Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits Analysis

Pamantasan ng Cabuyao
Katapatan Homes, Banay-banay,Cabuyao City

Laguna
Assignment #1 – Midterm
CPA101
Name: Aliparo, Jeremy C.

Date: August 20, 2019
Professor: Engr. Mandayo
Millman’s Theorem
In Millman’s Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a parallel network of branches, each branch
containing a resistor or series battery/resistor combination. Millman’s Theorem is applicable only to
those circuits which can be redrawn accordingly. Here again, is our example circuit used for the last
two analysis methods:
And here is that same circuit, re-drawn for the sake of applying Millman’s Theorem:
By considering the supply voltage within each branch and the resistance within each branch,
Millman’s Theorem will tell us the voltage across all branches. Please note that I’ve labeled the
battery in the rightmost branch as “B3” to clearly denote it as being in the third branch, even though
there is no “B2” in the circuit!
Millman’s Theorem Equation

Millman’s Theorem is nothing more than a long equation, applied to any circuit drawn as a set of
parallel-connected branches, each branch with its own voltage source and series resistance:
Substituting actual voltage and resistance figures from our example circuit for the variable terms of
this equation, we get the following expression:
The final answer of 8 volts is the voltage seen across all parallel branches, like this:
The polarity of all voltages in Millman’s Theorem is referenced to the same point. In the example
circuit above, I used the bottom wire of the parallel circuit as my reference point, and so the
voltages within each branch (28 for the R1 branch, 0 for the R2 branch, and 7 for the R3 branch)
were inserted into the equation as positive numbers. Likewise, when the answer came out to 8 volts
(positive), this meant that the top wire of the circuit was positive with respect to the bottom wire (the
original point of reference). If both batteries had been connected backward (negative end up and
positive ends down), the voltage for branch 1 would have been entered into the equation as -28
volts, the voltage for branch 3 as -7 volts, and the resulting answer of -8 volts would have told us
that the top wire was negative with respect to the bottom wire (our initial point of reference).
Solving for Resistor Voltage Drops

To solve for resistor voltage drops, the Millman voltage (across the parallel network) must be
compared against the voltage source within each branch, using the principle of voltages adding in
series to determine the magnitude and polarity of the voltage across each resistor:
Solving for Branch Currents

To solve for branch currents, each resistor voltage drop can be divided by its respective resistance
(I=E/R):
Determining the Direction of Current

The direction of current through each resistor is determined by the polarity across each
resistor, not by the polarity across each battery, as the current can be forced back through a
battery, as is the case with B3 in the example circuit. This is important to keep in mind since
Millman’s Theorem doesn’t provide as direct an indication of “wrong” current direction as does the
Branch Current or Mesh Current methods. You must pay close attention to the polarities of resistor
voltage drops as given by Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, determining the direction of currents from that.
Millman’s Theorem is very convenient for determining the voltage across a set of parallel branches,
where there are enough voltage sources present to preclude solution via regular series-parallel
reduction method. It also is easy in the sense that it doesn’t require the use of simultaneous
equations. However, it is limited in that it only applied to circuits which can be re-drawn to fit this
form. It cannot be used, for example, to solve an unbalanced bridge circuit. And, even in cases
where Millman’s Theorem can be applied, the solution of individual resistor voltage drops can be a
bit daunting to some, the Millman’s Theorem equation only providing a single figure for branch
voltage.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an aid to
system design. Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load
resistance when that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network
supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thevenin/Norton resistance
of the source network, its dissipated power will be less than the maximum.
This is essentially what is aimed for in radio transmitter design, where the antenna or transmission
line “impedance” is matched to final power amplifier “impedance” for maximum radio frequency
power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current, is very similar to resistance
and must be equal between source and load for the greatest amount of power to be transferred to
the load. A load impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load impedance that is
too low will not only result in low power output but possibly overheating of the amplifier due to the
power dissipated in its internal (Thevenin or Norton) impedance.
Maximum Power Transfer Example

Taking our Thevenin equivalent example circuit, the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem tells us
that the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation is equal in value to the Thevenin
resistance (in this case, 0.8 Ω):
With this value of load resistance, the dissipated power will be 39.2 watts:
If we were to try a lower value for the load resistance (0.5 Ω instead of 0.8 Ω, for example), our
power dissipated by the load resistance would decrease:
Power dissipation increased for both the Thevenin resistance and the total circuit, but it decreased
for the load resistor. Likewise, if we increase the load resistance (1.1 Ω instead of 0.8 Ω, for
example), power dissipation will also be less than it was at 0.8 Ω exactly:
If you were designing a circuit for maximum power dissipation at the load resistance, this theorem
would be very useful. Having reduced a network down to a Thevenin voltage and resistance (or
Norton current and resistance), you simply set the load resistance equal to that Thevenin or Norton
equivalent (or vice versa) to ensure maximum power dissipation at the load. Practical applications
of this might include radio transmitter final amplifier stage design (seeking to maximize the power
delivered to the antenna or transmission line), a grid-tied inverter loading a solar array, or electric
vehicle design (seeking to maximize the power delivered to drive motor).
Maximum Power Doesn’t Mean Maximum Efficiency

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem does not: Maximum power transfer does not coincide
with maximum efficiency. Application of The Maximum Power Transfer theorem to AC power
distribution will not result in maximum or even high efficiency. The goal of high efficiency is more
important for AC power distribution, which dictates a relatively low generator impedance compared
to the load impedance.
Source Transformation for Independent Sources

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1; the goal is to find the current (denoted by i) through the
central 5 Ω resistor. Here, mesh analysis (Kirchoff's Voltage Law, KVL) cannot be applied readily
because the circuit has a branch which has a current source. Thus, we need to devise a method by
which we can eliminate this current source from our circuit. However, while doing so, we need to
take care that the current and the voltages in the circuit remain unaltered.
Figure 1
Recall Ohm's Law, which states that

I=VR
.
Step 1: Current-to-Voltage Source Transformation

Looking back at the circuit (Figure 1) again, we can see that the 1 A current source has a 10 Ω
resistor in parallel with it. Let us now replace this combination with a voltage source, V = 1 A × 10 Ω
= 10 V, and a 10 Ω series resistor. You can see what this looks like in Figure 2. Note that the
positive terminal of the voltage source is placed to the left, because the current-source arrow was
pointing to the left. These two circuits (Figure 1 and Figure 2) are considered to be equivalent: the 1
A current entering node X from node Y has not changed.
Figure 2
The process carried out here is called source transformation. We have transformed an existing
current source with a parallel resistor into an equivalent voltage source with a series resistor.
Step 2: Voltage-to-Current Source Transformation

The circuit in Figure 2 can be further simplified as it has a 10 Ω resistor in series with a 5 Ω resistor.
These can be replaced by an equivalent 15 Ω (= 10 Ω + 5 Ω) resistor. The simplified circuit is
shown in Figure 3(a).
Now we can easily apply mesh analysis to solve the problem before us. However, there is also a
much easier graphical way of achieving this: apply source transformation again!
Previously we transformed a current source with a parallel resistor, but we can also apply source
transformation to a voltage source with a series resistor. We have two such arrangements, as
indicated in Figure 3(b). This circuit is equivalent to the one shown in Figure 3(a).
Figure 3
So here we will apply voltage-to-current source transformation, which is very similar to current-to-
voltage source transformation. The process involves replacing the voltage source V in series with a
resistor R with an equivalent network which has a current source
I=VRI=VR
in parallel with a resistor R. The current source is oriented such that the arrow points towards the positive terminal of
the voltage source being replaced (see Figure 4).
Thus, for the leftmost branch, we have a current source

I=105=2 A
in parallel with a 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, for the rightmost branch, we get
I=1015=23 A
in parallel with a 15 Ω resistor. The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 4.
The circuit in Figure 4 has two current sources pointing in the same direction, and hence these can
be replaced by a single current source whose value is equal to their sum, i.e.,
83 A
.
Figure 4
There are three resistors: two 5 Ω resistors and one 15 Ω resistor, all in parallel. We could replace
all three of them with an equivalent resistance (REQ), but our goal is to find the current through the 5
Ω resistor, so we will combine only the other two.
REQ=5×155+15=5×1520=154 Ω
Having made these changes, we get the circuit shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5
Step 3: Current-to-Voltage Source Transformation (again)

Now, let us apply current-to-voltage source transformation once again for the combination indicated
in Figure 5.
Here, the voltage source will be of the value
V=83×154=10 V
, with the positive terminal towards node X, in series with a
154 Ω
resistor.
The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6
For Figure 6, we can readily apply KVL to obtain the current through the 5 Ω resistor:
10−154i−5i=0
10−354i=0
10=354i
i=10×435=87 A
Sources/Links:
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com

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Pamantasan ng Cabuyao

Katapatan Homes, Banay-banay,Cabuyao City

Name: Aliparo, Jeremy C.

Millman’s Theorem Equation

Solving for Resistor Voltage Drops

Solving for Branch Currents

Determining the Direction of Current

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum Power Transfer Example

Maximum Power Doesn’t Mean Maximum Efficiency

Source Transformation for Independent Sources

Recall Ohm's Law, which states that

Step 1: Current-to-Voltage Source Transformation

Step 2: Voltage-to-Current Source Transformation

Thus, for the leftmost branch, we have a current source

Having made these changes, we get the circuit shown in Figure 5.

Step 3: Current-to-Voltage Source Transformation (again)

The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 6.

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