure security of connections and

freedom from obstruction. Where acid traps are fitted, check for overflow and if
necessary remove for cleaning.

Non-return valves should be checked for correct operation.

The tops of all cells should be inspected for signs of electrolyte leakage and cleaned
where necessary. In Ni-Cad batteries the intercell links should be checked for correct
torque loading and signs of overheating and cells checked for distortion.

Check temperature sensor for correct fitment and the connections are serviceable.

Check electrolyte level. An important point to note here is that as the electrolyte level
rises when charging and lowers when discharging. Distilled water must only be added
when the battery is fully charged, also always allow the battery to stand idle for 2 to 4
hours with vent caps loosened so that all the gas may escape before adjusting the
electrolyte level. (Usually the battery has to be removed from the aircraft when adjusting
electrolyte level).

If a cell requires more than a specified amount of distilled water then the cell must be
considered as defective and the battery replaced.

Check the capacity test is in date.

Check earth connection for security and any signs of corrosion; also check ammeter
shunt and connections for security and corrosion.

Carry out open circuit voltage and load checks as stated in the maintenance manual.
Voltage Checks and Load Tests

To assess the serviceability of a battery for flight on an aircraft with constant voltage
charging, i.e. no battery charger, the following is a typical check. (This can be likened to
a simple form of Capacity Test.)

a) Ensure internal and external power switches are 'OFF'.

b) Check battery volts by selection on voltmeter, ensure battery is 24V or above.
c) Select the load as stated in the maintenance manual, e.g. switch on emergency
inverter, landing lights, fuel pumps etc for the time period designated,

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 typically 20 to 30 seconds. A typical load could be 30A - but check the
manual.
d) Monitor the battery voltage whilst on load. There should be no greater than one
volt drop from the on-load value to the off-load value.
e) Switch off load after designated time period; ensure the battery voltage returns
to its original off-load value.

A check on an aircraft with a battery charger system would depend on the type of
charger being used but the following is typical (this system involves a pulse charging
system as previously described):

a) Trip the main battery charger circuit breaker.

b) Set the standby power switch to ON.
c) Select BATT on the dc meter panel.
d) Check the ammeter indicates a negative current flow and the voltage is below
27.5V.
e) After 1 minute set the battery switch to OFF, and close the main charger circuit
breaker.
f) The ammeter should indicate a positive current flow and the reading should drop
from an initial high level to 26 amps when the charging current will drop to zero.
g) When the battery falls to 27.5V the charger should be monitored to ensure a high
current pulse of 5 to 10 seconds is put out.
h) Again, check that a maximum of eight pulses is produced and then the charger
produces a trickle charge, i.e. battery is charged.
i) Place standby power switch to OFF.

Electrolyte Spillage

In the event of electrolyte spillage in the aircraft, the following action must be taken
immediately.
CAUTION: RUBBER GLOVES SHOULD BE WORN AND EYE
PROTECTION IF NECESSARY.
1. Check the cause for the spillage. Check the battery - if suspect, change. Remove
the battery for access if the spillage is in the battery area.
2. Remove all accessible pools of electrolyte by mopping with a clean rag moistened
with water, care being taken to prevent spreading of the electrolyte. The rag
should be frequently rinsed out in water to remove electrolyte during this process.
3. Providing the electrolyte has not become trapped in any structure, rinse the area
with clean, cold water, taking particular care not to contaminate adjacent or below
floor electrical equipment. Should carpet become contaminated, this should be
removed from the aircraft at the earliest opportunity and adjacent structure
checked for evidence of corrosion.
1. Dry the affected area thoroughly, using a clean rag.
2. Should control cables become contaminated with electrolyte, they must be
replaced.
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6. If it is suspected that electrolyte has contaminated a structure, perhaps by
capillary action, the following action should be taken.
a) For lead/acid electrolyte (dilute sulphuric acid) apply sodium
bicarbonate powder to the affected area and wash down with a saturated
solution of sodium bicarbonate.
b) For Ni-Cad electrolyte (potassium hydroxide solution) rinse the
affected area with 5% solution of acetic acid. If not available, ordinary
household white vinegar may be used neat.
In either case, finally rinse area with clean cold water, taking the same
precautions as in Item 2. Dry the area as thoroughly as possible, using a
clean rag.
If there is any doubt that this procedure has not been effective, consideration
should be given to removal of units/de-riveting structure for separate cleaning
and inspection.
7. As sodium bicarbonate (alkali) is in itself mildly corrosive to light alloys, testing
the effectiveness of the cleansing operation may be carried out using a piece of
pH Universal Test. Paper. Colour changes indicate the level of acidity (red) or
alkalinity (blue).
Alternatively, litmus paper may be used, satisfactory cleansing being indicated by
no colour change of either blue to red (acid) or red to blue (alkaline).
NOTE: Acetic acid (5% solution) is not detrimental to ac structure/light
alloys.
8. If any corrosion has occurred to the structure, carry out corrosion removal
procedures (book entitled Corrosion in this series) and re-protect structure.
9. Fit and connect the battery (if removed) and test the system as per the AMM.
10. Record (and sign) all the work done in the appropriate work cards/Logbook book.
In all cases of electrolyte spillage, an ADD should be raised detailing the area
affected, the level of cleansing effected (units/cables removed, etc) and calling
for the area to be reinspected after 24 hours and 14 days for signs of corrosive
attack.

Should corrosion then be evident, appropriate action must be taken and

consideration given to repeat inspection at a later date.

CAUTION: IN THE EVENT OF SKIN BECOMING CONTAMINATED WITH

ELECTROLYTE, IMMEDIATELY WASH THE AFFECTED AREA
COPIOUSLY WITH CLEAN COLD WATER.

SHOULD EYES BECOME AFFECTED, FLUSH IMMEDIATELY

WITH STERIFLEX OR CLEAN COLD WATER, WHICHEVER IS
NEAREST TO HAND. IN EITHER EVENT, REPORT
IMMEDIATELY TO THE NEAREST OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
UNIT FOR SPECIALIST MEDICAL ATTENTION.

Factors which can cause overheating of a battery (may lead to thermal runaway) are:
a) Voltage regulator incorrectly adjusted, or battery charger output too high.
b) Frequent engine or APU starts.

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c) Ground Power units with poor voltage regulation.
d) Poor ventilation of battery compartment during high ambient temperatures.
e) High initial charging currents imposed on a hot battery, the battery should be
checked for:
1. Loose link connections between cells (Ni-Cad).
2. Low electrolyte level.
3. Unbalanced cells (Ni-Cad).
4. Leakage current between cell and battery container.
f) Faulty temperature sensor or wiring.

Checking of Specific Gravity

The checking of specific gravity of a battery is achieved using a HYDROMETER.

Separate hydrometers must be used for lead acid and NiCad batteries.
The electrolyte density will change with a change in temperature so manufacturers
usually quote the specific gravity at a standard temperature of 15°C, so when the
reading is taken a correction has to be made to bring the reading to the value at 15°C
(60°F).

The corrections to be made are:

a) When a Celsius thermometer is being used to monitor the electrolyte

temperature:
Add 0.003 from the Hydrometer reading for every 4°C above 15°C.
Subtract 0.003 from the Hydrometer reading for every 4°C below 15°C.

b) When a Fahrenheit thermometer is being used to monitor the electrolyte

temperature:
Add 0.001 from the Hydrometer reading for every 2.5°C above 60°C.
Subtract 0.001 from the Hydrometer reading for every 2.5°C below 60°C.

STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION

Lead Acid Batteries

Lead acid batteries should be stored in a clean, dry, cool, well ventilated area entirely
separate from nickel-cadmium batteries. The area should also be free from corrosive
liquids or gases. New batteries may be stored either dry and uncharged, or filled and
charged.

Batteries of solid block construction may also be stored in the condition in which they are
dispatched by the manufacturer, ie filled and uncharged. In this condition only the
positive plates are formed so that the batteries remain inert until they are prepared for
use.

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Batteries removed from service must always be stored in the fully charged condition. The
appropriate storage limiting periods must be in accordance with those specified in the
relevant manuals. Typical periods are 5 years in a temperate climate for charged or
uncharged batteries and from 2 to 3 years in a tropical climate for uncharged batteries,
and 18 months for charged batteries.

If the storage limiting periods have been exceeded, uncharged batteries should be
charged, bench checked or returned to the manufacturer for examination and re-lifing.
Charged batteries should be periodically inspected and given a freshening charge every
2-4 weeks. The capacity of batteries should also be checked during the storage period at
a frequency that is dictated mainly by their condition. It is recommended that capacity
tests are carried out every 6 months for new batteries, and every 3 months for batteries
returned from service.

Batteries, which have been in use and are discharged, should not be allowed to
remain, or be stored in this condition, because of the danger of sulphation of
the plates. The lower main terminal voltage limit appropriate to the type of battery should
be checked and recharging carried out as necessary; a typical lower limit is 21.6V.

If it is necessary to return a battery to the manufacturer, or to an approved overhaul

organization, it should be prepared in accordance with the transportation requirements
specified by the manufacturer for the appropriate battery condition, ie charged or
uncharged. An up-to-date service record should accompany the battery and "This Way
Up" international signs affixed to the container.

Note: If transportation is to be by air, the container must comply with IATA regulations
concerning the carriage of batteries.

Ni-Cad Batteries

Nickel-cadmium batteries should be stored in a clean, dry, well -ventilated area and
should be completely segregated from lead-acid batteries. The area should also be free
from corrosive liquids or gases. It is recommended that they should be stored in the
condition in which they are normally received from the manufacturer, i.e. filled with
electrolyte, discharged and with shorting strips fitted across receptacle pins.

Cell connecting strips and terminals should be given a coating of acid-free petroleum
jelly (e.g. white Vaseline).

The temperatures at which batteries may be stored are quoted in the relevant manuals,
and reference should therefore be made to these. In general, a temperature of 20°C is
recommended for long-term storage.

If batteries are to be stored in a charged condition, they must be trickle charged

periodically in order to balance the inherent self-discharge characteristic. Since this
discharge is temperature sensitive, the trickle charge rate is therefore dependent on the

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storage temperature conditions.
If it is necessary to return a battery to the manufacturer or to an approved overhaul
organisation, it should be discharged, but not drained of electrolyte. It should be packed
in its original container, together with its service record and "This Way Up" international
signs affixed to the outside.

Note: If transportation is to be by air, the container must comply with IATA

regulations concerning the carriage of batteries containing alkaline electrolyte.

Remember that stored items should be given an inspection before issue and issued on
a 'first in first out' basis. Records should be kept (hard copy or computer) giving details
of the battery - type, part number, serial number, maintenance details, aircraft fitted to
etc.

GROUPING OF BATTERIES

On some aircraft, there may be more than one main battery, but a number connected in
parallel, this gives greater capacity for dealing with loads on the hot bus and battery
buses, and for engine or APU starting. Connecting batteries in parallel gives greater
capacity, eg four 24V 18Ah batteries in parallel gives 24V 72Ah (4 x 18) capacity.

Figure 29 Batteries in Parallel

Figure 30 Batteries in Series

In some aircraft main and APU batteries are paralleled for engine or APU starting. On
some types of turboprop aircraft the batteries are switched from parallel to series to give
an increased voltage supply for starting the engine from the batteries, ie for two 24V 18Ah
batteries this would give a 48v 18Ah supply to be fed to the starter motor. Typically a
modern passenger carrying aircraft would have one main battery, one APU battery, a
standby battery for IRS (Inertial Reference System) and batteries for emergency lighting.

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