MIR PUBLISHERS

B. E. Byxoetee, B. 11. l(pimefuwe,

r. 31. MRKUIlle6, B. 17. [IRAN-LOB

CBOPHHK
ITO 9,TIEMEHTAPHO2 OH3HKE

113,4ATEJIbCTBO «HAYKAv MOCKBA

PROBLEMS
IN ELEMENTARY
PHYSICS

B. BUKHOVTSEV, V. KRIVCHENKOV,
G. MYAKISHEV, V. SHALNOV

Translated from the Russian

by A. Troitsky

Translation edited

by G. Leib

MIR PUBLISHERS • MOSCOW • 1971

UDC 530.10 (075.4)=-20

This collection of 816 problems is based on the textbook

"Elementary Physics" edited by Academician G. S. Landsberg.
For this reason the content and nature of the problems and their
arrangement mainly conform with this textbook. There is no section
devoted to "Atomic Physics", however, since the exercises in
Landsberg's book illustrate the relevant material in sufficient
detail. Some problems on this subject have been included in other
chapters.
The problems, most of which are unique, require a funda-
mental knowledge of the basic laws of physics, and the ability
to apply them in the most diverse conditions. A number of prob-
lems in the book have been revised from those used at the annual
contests organized by the Physics faculty of the Moscow Uni-
versity.
The solutions of all the difficult problems are given in great
detail. Solutions are also given for some of the simpler ones.
The book is recommended for self-education of senior pupils
of general and special secondary and technical schools. Many
problems will be useful for first and second year students of
higher schools.

lb aumuactcom mouce
CONTENTS

Prob- Answers
lems and
solutions
Chapter 1. Mechanics 7 160
1-1. Kinematics of Uniform Rectilinear Motion . . . 7 160
1-2. Kinematics of Non-Uniform and Uniformly Variable
Rectilinear Motion 11 09
1-3. Dynamics of Rectilinear Motion 15 174
1-4. The Law of Conservation of Momentum 23 185
1-5. Statics 25 188
1-6. Work and Energy 31 200
1-7. Kinematics of Curvilinear Motion 38 214
1-8. Dynamics of Curvilinear Motion 44 230
1-9. The Law of Gravitation 53 248
1-10. Hydro- and Aerostatics 55 253
1-11. Hydro- and Aerodynamics 62 261

Chapter 2. Heat. Molecular Physics 68 268

2-1. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 68 268
2-2. The Law of Conservation of Energy. Thermal Con-
ductivity 69 270
2-3. Properties of Gases 71 273
2-4. Properties of Liquids 76 283
2-5. Mutual Conversion of Liquids and Solids 80 287
2-6. Elasticity and Strength 81 289
2-7. Properties of Vapours 84 291

Chapter 3. Electricity and Magnetism 87 294

3-1. Electrostatics 87 294
3-2. Direct Current 97 317
3-3. Electric Current in Gases and a Vacuum 107 336
3-4. Magnetic Field of a Current. Action of a Magnetic
Field on a Current and Moving Charges 112 341
3-5. Electromagnetic Induction. Alternating Current . 116 347
3-6. Electrical Machines 123 359

Chapter 4. Oscillations and Waves 127 365

4-1. Mechanical Oscillations 127 365
4-2. Electrical Oscillations 131 373
4-3. Waves 133 376
6 CONTENTS

Prob- Answers
lems and
solutions

Chapter 5. Geometrical Optics 135 380

5-1. Photometry 135 380
5-2. Fundamental Laws of Optics 136 382
5-3. Lenses and Spherical Mirrors 142 395
5-4. Optical Systems and Devices 146 402

Chapter 6. Physical Optics 151 421

6-1. Interference of Light 151 421
6-2. Diffraction of Light 156 429
6-3. Dispersion of Light and Colours of Bodies 158 434
PROBLEMS

CHAPTER 1
MECHANICS

1-1. Kinematics of Uniform Rectilinear Motion

1. A motor-boat travelling upstream met rafts floating down-
stream. One hour after this the engine of the boat stalled.
It took 30 minutes to repair it, and during this time the boat
freely floated downstream. When the engine was repaired, the
boat travelled downstream with the same speed relative to the
current as before and overtook the rafts at a distance of s = 7.5 km
from the point where they had met the first time. Determine
the velocity of the river current, considering it constant.
2. A man walking with a speed v constant in magnitude and
direction passes under a lantern hanging at a height H above
the ground. Find the velocity which the edge of the shadow of
the man's head moves over the ground with if his height is h.
3. The distance between a town and a mill is 30 km. A man
started to walk from the mill to the town at 6:30 a. m., while
a cyclist left the town for the mill at 6:40 a.m., riding at a
speed of 18 km/h. The man met the cyclist after walking 6 km.
Determine at what time they met and the man's speed.
Also find the place where the man was when he met the
twelfth bus coming from the town and the number of buses
which overtook the cyclist if bus traffic begins at 6 a. m. The
buses leave their terminals every 15 minutes and their speed
is 45 km/h.
4. Two trains left Moscow for Pushkino at an interval of
t = 10 minutes and with a speed of v=30 km/h. What was the
speed u of a train bound for Moscow if it met these two trains
at an interval of T =4 minutes?
5. An engineer works at a plant out-of-town. A car is sent
for him from the plant every day that arrives at the railway
station at the same time as the train he takes. One day the
8 PROBLEMS

engineer arrived at the station one hour before his usual time
and, without waiting for the car, started walking to work.
On his way he met the car and reached his plant 10 minutes
before the usual time. How long did the engineer walk before
he met the car? Give a graphical solution.
6. Two landing-stages M and K are served by launches that
all travel at the same speed relative to the water. The distance
between the landing-stages is 20 km. It is covered by each
launch from M to K in one hour and from K to M in two hours.
The launches leave the two landing-stages at the same time at
an interval of 20 minutes and stop at each of them also for
20 minutes.
Determine: (1) the number of launches in service, (2) the num-
ber of launches met by a launch travelling from M to K, (3)
the number of launches met by a launch travelling from K to M.
7. Two tourists who are at a distance of 40 km from their
camp must reach it together in the shortest possible time. They
have one bicycle which they decide to use in turn. One of them
started walking at a speed of v,=5 km/h and the other rode
off on the bicycle at a speed of 02 = 15 km/h. The tourists agreed
to leave the bicycle at intermediate points between which one
walks and the other rides. What will the mean speed of the
tourists be? How long will the bicycle remain unused?
8. Two candles of equal height h at the initial moment are
at a distance of a from each other. The distance between each
candle and the nearest wall is also a (Fig. 1). With what speed
will the shadows of the candles move along the walls if one
candle burns down during the time t, and the other during the
time t 2?
9. A bus is running along a highway at a speed of v, = 16 m/s.
A man is at a distance of a= 60 metres from the highway and
b= 400 metres from the bus. In what direction should the man
run to reach any point of the highway at the same time as
the bus or before it? The man can run at a speed of 02 =4 m/s.
10. At what minimum speed should the man run (see Problem 9)
to be able to meet the bus, and in what direction?
11. A man is on the shore of a lake at point A, and has
to get to point B on the lake in the shortest possible time
(Fig. 2). The distance from point B to the shore BC =d and
the distance AC=s. The man can swim in the water with
a speed of v, and run along the shore with a speed of v2, greater
than v,. Which way should he use—swim from point A straight
MECHANICS

0 4
I I
4
a —0.1 A
Fig. 1 Fig. 2

to B or run a certain distance along the shore and then swim

to point B?
12. A motor-ship travelling upstream meets rafts floating
downstream. Forty-five minutes (t1) later the ship stops at a
landing-stage for t2 =1 hour. Then the ship travels downstream
and overtakes the rafts in t3 =1 hour. The speed of the ship
relative to the water is constant and equal to 01 =10 km/h.
Determine the river current velocity v2, considering it constant.
Consider both graphical and analytical methods of solution.
13. Mail is carried between landing-stages M and K by two
launches. At the appointed time the launches leave their landing-
stages, meet each other, exchange the mail and return. If the
launches leave their respective landing-stages at the same time,
the launch departing from M spends 3 hours both ways and that
from K —1.5 hours. The speeds of both launches are the same
relative to the water. Determine graphically how much later
should the launch depart from M after the other one leaves K
for the two to travel the same time.
14. Use the conditions of the previous problem to determine
the speed of the launches with respect to the water, the velo-
city of the river current and the point where the launches will
meet if they leave their respective landing-stages simultaneously.
The distance between the stages is 30 km.
15. A rowboat travels from landing-stage C to T at a speed
of v, =3 km/h with respect to the water. At the same time a launch
leaves T for C at a speed of 02= 10 km/h. While the boat moves
10 PROBLEMS

C Q. B between the landing-stages the launch

covers this distance four times and
reaches T at the same time as the
boat. Find the direction of the cur-
b rent.
16. A man in a rowboat must get
from point A to point B on the op-
posite bank of the river (Fig. 3). The
distance BC = a. The width of the ri-
ver AC =b. At what minimum speed
Fig. 3 u relative to the water should the
boat travel to reach point B? The
current velocity is vo.
17. A man must get from point A on one bank of a river to
point B on the other bank moving along straight line AB (Fig. 4).
The width of the river AC =1 km, the distance BC =2 km, the
maximum speed of the boat relative to the water u =5 km/h
and the river current velocity v = 2 km/h. Can the distance AB
be covered in 30 minutes?
18. A launch travels across a river from point A to point B
on the opposite bank along a straight line AB forming an angle a
with the bank (Fig. 5). The wind blows with a velocity of u at
right angles to the bank. The flag on the mast of the launch forms
an angle p with the direction of its motion. Determine the speed
of the launch with respect to the bank. Can the data in this
problem be used to find the river current velocity?
19. To find the speed of an airplane it is necessary to de-
termine how long it takes it to fly around a closed loop of a
known length. How long will it take a plane to fly around a square
with a side a, with the wind blowing at a velocity u, in two cases:
(1) the direction of the wind coincides with one of the sides of

Zr

Fig. 4 Fig. 5
MECHANICS 11

the square, (2) the direction of the wind coincides with the dia-
gonal of the square? With no wind the speed of the plane is v,
greater than u.
20. Two motor vehicles run at constant speeds vi and v2 along
highways intersecting at an angle a. Find the magnitude and
direction of the speed of one vehicle with respect to the other.
In what time after they meet at the intersection will the distance
between the vehicles be s?
21. Two intersecting straight lines move translationally in oppo-
site directions with velocities v, and v, perpendicular to the
corresponding lines. The angle between the lines is a. Find the
speed of the point of intersection of these lines.

1-2. Kinematics of Non-Uniform and Uniformly

Variable Rectilinear Motion
22. A motor vehicle travelled the first third of a distance s at
a speed of v, = 10 km/h, the second third at a speed of v, = 20 km/h
and the last third at a speed of v. =. 60 km/h. Determine the
mean speed of the vehicle over the entire distance s.
23. Determine the mean velocity and the mean acceleration
of a point in 5 and 10 seconds if it moves as shown in Fig. 6.
24. A man stands on a steep shore of a lake and pulls a boat
in the water by a rope which he takes up at a constant speed of v.
What will the speed of the boat be at the moment when the
angle between the rope and the surface of the water is a?
25. A point source of light S is at a distance 1 from a vertical
screen AB. An opaque object with a height h moves translatio-
nally at a constant speed v from the source to the screen along
g cm/s
A
5
4 a

5
2 .9'
ah
7
0 4=70
4 =5 4seconds Fig. 6
12 PROBLEMS

straight line SA. Determine the instantaneous velocity with which

the upper edge of the shadow of the object moves along the
screen (Fig. 7).
26. The coordinate of a point moving rectilinearly along the
x-axis changes in time according to the law x = 11 +35t +41t2
(x is in centimetres and t is in seconds). Find the velocity and
acceleration of the point.
27. Figures 8 and 9 show the velocity of a body and the change
in its coordinate (parabola) with time. The origin of time reading
coincides on both charts. Are the motions shown in the charts
the same?
28. Two motor vehicles left point A simultaneously and reached
point B in to =2 hours. The first vehicle travelled half of the
distance at a speed of vi=30 km/h and the other half at a speed
of v2 = 45 km/h. The second vehicle covered the entire distance
with a constant acceleration. At what moment of time were the
speeds of both the vehicles the same? Will one of them overtake
the other en route?
trolls
5
MECHANICS 13

70
t, seconds Fig. 9
29. A ball freely drops from a height H onto an elastic hori-
zontal support. Plot charts showing the change in the coordinate
and velocity of the ball versus the time neglecting the duration
of the collision. The impact is absolutely elastic.
30. Two steel balls freely drop onto an elastic plate, the first
one from a height of 111 =44 cm and the second in T > 0 seconds
after the first from a height of h2= 11 cm. After a certain time
the velocities of the balls coincide in magnitude and direction.
Find the time T and the interval during which the velocities of
the two balls remain the same. The balls do not collide.
31. How long will a body freely falling without any initial
velocity pass the n-th centimetre of its path?
32. Two bodies are thrown one after the other with the same
velocities v, from a high tower. The first body is thrown verti-
cally upward, and the second one vertically downward after the
time T. Determine the velocities of the bodies with respect to
each other and the distance between them at the moment of
time t > T.
33. At the initial moment three points A, B and C are on a
horizontal straight line at equal distances from one another.
Point A begins to move vertically upward with a constant ve-
locity v and point C vertically downward without any initial
14 PROBLEMS

velocity at a constant acceleration a. How should point B move

vertically for all the three points to constantly be on one straight
line? The points begin to move simultaneously.
34. Two trucks tow a third one by means of a pulley tied
to it (Fig. 10). The accelerations of the trucks are a, and a2.
Find the acceleration asof the truck being towed.
35. A lift moves with an acceleration a. A passenger in the
lift drops a book. What is the acceleration of the book with
respect to the lift floor if: (1) the lift is going up, (2) the lift
is going down?
36. A railway carriage moves over a straight level track with
an acceleration a. A passenger in the carriage drops a stone.
What is the acceleration of the stone with respect to the car-
riage and the Earth?
37. A man in a lift moving with an acceleration a drops
a ball from a height H above the floor. In t seconds the accele-
ration of the lift is reversed, and in 2t seconds becomes equal
to zero. Directly after this the ball touches the floor. What
height from the floor of the lift will the ball jump to after the
impact? Consider the impact to be absolutely elastic.
38. An overhead travelling crane lifts a load from the ground
with an upward acceleration of a,. At the same time the hook
of the crane carrying the load moves in a horizontal direction
with an acceleration a2relative to the crane. Besi-
des, the crane runs on its rails with a constant speed
vo(Fig. 11). The initial speed of the hook relative
to the crane is zero. Find the speed of the load
with respect to the ground when it reaches the
height h.
39. Body A is placed on a wedge forming an
angle a with the horizon (Fig. 12). What accele-

Fig. 10 Fig. 11
MECHANICS 15

Fig. 12 Fig. 13

ration should be imparted to the wedge in a horizontal direction

for body A to freely fall vertically?

1-3. Dynamics of Rectilinear Motion

40. A force F is applied to the centre of a homogeneous
sphere (Fig. 13). In what direction will the sphere move?
41. Six forces lying in one plane and forming angles of 60°
relative to one another are applied to the centre of a homoge-
neous sphere with a mass of m = 4 kg. These forces are consecu-
tively 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 kgf (Fig. 14). In what direction and
with what acceleration will the sphere move?
42. How much does a body with a mass of one kilogram
weigh?
43. The resistance of the air causes a body thrown at a cer-
tain angle to the horizon to fly along a ballistic curve. At what
angle to the horizon is the acceleration of the body directed at

Irgf

Fig. 14 Fig. 15
16 PROBLEMS

the highest point of the trajectory A, if the mass of the body

is m and the resistance of the air at this point is F?
44. A disk arranged in a vertical plane has several grooves
directed along chords drawn from point A (Fig. 15). Several bo-
dies begin to slide down the respective grooves from point A
simultaneously. In what time will each body reach the edge of
the disk? Disregard friction and the resistance of the air (Gali-
leo's problem).
45. What is the minimum force of air resistance acting on a
parachutist and his parachute when the latter is completely ope-
ned? The two weigh 75 kgf.
46. What is the pressure force N exerted by a load weighing
G kgf on the floor of a lift if the acceleration of the lift is a?
What is this force equal to upon free falling of the lift?
47. A puck with an initial velocity of 5 m/s travels over
a distance of 10 metres and strikes the boards. After the impact
which may be considered as absolutely elastic, the puck travelled
another 2.5 metres and stopped. Find the coefficient of friction
between the puck and the ice. Consider the force of sliding
friction in this and subsequent problems to be equal to the
maximum force of friction of rest.
48. The path travelled by a motor vehicle from the moment
the brakes are applied until it stops is known as the braking
distance. For the types of tyres in common use in the USSR
and a normal air pressure in the tubes, the dependence of the
braking distance on the speed of the vehicle at the beginning
of braking and on the state and type of the pavement can be
tabulated (see Table 1).
Find the coefficient of friction for the various kinds of pave-
ment surface to an accuracy of the first digit after the decimal
point, using the data in this table.
49. Determine the difference in the pressure of petrol on the
opposite walls of a fuel tank when a motor vehicle travels over
a horizontal road if its speed increases uniformly from
to v during t seconds. The distance between the tank walls is 1.
The tank has the form of a parallelepiped and its side walls are
vertical. It is completely filled with petrol. The density of pet-
rol is p.
50. A homogeneous rod with a length L is acted upon by
two forces F, and F, applied to its ends and directed oppositely
(Fig. 16). With what force F will the rod be stretched in the
cross section at a distance 1 from one of the ends?
MECHANICS 17

Table 1. Braking Distance in Metres

Speed, km/h
Pavement
surface 10 20 30 40 50 I 60 70 80 90 100

Ice 3.9 15.6 35.3 62.9 98.1 141.4 192.6 251.6 318.2 393.0

Dry snow 1.9 7.8 17.6 31.4 49.0 70.7 96.3 125.8 159.1 196.6

Wet wood,
block 1.3 5.2 11.7 20.9 32.7 47.1 64.2 83.8 106.0 131.0

Dry wood
block 0.78 3.1 7.0 12.5 19.6 28.2 38.5 50.3 63.6 78.6

Wet
asphalt 0.97 3.9 8.8 15.7 24.5 35.3 48.1 62.9 79.5 98.2

Dry asphalt 0.65 2.6 5.8 10.4 16.3 23.5 32.1 41.9 53.0 65.5

Dry concrete 0.56 2.2 5.0 9.0 14.0 20.2 27.5 35.9 45.4 56.1

51. A light ball is dropped in air and photographed after it

covers a distance of 20 metres. A camera with a focal length
of 10 cm is placed 15 metres away from the plane which the
ball is falling in. A disk with eight equally spaced holes arran-
ged along its circumference rotates with a speed of 3 rev's in
front of the open lens of the camera. As a result a number of
images of the ball spaced 3 mm apart are produced on the film.
Describe the motion of the ball. What is the final velocity of
another ball of the same radius, but with a mass four times
greater than that of the first one? Determine the coefficient of

I-4 L N
'

I
i Immimm412

i 1 Fig. 16
18 PROBLEMS

friction if the weight of the first ball is 4.5 gf. At high velo-
cities of falling, the resistance of the air is proportional to the
square of the velocity.
52. Two weights with masses m,== 100 g and m2 =200 g are
suspended from the ends of a string passed over a stationary
pulley at a height of H =2 metres from the floor (Fig. 17).
At the initial moment the weights are at rest. Find the tension
of the string when the weights move and the time during which
the weight m2reaches the floor. Disregard the mass of the pul-
ley and the string.
53. A weight G is attached to the axis of a moving pulley
(Fig. 18). What force F should be applied to the end of the
rope passed around the second pulley for the weight G to move
upwards with an acceleration of a? For the weight G to be at
rest? Disregard the mass of the pulleys and the rope.
54. Two weights are suspended from a string thrown over
a stationary pulley. The mass of one weight is 200 g. The
.

string will not break if a very heavy weight is attached to its

other end. What tension is the string designed for? Disregard
the mass of the pulley and the string.
55. Two pans with weights each equal to G =3 kgf are sus-
pended from the ends of a string passed over two stationary
pulleys. The string between the pulleys is cut and the free ends
are connected to a dynamometer (Fig. 19). What will the dyna-
mometer show? What weight G1should be added to one of the
pans for the reading of the dynamometer not to change after
a weight G2= 1 kgf is taken off the other pan? Disregard the
masses of the pans, pulleys, thread and dynamometer.

Fig. 17 Fig. 18 Fig. 19

MECHANICS 19

Fig. 20

56. A heavy sphere with a mass m is suspended on a thin

rope. Another rope as strong as the first one is attached to the
bottom of the sphere. When the lower rope is sharply pulled
it breaks. What acceleration will be imparted to the sphere?
57. Two weights with masses m, and m2 are connected by
a string passing over a pulley. The surfaces on which they rest
form angles a and t with the horizontal (Fig. 20). The right-
hand weight is h metres below the left-hand one. Both weights
will be at the same height in i seconds after motion begins.
The coefficients of friction between the weights and the sur-
faces are k. Determine the relation between the masses of the
weights.
58. A slide forms an angle of a=30° with the horizon.
A stone is thrown upward along it and covers a distance of
/ = 16 metres in 4 =2 seconds, after which it slides down. What
time t, is required for the return motion? What is the coeffi-
cient of friction between the slide and the stone?
59. A cart with a mass of M = 500 g is connected by a string
to a weight having a mass m=200 g. At the initial moment
the cart moves to the left along a horizontal plane at a speed
of v0 =7 m/s (Fig. 21). Find the magnitude and direction of

Fig. 21 Fig. 22
20 PROBLEMS

/17

....mReman)a ►

Z
Fig. 23 Fig. 24

the speed of the cart, the place it will be at and the distance
it covers in t = 5 seconds.
60. Can an ice-boat travel over a level surface faster than
the wind which it is propelled by?
61. The fuel supply of a rocket is m = 8 tons and its mass
(including the fuel) is M = 15 tons. The fuel burns in 40 seconds.
The consumption of fuel and the thrust F =20 ,000 kgf are constant.
(1) The rocket is placed horizontally on a trolley. Find its
acceleration at the moment of launching. Find how the accele-
ration of the rocket depends on the duration of its motion
and show the relation graphically. Use the graph to find the
velocity acquired by the rocket in 20 seconds after it begins
to move. Disregard friction.
(2) The rocket is launched vertically upward. Measurements
show that in 20 seconds the acceleration of the rocket is 0.8 g.
Calculate the force of air resistance which acts on the rocket
at this moment. Consider the acceleration g to be constant.
(3) The acceleration of the rocket is measured by an instru-
ment having the form of a spring secured in a vertical tube.
When at rest, the spring is stretched a distance of 10 = 1 cm
by a weight secured to its end. Determine the relation between
the stretching of the spring and the acceleration of the rocket.
Draw the scale of the instrument.
62. A bead of mass in is fitted onto a rod with a length of
2/, and can move on it without friction. At the initial mo -
MECHANICS 21

ment the bead is in the middle of the rod. The rod moves
translationally in a horizontal plane with an acceleration a in
a direction forming an angle a with the rod (Fig. 22). Find
the acceleration of the bead relative to the rod, the reaction
force exerted by the rod on the bead, and the time when the
bead will leave the rod.
63. Solve the previous problem, assuming that the moving
bead is acted upon by a friction force. The coefficient of fric-
tion between the bead and the rod is k. Disregard the force of
gravity.
64. A block with the mass M rests on a smooth horizontal
surface over which it can move without friction. A body with
the mass m lies on the block (Fig. 23). The coefficient of fric-
tion between the body and the block is k. At what force F
applied to the block in a horizontal direction will the body
begin to slide over the block? In what time will the body fall
from the block if the length of the latter is 1?
65. A wagon with the mass M moves without friction over
horizontal rails at a speed of vo. A body with the mass m is
placed on the front edge of the wagon. The initial speed of
the body is zero. At what length of the wagon will the body
not slip off it? Disregard the dimensions of the body as com-
pared with the length 1 of the wagon. The coefficient of friction
between the body and the wagon is k.
66. A weightless string thrown over a stationary pulley is
passed through a slit (Fig. 24). As the string moves it is acted
upon by a constant friction force F on the side of the slit. The
ends of the string carry two weights with masses m1 and m2,
respectively. Find the acceleration a of the weights.
67. A stationary pulley is secured to the end of a light bar.
The bar is placed onto a balance pan and secured in a vertical
direction. Different weights are attached to the ends of a string
passed over the pulley. One of the weights slides over the bar
with friction and therefore both weights move uniformly
(Fig. 25). Determine the force which the, pulley acts on the bar
with and the readings of the balance when the weights move.
Disregard the masses of the pulley, bar, string and the friction
in the pulley axis. Consider two cases: (1) m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 3 kg,
and (2) m1 =3 kg, m2= 1 kg.
68. A system consists of two stationary and one movable
pulleys (Fig. 26). A string thrown over them carries at its ends
weights with masses m1 and m3, while a weight with a mass
22 PROBLEMS

Fig. 25 Fig. 26

tn, is attached to the axis of the movable

pulley. The parts of the string that are
not on the pulleys are vertical. Find the
acceleration of each weight, neglecting
B the masses of the pulleys and the string,
and also friction.
69. Two monkeys of the same weight
are hanging at the ends of a rope thrown
over a stationary pulley. One monkey
begins to climb the rope and the other
stays where it is. Where will the second

Fig. 27 Fig. 28
MECHANICS 23

monkey be when the first one reaches the pulley? At the initial
moment both monkeys were at the same height from the floor.
Disregard the mass of the pulley and rope, and also friction.
70. Determine the accelerations of the weights in the pulley
system depicted in Fig. 27. Disregard the masses of the pulleys
and string, and also friction. In what direction will the pulleys
rotate when the weights riiove?
71. A table with a weight of G1 = 15 kgf can move without
friction over a level floor. A weight of G2 =10 kgf is placed
on the table, and a rope passed over two pulleys fastened
to the table is attached to it (Fig. 28). The coefficient of fric-
tion between the weight and the table k = 0.6. What acceleration
will the table move with if a constant force of 8 kgf is applied
to the free end of the rope? Consider two cases: (1) the force
is directed horizontally, (2) the force is directed vertically upward.
72. An old cannon without a counter-recoil device rests on
a horizontal platform. A ball with a mass m and an initial
velocity vo is fired at an angle of a to the horizon. What velo-
city viwill be imparted to the cannon directly after the shot
if the mass of the cannon is M and the acceleration of the ball
in the barrel is much greater than that of free fall? The coeffi-
cient of friction between the cannon and the platform is k.

1-4. The Law of Conservation of Momentum

73. A meteorite burns in the atmosphere before it reaches the
Earth's surface. What happens to its momentum?
74. Does a homogeneous disk revolving about its axis have
any momentum? The axis of the disk is stationary.
75. The horizontal propeller of a helicopter can be driven by
an engine mounted inside its fuselage or by the reactive forces
of the gases ejected from special nozzles at the ends of the
propeller blades. Why does a propeller-engine helicopter need
a tail rotor while a jet helicopter does not need it?
76. A hunter discharges his gun from a light inflated boat.
What velocity will be imparted to the boat when the gun is
fired if the mass of the hunter and the boat is M = 70 kg, the
mass of the shot m = 35 g and the mean initial velocity of the
shot vo= 320 m/s? The barrel of the gun is directed at an angle
of a =60° to the horizon.
77. A rocket launched vertically upward explodes at the highest
point it reaches. The explosion produces three fragments. Prove
24 PROBLEMS

Fig. 29

that the vectors of the initial velocities of all three fragments

are in one plane.
78. A man in a boat facing the bank with its stern walks to
the bow. How will the distance between the man and the bank
change?
79. A boat on a lake is perpendicular to the shore and faces
it with its bow. The distance between the bow and the shore is
0.75 metre. At the initial moment the boat was stationary. A man
in the boat steps from its bow to its stern. Will the boat reach
the shore if it is 2 metres long? The mass of the boat M= 140 kg
and that of the man m=60 kg.
80. Two identical weights are connected by a spring. At the
initial moment the spring is so compressed that the first weight
is tightly pressed against a wall (Fig. 29) and the second weight
is retained by a stop. How will the weights move if the stop is
removed?
81. A massive homogeneous cylinder that can revolve without
friction around a horizontal axis is secured on a cart standing on
a smooth level surface (Fig. 30). A bullet flying horizontally
with a velocity v strikes the cylinder and drops onto the cart.
Does the speed of the cart that it acquires after the impact
depend on the point where the bullet strikes the cylinder?
82. At the initial moment a rocket with a mass M had a
velocity vo. At the end of each second the rocket ejects a portion
MECHANICS 25

of gas with a mass in. The velocity of a portion of gas differs

from that of the rocket before the given portion of gas burns by
a constant value u, i. e., the velocity of gas outflow is constant.
Determine the velocity of the rocket in n seconds, disregarding
the force of gravity.
83. Will the velocity of a rocket increase if the outflow velo-
city of the gases with respect to the rocket is smaller than the
velocity of the rocket itself, so that the gases ejected from the
nozzle follow the rocket?
84. Two boats move towards each other along parallel paths
with the same velocities. When they meet, a sack is thrown from
one boat onto the other and then an identical sack is thrown from
the second onto the first. The next time this is done simultane-
ously. When will the velocity of the boats be greater after the
sacks are thrown?
85. A hoop is placed on an absolutely smooth level surface.
A beetle alights on the hoop. What trajectory will be described
by the beetle and the centre of the hoop if the beetle begins to
move along the hoop? The radius of the hoop is R, its mass is
M and the mass of the beetle m.
86. A wedge with an angle a at the base can move without
friction over a smooth level surface (Fig. 31). At what ratio
between the masses m, and m2of the weights, that are connected
by a string passed over a pulley, will the wedge remain statio-
nary, and at what ratio will it begin to move to the right or
left? The coefficient of friction between the weight of mass m2
and the wedge is k.

1 5. Statics
-

87. A homogeneous chain with a length 1 lies on a table. What

is the maximum length I, of the part of the chain hanging over
the table if the coefficient of friction between the chain and the
table is k?
88. Two identical weights are suspended from the ends of a
string thrown over two pulleys (Fig. 32). Over what distance
will a third weight of the same mass lower if it is attached to
the middle of the string? The distance between the axes of the
pulleys is 2/. The friction in the axes of the pulleys is negligible.
89. An isosceles wedge with an acute angle a is driven into
a slit. At what angle a will the wedge not be forced out of the
slit if the coefficient of friction between the wedge and the slit is k?
26 PROBLEMS

Fig. 32 Fig. 33

90. What is the ratio between the weights G, and G, if the

system shown in Fig. 33 is in equilibrium. Bars AD, BC, CH,
DI and arm 00, of the lever are twice as long as bars AE, EB,
IJ, JH and arm FO, respectively. Disregard the weight of the
bars and the arm.
91. A horizontal force F is applied perpendicularly to an upper
edge of a rectangular box with a length 1 and a height h to
move it. What should the coefficient of friction k between the
box and the floor be so that the box moves without overturning?
92. A homogeneous beam whose weight is G lies. on a floor.
The coefficient of friction between the beam and the floor is k.
What is easier for two men to do—turn the beam about its
centre or move it translationally?
93. An overhead travelling crane (see Fig. 11) weighing G=2
tonf has a span of L=26 metres. The wire rope carrying a load
is at a distance of 1-10 metres from one of the rails. Deter-
mine the force of pressure of the crane on the rails if it lifts a
load of Go = 1 tonf with an acceleration of a =9.8 m/s2.
94. A lever is so bent that its sides AB, BC and CD are
equal and form right angles with one another (Fig. 34). The axis
of the lever is at point B. A force of G= 1 kgf is applied at
point A at right angles to arm AB. Find the minimum force that
should be applied at D for the lever to be in equilibrium.
Disregard the weight of the lever.
95. A rod not reaching the floor is inserted between two iden-
tical boxes (Fig. 35). A horizontal force F is applied to the
upper end of the rod. Which of the boxes will move first?
MECHANICS 27

.0
C Fig. 34

96. A heavy homogeneous sphere is suspended from a string

whose end is attached to a vertical wall. The point at which the
string is fastened to the sphere lies on the same vertical as the
centre of the sphere. What should the coefficient of friction
between the sphere and the wall be for the sphere to remain in
equilibrium?
97. A homogeneous rectangular brick lies on an inclined plane
(Fig. 36). What half of the brick (left or right) exerts a greater
pressure on it?
98. A horizontally directed force equal to the weight of a heavy
cylindrical roller with a radius R is applied to its axis to lift it
onto a rectangular step. Find the maximum height of the step.
99. A sphere weighing G = 3 kgf lies on two inclined planes
forming angles a1 = 300 and a2 =60° with the horizon. Determine
the pressure exerted by the sphere on each plane if there is no
friction between the sphere and one of the planes.
100. The front wall of a drawer in a cabinet is provided with
two symmetrical handles. The distance between the handles is 1
and the length of the drawer a. The coefficient of friction bet-
ween the drawer and the cabinet is k. Can the drawer always be
pulled out by applying a force perpendicular to the wall of the
drawer only to one handle?
101. A homogeneous board is balanced on a rough horizontal
log (Fig. 37). After a weight has been added to one of the ends

Fig. 35 Fig. 36
28 PROBLEMS

Fig. 37

of the board, equilibrium can be obtained when the board forms

an angle a with the horizon. What is the coefficient of friction
between the board and the log?
102. The upper end of a ladder rests against a smooth vertical
wall and its bottom end stands on a rough floor. The coefficient
of friction between the ladder and the floor is k. Determine the
angle a between the ladder and the wall at which the former
will be in equilibrium.
103. Solve the previous problem, assuming that the wall is
rough and the coefficient of friction between the ladder and the
wall is also equal to k.
104. A homogeneous thin rod AB with a length 1 is placed
onto the horizontal surface of a table. A string with a length of
2/ is attached to end B of the rod (Fig. 38). How will the rod
move if the other end C of the string is slowly lifted up a sta-
tionary vertical straight line DO passing through end A of the
rod. Disregard the weight of the string.
105. At what coefficient of friction will a man not slip when
he runs along a straight hard path? The maximum angle between
a vertical line and the line connecting the man's centre of gravity
with the point of support is a.
106. A ladder leans against a smooth vertical wall of a house.
The angle between the ladder and the horizontal surface of the
Earth is a= 60°. The length of the ladder is l, and its centre of
gravity is at its middle. How is the force acting on the ladder
from the Earth directed?
107. A ladder with its centre of gravity at the middle stands
on an absolutely smooth floor and leans against a smooth wall
MECHANICS 29

(Fig. 39). What should the tension of a rope tied to the middle
of the ladder be to prevent its falling down?
108. A man climbs up a ladder leaning against a smooth
vertical wall. The ladder begins to slip only when the man
reaches a certain height. Why?
109. A picture is attached to a vertical wall by means of string
AC with a length 1 forming an angle a with the wall. The height
of the picture BC=d (Fig. 40). The bottom of the picture is
not fastened. At what coefficient of friction between the picture
and the wall will the picture be in equilibrium?
110. Four homogeneous rods are pin-connected to one another
at points B, C and D (Fig. 41). The two extreme rods AB and
DE can freely revolve with respect to stationary points A and
E on a horizontal straight line. The lengths of the rod AB = ED
and BC = CD. The masses of the rods are the same. Show that
the angles a and is are related by the ratio tan a= 3 tan 13 when
in equilibrium.
111. What is the coefficient of friction between a floor and
a box weighing one ton-force if a minimum force of 600 kgf is
required to start the box moving?
112. A weightless unstretchable string is wound around a cy-
linder with a mass m (Fig. 42). With what minimum force F min
and at what angle a, to the horizon should the string be pulled

Fig. 39 Fig. 40
30 PROBLEMS

Fig. 41 Fig. 42

for the rotating cylinder to remain in place? The coefficient of

friction between the cylinder and the floor is k.
113. Figure 43 shows a simplified diagram of the steam engine
and crank gear of a steam locomotive. Fig. 43a and b correspond
to the moments when steam has been admitted into the lef t-
and right-hand parts of the cylinder, respectively. Calculate the
tractive effort for these cases when point C is on one vertical
line with the axis of the driving wheel. The pressure of the
steam in the cylinder is p, the area of the piston is A, the
radius of the driving wheel is R and the distance OC = r. Disre-
gard the masses of the crank gear, the piston and the driving
wheel.
114. Bricks are so laid without a binder that a part of each
following brick extends over the one below (Fig. 44). Over what
maximum distance can the right-hand edge of the upper brick
extend over the right-hand edge of the lowermost brick that
serves as the base for the entire brickwork? The length of each
brick is 1.
115. Find the centre of gravity of a thin homogeneous wire
bent to a semicircle with a radius r.

(a) (o)
Fig. 43
MECHANICS 31

Fig. 44

Fig. 46 Fig. 47

116. Determine the centre of gravity of a homogeneous thin

semicircle with a radius r.
117. Determine the centre of gravity of a thin homogeneous
wire bent over an arc with a radius r (Fig. 45).
118. Determine the centre of gravity of a thin homogeneous
plate cut in the form of a sector with a radius r and a central
angle a (Fig. 46).
119. Determine the centre of gravity of a thin homogeneous
plate having the form of a rectangle with sides r and 2r which
a semicircle with a radius r is cut out of (Fig. 47).

1-6, Work and Energy

120. What work will be performed if a force of 3 kgf is used
to lift a load of 1 kgf to a height of 5 metres?
121. In the formula for work W=kFs, the coefficient k =1
if all the quantities are given in the same system of units.
What is the coefficient k. if the work is measured in joules, the
force in kgf and the distance in centimetres?
32 PROBLEMS

•-•••••••31.•

Fig. 48

122. In Guericke's experiment two copper hemispheres were

tightly fitted to each other to form a hollow sphere from which
the air was pumped out. The hemispheres were held so tightly
together by the atmospheric pressure that they could be pulled
apart only with the aid of horses. How many horses are requi-
red to do this if each horse pulled with a force F? The radius
of each hemisphere was R and the atmospheric pressure p.
123. How do you explain the fact that when a stone is
dropped onto the ground, the change in the momentum of the
Earth is equal to that of the stone, while the change in the
kinetic energy of the Earth is neglected?
124. A pile with a weight of 100 kgf is forced into the ground
by a pile driver weighing 400 kgf. The latter freely drops from
a height of 5 metres and drives the pile to a depth of 5 cm
upon each impact. Determine the resistance of the soil, assuming
it to be constant.
125. A box with sand having the mass M is suspended from
a rope with a length L. The length of the rope is much greater
than the linear dimensions of the box. A bullet with a mass in
flies in a horizontal direction, strikes the box and gets stuck in
it. After this the rope is deflected by angle a from the vertical.
Determine the velocity of the bullet.
126. Two carts are pushed apart by an explosion of a powder
charge Q placed between them (Fig. 48). The cart weighing
100 gf travels a distance of 18 metres and stops. What distance
will be covered by the other cart weighing 300 gf? The coeffi-
cients of friction k between the ground and the carts are the
same.
127. Solve Problem 65 using the law of conservation of mo-
mentum and taking into account the change in the kinetic
energy of the wagon and the body.
128. A rocket launched vertically upward ejects hot gases
consecutively in two equal portions. The outflow velocity of the
gases relative to the rocket is constant and equal to u. What
should the time interval between combustion of the portions be
MECHANICS 33

Fig. 50

for the rocket to reach a maximum altitude? The fuel burns

instantaneously. Disregard the resistance of the air.
129. The fuel in a rocket burns in equal portions with a
mass m. Combustion takes place instantaneously. Will the outflow
velocity of the gases be constant with respect to the rocket if
the mechanical energy of the system changes the same amount
upon the combustion of each portion?
130. A body is first lifted to the top of a mountain over the
path ADC, and again over the path ABC (Fig. 49). Prove that
the work done will be the same provided the body is lifted
slowly if the coefficient of friction is the same on both slopes.
131. What force should be applied to the handle of a screw
jack to hold in equilibrium the load G lifted by the jack? The
pitch of the screw is h and the length of the handle is R. There
is no friction.
132. Find the maximum efficiency of a screw jack having no
special device to prevent back travel.
133. A rope ladder with a length l carrying a man with a
mass m at its end is attached to the basket of a balloon with
a mass M. The entire system is in equilibrium in the air. Find
the work the man should do to climb into the basket. What is
the velocity of the balloon if the man climbs the ladder with a
velocity v with respect to it?
134. How should the power of a pump motor change for the
pump to deliver twice as much water in a unit of time through
a narrow orifice? Disregard friction.
135. A rectangular pit with an area at its base A and a depth
H is half filled with water. A pump forces the water up onto
the surface through a cylindrical pipe with a radius R.
2-i 865
34 PROBLEMS

(1) What work is done by the pump if it pumps out all the
water during the time T?
(2) What work is done by the pump during the same time if a
rectangular stone slab with an area at its base Al and a height
h lies at the bottom of the pit? The depth of the water in the
pit is H/2 as before.
136. What work should a man do to walk up a subway esca-
lator moving down? The height of the escalator is h, its speed is cons-
tant and equal to v, and it is inclined at an angle a to the horizon.
137. Calculate the potential energy of a deformed spring if
its elastic force F = kx, where k is the coefficient of spring elas-
ticity, and x is the deformation.
138. A man acting with a force F upon a stretched spring
stands in a railway carriage of a uniformly moving train (Fig. 50).
The train covered a distance L. What work will be done by the
man in a coordinate system related to the Earth?
139. A man stretches a spring attached to the front wall
of a railway carriage over a distance 1 in a uniformly moving
train. During this time the train covered the distance L. What
work will be performed by the man in a coordinate system rela-
ted to the Earth? What will this work be in a system related
to the train? When the man stretches the spring he moves in
a direction opposite to that of the train.
140. Two absolutely elastic spheres with masses ml and m2
collide. Their initial velocities are v, and v2. Find the velocities
of the spheres after collision.
Consider the collision as central, the velocities of the spheres
being directed along the line connecting their centres. Analyse
two cases: (1) the velocity of the second sphere before colli-
sion is zero, (2) the masses of the spheres are the same.
141. Two elastic blocks of equal mass m and connected by a
spring with a length 1 rest on an absolutely smooth horizontal
surface (Fig. 51). The coefficient of elasticity of the spring is k.
A third block of the same mass m strikes the left-hand block
with a velocity v. Prove that the blocks connected by the
spring will always move in the same direction.
Determine the velocities of the blocks when the spring is
stretched as much as possible.
142. Two plates whose masses are m, and m2, respectively,
are connected by a spring (Fig. 52). What force should be ap-
plied to the upper plate for it to raise the lower one after the
pressure is removed? Disregard the mass of the spring.
MECHANICS 35,

143. A ball moving with a velocity v strikes a wall moving

toward the ball with a velocity u (Fig. 53). An elastic impact
occurs.
Determine the velocity of the ball after the impact. What is
the cause of the change in the kinetic energy of the ball?
Consider the mass of the wall to be infinitely great.
144. Two stones identical in mass and connected by a rope
with a length of 1 = 39.2 metres are dropped from a height of
h=73.5 metres with an initial velocity of zero. The first stone
begins to fall T=2 seconds before the second one. In what
time will the stones reach the ground?
(1) Consider the rope to be absolutely elastic.
(2) Consider the rope to be absolutely inelastic.
145. Several identical elastic balls are so suspended in a row
on strings of equal length (Fig. 54) that the distances between
adjacent balls are very small. How will the balls behave if an
extreme ball is moved aside and then released; two, three, etc.,
balls are moved aside and released at the same time?
146. A row of balls of identical size are placed at small
intervals on a level surface (Fig. 55). The middle ball is made
of steel and the others of ivory (the mass of the steel ball is
greater). An ivory ball (of the same mass) strikes the balls from
the right along the line of centres. How will the balls move
after the impact?
147. Equal weights of mass m are suspended from the ends
of a very long string thrown over two small stationary pulleys
at a distance of 2/ from each other (Fig. 56). Find the velo-

rr

Fig. 52 Fig. 53
2*
36 PROBLEMS

city of the weights after

a sufficiently long time if
a weight with a mass 2m
is attached to the middle
of the string.
148. A weight of mass
m1 =536 g first kept near
the ceiling between points
A and B begins to lower
(Fig. 57). At what angle
ANB will its velocity be
equal in absolute value to
Fig. 54 the velocity of a weight
with a mass m2 =1,000 g?
How will the weights move afterward?
149. A heavy board forming an angle a with the horizon
rests on two rollers of different radii. Determine how the board
will move if it does not slip. Disregard the mass of the rollers.
150. A homogeneous chain with a length 2/ and mass M
lies on an absolutely smooth table. A small part of the chain
hangs from the table. At the initial moment of time the part
of the chain lying on the table is held and then released, after
which the chain begins to slide off the table under the weight
of the hanging end. Find the velocity of the chain when the
length of the hanging part is equal to x (x < 1).
Determine (for the same moment of time) the acceleration of
the chain and the force with which it acts on the edge of the
table.
151. A wagon with a mass M can move without friction along
horizontal rails. A mathematical pendulum (a sphere with a
mass m suspended from a long string 1) is fastened on the wa-
gon (Fig. 58). At the initial moment the wagon and the pendu-
lum were at rest and the string was deflected through an angle
a from the vertical. What will the velocity of the wagon be
when the pendulum string forms an angle 13 < a) with the
vertical?
152. A wedge with a mass M rests on an absolutely smooth
horizontal surface. A block with a mass in is placed on the

c)g,9
//
//, A Fig. 55
 MECHANICS
37
21

Fig. 56 Fig. 57

Fig. 53

Fig. 59
38 PROBLEMS

wedge. The block can slide along the wedge without friction
under the force of gravity. Assuming that the system was at
rest at the initial moment of time, find the velocity of the
wedge when the block lowers vertically through a height h.
153. A rod secured between two couplings can travel freely
in a vertical direction (Fig. 59). The lower tip of the rod
bears against a smooth wedge lying on a horizontal surface.
The mass of the rod is m and that of the wedge is M. There
is no friction. At the initial moment the rod and the wedge
were at rest.
Find: the velocity v of the wedge at the moment the rod
lowers through the height h, the velocity u71of the rod relative
to the moving wedge and the acceleration a of the rod.

1-7. Kinematics of Curvilinear Motion

154. Two shafts A and B are joined by an endless belt that
transmits rotation from A to B. The speed of the driving shaft
is n1 =3,000 rpm. A pulley with a diameter of D2= 500 mm
is fitted onto the driven shaft which should rotate at n2 =600 rpm.
What is the diameter of the pulley to be fitted onto the driving
shaft?
155. The crawler of a tractor consists of n links, each with a
length of a. The radii of the wheels which the crawler is placed
on are R. The tractor moves at a speed v. It is assumed that
the crawler does not sag.
(1) What number of links move at this moment translationally,
how many of them are at rest (relative to the Earth) and how
many rotate on the wheels?
(2) The tractor covered a distance s>na. How much time
did each link of the crawler move translationally, remain at rest
and participate in rotational motion?
156. The following device is used to determine the velocities
of molecules. A silver-coated wire heated by current is arran-
ged on a common axis of two cylinders fastened to each other
and rotating with an angular velocity o (Fig. 60). The internal
cylinder is provided with a slit which the molecules evapora-
ting from the wire fly into. The entire device is placed in a
vacuum. If the cylinders are at rest, the trace of the deposited
silver molecules appears at point A. If the cylinders rotate,
the trace appears at point B at a distance 1 from A. Find
MECHANICS 39

the velocity of the molecules. The

radii of the cylinders are r and R.
157. To turn a tractor moving
at a speed of v0 = 18 km/h the
driver so brakes one of the craw-
lers that the axle of its driving
wheel begins to move forward at a
speed of v = 14 km/h. The distance
between the i crawlers d= 1.5 met-
res. An arc of what radius will be
described by the centre of the trac-
Fig. 60 tor?
158. In mountains the following
phenomenon can be observed: a star being watched quickly disap-
pears behind a remote summit. (The same phenomenon can also
be observed on a plain if there is a sufficiently remote tall stru-
cture.) At what speed should the observer run to constantly
see the star at the same angular distance from the mountain?
The distance between the observer and the summit is
10 km. Assume that observations are being made at the
pole.
159. The current velocity of a river grows in proportion to
the distance from its bank and reaches its maximum 00 in the
middle. Near the banks the velocity is zero. A boat is so moving
on the river that its velocity u relative to the water is
constant and perpendicular to the current. Find the distance
through which the boat crossing the river will be carried away
by the current if the width of the river is c. Also determine
the trajectory of the boat.
160. Four tortoises are at the four corners of a square with
a side a. They begin to move at the same time with a constant
speed v, the first one always moving in a direction toward the
second, the second toward the third, the third toward the fourth
and the fourth toward the first. Will the tortoises meet, and if
they do, in what time?
161. Two ships A and B originally at a distance of a= 3 km
from each other depart at the same time from a straight coast-
line. Ship A moves along a straight line perpendicular to the
shore while ship B constantly heads for ship A, having at each
moment the same speed as the latter. After a sufficiently great
interval of time the second ship will obviously follow the first
one at a certain distance. Find this distance.
40 PROBLEMS

Fig. 61 Fig. 62

162. A body is thrown with an initial velocity vo at an ang-

le a to the horizon. How long will the body fly? At what
distance from the spot where it was thrown will the body fall
to the ground? At what angle a will the distance of the flight
be maximum? At what height will the body be in the time ti
after the motion begins? What will the velocity of the body be
in magnitude and direction at the given moment of time?
Consider T to be greater than the time during which the body
reaches the maximum height. Disregard the resistance of the air.
163. Find the trajectory of the body thrown at an angle to
the horizon (see Problem 162).
164. A rubber ball is to be thrown from the ground over
a vertical wall with a height h from a distance s (Fig. 61). At
what minimum initial velocity' is this possible? At what angle a
to the horizon should the velocity be directed in this case?

Fig. 63 Fig. 64
MECHANICS 41

165. A body is thrown into a river from a steep bank with

a height H. The initial velocity of the body forms an angle a
with the horizon and is equal to vo. At what distance from the
bank will the body fall? In how many seconds will the body
be at a height h above the water after motion begins? What is
the velocity of the body when it falls into the water?
166. At what angle to the horizon should a stone be thrown
from a steep bank for it to fall into the water as far as pos-
sible from the bank? The height of the bank ho = 20 metres and
the initial velocity of the stone 00 = 14 m/s.
167. Two bodies are thrown at the same time and with an
equal initial velocity vo from point x=y=0 at various angles a,
and a, to the horizon (Fig. 62). What is the velocity with which
the bodies move relative to each other? What will the distance
between the bodies be after the time T elapses?
168. A dive-bomber drops a bomb from a height h at a dis-
tance 1 from the target. The speed of the bomber is v. At what
angle to the horizon should it dive?
169. A passenger car is driving over a level highway behind
a truck. A stone got stuck between double tyres of the rear
wheels of the truck. At what distance should the car follow the
truck so that the stone will not strike it if it flies out from
between the tyres? Both vehicles have a speed of 50 km/h.
170. A ball freely falls from a height h onto an inclined plane
forming an angle a with the horizon (Fig. 63). Find the ratio
of the distances between the points at which the jumping ball
strikes the inclined plane. Consider the impacts between the ball
and the plane to be absolutely elastic.
171. Find the acceleration of body A which slides without
initial velocity down a helical groove with a pitch h and a ra-
dius R at the end of the n-th turn (Fig. 64). Disregard friction.
172. Two steel slabs M and N with a height h are placed on
sand (Fig. 65). The distance between the slabs 1=20 cm. A ball
whose velocity has not been determined exactly moves over
slab M. It is only known that this velocity ranges between
200 cm/s and 267 cm/s.
(1) At what height h is it impossible to predict the horizontal
direction of the velocity of the ball at the moment when it
falls onto the sand? (Before it touches the sand, the ball strikes
slab N at least once.)
(2) At what minimum height of the slabs is it impossible to
predict the spot on section / which the ball will strike? Disre-
42 PROBLEMS

Fig. 65 Fig. 66

gard the duration of the impact between the ball and the slab,
and consider the impact to be absolutely elastic.
173. A solid homogeneous disk rolls without slipping over
a horizontal path with a constant velocity v (Fig. 66).
(1) Prove that the linear velocity of rotation of any point of
the disk on its rim with respect to the centre 0 is equal to the
translational velocity of the disk.
(2) Find the magnitude and direction of the velocities of
points A, B, C and D on the rim of the disk with respect to
a standing observer.
(3) What points of the disk have the same absolute velocity
as the centre of the disk relative to a standing observer?
174. A moving cart is shown on a cinema screen. The radius
of the front wheels of the cart r = 0.35 metre and that of the
rear ones R = 1.5 r. The front wheels have N1 = 6 spokes. The

Fig. 67 Fig. 68
MECHANICS 43

film in the cinema camera moves with

a speed of 24 frames per second.
Assuming that the wheels of the cart
do not slip, find the minimum speed
with which the cart should move for
its front wheels to seem stationary on
the screen. What minimum number of
spokes N 2should the rear wheels have
for them also to seem stationary?
175. At what speeds of the cart mo-
ving from the left to the right (see Prob-
Fig. 69 lem 174) will it seem to the audience
that: (1) the spokes of the wheels rotate
counterclockwise? (2) the spokes of the front and rear wheels
rotate in opposite directions? There are six spokes on each front
and rear wheel.
176. A spool consists of a cylindrical core and two identical
solid heads. The core rolls without slipping along a rough hori-
zontal block with a constant velocity v (Fig. 67). The radius
of the core is r and that of the heads is R.
What instantaneous velocity will points A and B on the rim
of one of the heads have? What points on the heads have an
instantaneous velocity equal in magnitude to the velocity of the
spool core?
177. Draw the trajectories of points A, B and C of a spool
(Fig. 68) rolling with its cylindrical core without slipping along
a block (see Problem 176).

Fig. 70
44 PROBLEMS

178. A ball bearing supports the end of a shaft rotating with

an angular velocity co. The diameter of the shaft axis is d and
that of the race is D (Fig. 69). Find the linear velocity of
motion of the centre of one of the balls if the race is statio-
nary, or rotates with an angular velocity of Assume that in
both cases the balls do not slip when they roll over the shaft.
179. A cone rolls without slipping along a plane. The axis of
the cone rotates with a velocity to around a vertical line passing
through its apex. The height of the cone is h and the angle
between the axis and the generatrix of the cone is a. What is
the angular velocity with which the cone rotates around its axis?
Also determine the linear velocity of an arbitrary point on the
diameter of the cone base lying in a vertical plane.
180. Figure 70 shows schematically a differential transmission
of a motor vehicle that does not allow the driving wheels of the
vehicle to slip when negotiating a curve. (In this case the wheels
should revolve at different speeds.)
The engine rotates wheel B rigidly mounted on axle A around
which a pair of bevel gears E can freely rotate. These gears
mesh with another pair of bevel gears along which they run when
axle A rotates. The axle of the driving wheels (usually the rear
ones) is divided into two halves that carry on their ends gears C
and D. These halves can rotate with various angular velocities,
remaining connected by the differential transmission.
Find the relationship between the angular velocities Q, co,
co, and co, of the differential transmission if the radii of gears E
are equal to r and the radii of gears D and C are r1.

1-8. Dynamics of Curvilinear Motion

181. Determine the tension of the rope of a ballistic pendulum
(see Problem 125) at the moment when it is struck by a bullet.
182. Four identical weights are secured on a flexible un-
stretchable string whose weight may be neglected (Fig. 71). The
entire system rotates with an angular velocity co around a ver-
tical axis passing through point 0. The weights move over
a smooth level" surface. Determine the tension of the string in
various sections.
183. Masses m1and m2are fastened to the ends of a weight-
less rod with a length /. The velocities of these masses are in
one plane and are equal to 01and r.),, respectively (Fig. 72).
Find the velocity which the centre of gravity of the system
MECHANICS 45

E k /.77 1 /: 1 :77
T T
1
7;
•
Fig. 71

moves with and the angular velocity which the rod rotates with
relative to an axis passing through the centre of gravity.
184. A cannon is at the centre of a platform freely rotating
around a vertical axis. The axis of rotation passes through the
breech of the cannon. A shell is fired in a horizontal direction
along the radius of the platform. Will the velocity of rotation
change in this case?
185. A small body begins to slide without initial velocity
down an inclined plane with a height H (Fig. 73). Assuming
that there is no friction and the impact of the body against
horizontal plane AB is absolutely elastic, determine the nature
of motion of the body after it leaves the inclined plane. Answer
the same question if the impact is absolutely inelastic.
186. What is the minimum radius of an arc that can be nego-
tiated by a motor-cyclist if his speed is v=21 m/s and the
coefficient of friction between the tyres and the ground k = 0.3?
To what angle a to the horizon should the motor-cycle be
inclined in this case?
187. A massive sphere is fitted onto a light rod (Fig. 74).
When will the rod fall faster: if it is placed vertically on
end A or on end B? The end of the rod on the ground does
not slip.
188. A massive sphere is secured on the end of a light rod
placed vertically on a floor. The rod begins to fall without any
initial velocity. At what angle a between the rod and a ver-
tical will the end of the rod no longer press on the floor?
At what coefficient of friction will the end of the rod not
slip up to this moment?

Fig. 72
46 PROBLEMS

Fig. 73 Fig. 74

189. At what distance from the bottom of the rod will the
sphere (see Problem 188) fall if the coefficient of friction
k> .
190. A wire is bent along an arc with a radius R (Fig. 75).
A bead is placed on the wire that can move along it without
friction. At the initial moment the bead was at point 0. What
horizontal velocity should be imparted to the bead for it to
get onto the wire again at point B after flying a certain di-
stance (AB) through the air?
191. A small body slides down an inclined surface passing
into a loop from the minimum height ensuring that the body
does not leave the surface of the loop (Fig. 76). What symmet-
rical segment with an angle a < 90° can be cut out of the loop
for the body to reach point B after travelling a certain distance
in the air?

Fig. 75 Fig. 76
MECHANICS 47

Fig. 77

How will the body move if the angle a is greater or smaller

than the found one? Disregard friction and the resistance of
the air.
192. Three weights moving circularly are attached to the ends
of a string passing over two nails (Fig. 77). Two weights with
a mass m each hang on the left and one weight with a mass
2m on the right. Will this system be in equilibrium?
193. A ball is suspended from a very thin string. The latter
is brought into a horizontal position and is then released. At
what points of the trajectory is the acceleration of the ball
directed vertically downward, vertically upward and horizon-
tally? The string is not tensioned at the initial moment.
194. A weightless rod can rotate in a vertical plane with
respect to point 0. The rod carries masses m, and m, at distan-
O

Fig. 78 Fig. 79
48 PROBLEMS

co

0 '

Fig. 80 Fig. 81

ces r, and r 2from 0 (Fig. 78). The rod is released without any
initial velocity from a position forming an angle a with the
vertical. Determine the linear velocities of masses m, and m2
when the rod reaches a vertical position.
195. A plumb to which a small ball is attached by means
of a string with a length of / = 12.5 cm is secured on the axis
of a centrifugal machine. Find the angle a through which the
string deflects from the vertical if the machine makes one revo-
lution per second, two revolutions per second.
196. A rigid rod bent as shown in Fig. 79 rotates with an
angular velocity co around axis 00'. A weight with a mass m
is attached to the end of the rod. Find the force which the
rod acts with on the mass in.
197. A rigid rod A00' bent as shown in Fig. 80 rotates with
an angular velocity w around axis 00'. A bead is fitted onto

it,IM•11.0.11/.11/S.I'
iiii
i

Fig. 82 Fig. 83
MECHANICS 49

the rod. Find the distance 1 from point 0 at which the bead
will be in equilibrium if the coefficient of friction between the
bead and the rod is k.
198. A weight with a mass m is attached to the end of
a string with a length / fastened to a vertical rod rotating
with an angular velocity o. Another string of the same length
as the first and carrying on its end another weight with a mass
m is secured to the first weight.
Prove that during rotation the angle between the first string
and the vertical will be smaller than the angle between the
vertical and the second string. Disregard the weight of the
string.
199. A weightless rod carries two weights of mass m and M.
The rod is hinge-jointed to vertical axis 00' (Fig. 81), which
rotates with an angular velocity o. Determine the angle y for-
med by the rod and the vertical.
200. A horizontal straight bar rotates with a constant angular
velocity around a vertical axis. A body can move without friction
over the bar. Initially, the body is retained in equilibrium by
a spring (Fig. 82). What will happen to the body if an initial
velocity is imparted to it along the bar? The length of the spring
in an unstretched state can be neglected.
201. A metallic chain with a length of 1=62.8 cm and whose
ends are joined together is fitted onto a wooden disk (Fig. 83).
The disk rotates with a speed of n= 60 rps. Find the tension
of the chain T if its mass is m= 40 g.
202. Water flows with a velocity v along a rubber tube having
the form of a ring (Fig. 84). The radius of the ring is R and
the diameter of the tube cl-<R. What force is the rubber tube
S tretched with?
203. A homogeneous rod with a length 1 and a mass m rotates
with an angular velocity o in a horizontal plane around an axis
passing through its end. Find the tension of the rod at a distance x
from its axis of rotation.
204. A ball with the mass in secured on a weightless rod ro-
tates with a constant velocity v in a horizontal plane (Fig. 85).
Its kinetic energy in a coordinate system that is stationary with
respect to the axis of rotation is constant and equal to mv2 /2.
The kinetic energy changes with time from zero to 4mv2 /2 with
respect to a reading system that moves rectilinearly in a hori-
zontal plane with a velocity v relative to the axis. What is the
reason for this change in the energy?
50 PROBLEMS

------- •
•■

. \
/ N,
• 1
)

177\ ■ .0 /
•.. . .••
. • . . ... 1 1. . . . . .
4 . .••
....0

Fig. 84 Fig. 85

205. A thin homogeneous hoop rolls over a horizontal surface

with a constant velocity v. How and under the action of what
forces does the total energy of a small section AB that is at the
highest point of the loop at the given moment change?
206. A heavy spool with a thread wound on it lies on a rough
horizontal surface over which it can roll without slipping. If the
thread is pulled to the left in a horizontal direction, the spool
will also move to the left. If the direction of the thread is changed
(Fig. 86), the spool will begin to roll to the right at a certain
angle a between the direction of the thread and a vertical line.
Determine this angle. What will happen to the spool at the
given value of this angle? The radius of the spool heads is R
and that of its core is r.
207. Find the kinetic energy of a hoop with a mass M and a
radius R if it moves uniformly with a velocity v and rotates
with an angular velocity o.)
around an axis passing through
its centre.
208. Find the kinetic energy
of the crawler of a tractor mo-
11100.0111111•011111.00.11101111111110000111 1

OOO OO OOOO •111111 111•••••••••

Fig. 86 Fig. 87
MECHANICS 51

Fig. 88 Fig. 89

ving with a speed v. The distance between the centres of the

wheels which the crawler is placed onto is 1. The radius of the
wheels is r. A unit of crawler length weighs G.
209. Two cylinders of equal mass and size are made of unknown
materials of different density. How is it possible to tell which
of the two is hollow?
210. A flexible cable is wound in one row around a drum
with a radius R (Fig. 87). The weight of a unit of cable length
is p. The entire cable weighs G. The drum moves by inertia
without slipping along a horizontal surface, and the cable is
wound off onto it.
At the initial moment, when the cable was completely wound
on the drum, the velocity of the drum centre was v.
Appraise the velocity of the drum centre at the moment of
time when a part of the cable with a length x lies on the sur-
face, neglecting the radius of the cable cross section (in compa-
rison with R) and the mass of the drum.
What force changes the momentum of the cable?
211. A friction force f is applied to a pulley with a radius r
rotating around a stationary axis (Fig. 88). Determine the change
in the angular velocity of the pulley with time if this velocity
is coo at the initial moment. The mass of the pulley is m and
the mass of the spokes can be neglected.
212. A hoop of radius r rotating with an angular velocity coo
is placed on a rough horizontal surface. Determine the velocity v
of the centre of the hoop when the hoop ceases to slip. At the
initial moment the velocity of the centre of the hoop is zero.
213. A translational velocity vo is imparted in a horizontal
direction to a hoop with a radius r placed on a rough horizontal
52 PROBLEMS

surface. Find the angular velocity co of rotation of the hoop

after it stops slipping.
214. A hoop with a radius r rotating with an angular veloci-
ty coo is placed on a rough horizontal surface. A translational
velocity vo is imparted to the hoop (Fig. 89). Determine the
nature of the motion of the hoop, assuming that the force of
sliding friction is f.
215. A cylindrical tube with a radius r is connected by means
of spokes to two hoops with a radius R. The mass of both the
hoops is M. The mass of the tube and the spokes in comparison
with the mass M can be neglected. A string passed over a weight-
less pulley is wound around the tube. A weight with a mass m
is attached to the end of the string (Fig. 90).
Find the acceleration of the weight, the tension of the string
and the force of friction acting between the hoops and the sur-
face. (Assume that the hoops do not slip.) Also determine the
coefficient of friction at which the hoops will slip.
216. A spool lies on an inclined plane. A thread is wound on
the spool and its free end carrying a weight having a mass in is
thrown over a weightless pulley (Fig. 91). It is assumed that the
mass of the spool M is uniformly distributed over a circle with
a radius R and there is no friction. Determine the angle of in-
clination a at which the centre of gravity of the spool will be
at rest.
217. A board with a mass M is placed on two identical cy-
lindrical rolls with a radius R. The rolls rest on a horizontal
surface. At the initial moment the system is at rest. Then, a

Fig. 90 Fig. 91
MECHANICS 53

force Q is applied to the board in a hori-

zontal direction. Find the acceleration of
the board and the forces of friction acting
between the rolls and the board and also
between the rolls and the horizontal sur-
face. The rolls have the form of thin-walled
cylinders with a mass m each and do not
slip.
218. A double-step pulley consists of two
rigidly connected thin hoops with radii R
and r and masses M1and M 2, respectively.
Strings carrying weights m1 and m2 at
their ends are passed around each step
(Fig. 92).
Find the acceleration of the weights m1
mi and m2, the tension of the strings and the
force with which the system acts on the
Fig. 92 axis of the pulley.
219. A homogeneous thin-walled cylinder
with a radius R and a mass M rolls without slipping under the
force of gravity down an inclined plane forming an angle a with
the horizon.
Using the law of conservation of energy, determine the velo-
city of the centre of gravity and the angular velocity of cylin-
der rotation when the time t elapses after motion begins. (It is
assumed that the cylinder is at rest at the initial moment.) Also
find the acceleration of the centre of gravity of the cylinder.

1-9. The Law of Gravitation

220. Why does the Earth impart to all bodies the same ac-
celeration irrespective of their mass?
221. Find the magnitude and dimension of the gravitational
constant in the CGS system, bearing in mind that the mean ra-
dius of the Earth is R = 6.4 x 108cm and its mass M = 6 x 1027 g.
222. In what conditions will bodies inside a spaceship be
weightless, i. e., cease to exert any pressure on the walls of the
cabin?
223. A light pendulum consisting of a rod and a disk (Fig. 93)
is attached to a wooden block which can freely fall along guid-
ing wires.
54 PROBLEMS

Fig. 93 Fig. 94

The pendulum is brought out of equilibrium through an angle a

and released. At the moment when the pendulum passed through
its lowermost position, the block was released and began to fall
freely. How will the pendulum move with respect to the block?
Disregard friction and the resistance of the air.
224. A planet moves along an ellipse having the Sun in its
focus. Taking into account the work of the force of gravity,
indicate the points on the trajectory at which the velocity of
the planet will be maximum and minimum.
225. An artificial satellite of the Earth moves at an altitude
of h= 570 km along a circular orbit. Find the velocity of the
satellite.
226. How will the velocity of an artificial satellite of the
Earth change with time when it moves in the upper layers of
the atmosphere?
227. Two satellites move along a circular orbit in the same
direction at a small distance from each other. A container has
to be thrown from the first satellite onto the second one. When
will the container reach the second satellite faster: if it is
thrown in the direction of motion of the first satellite or in
the opposite direction? The velocity of the container with re-
spect to the satellite u is much less than that of the satellite v.
228. Determine the mass of the Sun M if the mean radius of
the Earth's orbit is R = 149 x 106 km.
229. Determine the minimum distance h from the first Soviet
artificial satellite launched on October 4, 1957, to the Earth's
surface if the following data are known: the maximum distance
between the satellite and the Earth H= 900 km, the period
of revolution around the Earth T = 96 minutes, the major se-
MECHANICS 55

miaxis of the Moon's orbit R=384,400 km, the period of ro-

tation of the Moon around the Earth T=27.3 days and the
Earth's radius R0 = 6,370 km.
230. An air bubble with a radius r and an iron ball with the
same radius are present in water. Will they be attracted or
repulsed from each other? What is the force of interaction bet-
ween them? The distance between the centre of the ball and the
bubble is R.
231. Two air bubbles with a radius r are present in water.
Are the bubbles attracted or repulsed? What is the force of in-
teraction between them? The distance between the bubbles is R.
232. A lead ball with a radius of R = 50 cm has inside a
spherical space with a radius r = 5 cm whose centre is at a
distance of d= 40 cm from the centre of the ball (Fig. 94).
With what force will a material particle with a mass of
m= 10 g at a distance of 1=80 cm from the centre of the
ball be attracted to it if the line connecting the centres of the
ball and the space forms an angle a = 60° with the line conne-
cting the centre of the ball and the material particle?
233. A body whose dimensions may be neglected is placed
inside a thin homogeneous sphere. Prove that the force of at-
traction acting from the sphere on the body is zero irrespective
of its position in the sphere.
234. What is the force with which a body with a mass m
in a deep mine will be attracted to the centre of the Earth
if the distance between the body and the Earth's centre is r?
The density of the Earth is the same everywhere and equal to p.

1-10. Hydro- and Aerostatics

235. A block floats vertically in a glass filled with water. How
will the level of the water in the glass change if the block as-
sumes a horizontal position?
236. A vessel filled with water
is placed on the edge of a board
(Fig. 95). Will equilibrium be vio-
lated if a small board carrying a
weight is placed on the surface of
the water?
237. A piece of ice floats in a
glass filled with water. How will
Fig. 95 the level of the water in the
56 PROBLEMS

Fig. 96

glass change when the ice melts? Consider the following ca-
ses:
(1) the ice is absolutely homogeneous;
(2) a stone is frozen in the ice;
(3) the ice contains an air bubble.
238. A solid homogeneous body submerged into a liquid with
a specific weight of y, weighs G1, and in a liquid with a spe-
cific weight of y2 it weighs G2. Determine the specific weight y
of the body.
239. A hole is cut in the ice in the middle of a large lake.
The ice is 10 metres thick. What length of rope is required to
scoop up a bucketful of water?
240. A match-box with a small stone on its bottom floats in
a cup filled with water. Will the level of the water in the cup
change if the stone is taken out of the box and dropped into
the water?
241. A ship passing through a lock rises to a higher level in
a chamber of the lock into which water is pumped from the
side of the lower level (Fig. 96). When will the pumps perform
more work: when a large ship is in the chamber, or a small boat?
242. A square with a side a and a rectangle with sides a and
2a are cut out from two plates of equal thickness with specific
weights of 3.5 gf/cm3and 2 gf/cm3, the square being cut out of
the heavier material. The square and the rectangle are fastened
together in the form of the letter L and placed upside down on
the bottom of an empty vessel (Fig. 97). What will occur if the
vessel is filled with water?
MECHANICS 57

243. A tube floats vertically in water (Fig. 98). The portion

of the tube protruding from the water is h = 5 cm. Oil with a
specific weight of y = 0.9 gf/cm3is poured into the tube. What
length can the tube have so that it can be completely filled
with oil?
244. A vessel with water falls with an acceleration a < g.
How does the pressure p in the vessel change with depth?
245. A vessel with a body floating in it falls with an accele-
ration a < g. Will the body rise to the surface?
246. A cart supports a cubic tank filled with water up to its
top (Fig. 99). The cart moves with a constant acceleration a.
Determine the pressure at point A which is at a depth h and a
distance 1 from the front wall, if the tank is tightly closed with
a lid. In uniform motion the lid does not exert any pressure on
the water.
247. A rubber ball with a mass m and a radius R is submer-
ged into water to a depth h and released. What height will the
ball jump up to above the surface of the water? Disregard the
resistance of the water and the air.
248. Mercury is poured into two communicating cylindrical
vessels, and water is poured in above it. The level of the water
is the same in both vessels. Will the level of the water and the
mercury be the same if a piece of wood is dropped into one
vessel and some water equal in weight to this piece is added to
the other? Consider cases when the cross sections of the vessels
are the same or different.

Fig. 97 Fig. 98
58 PROBLEMS

Fig. 99 Fig. 100

249. Mercury is poured into cylindrical communicating vessels

with different cross sections. An iron block with a volume Vo is
dropped into the broad vessel, and as a result the level of the
mercury in it rises. Then water is poured into the vessel until
the mercury reaches the previous level. Find the height of the
water column h if the cross section of the narrow vessel is A1 .
250. One end of a board with a length 1 is placed on top of
a stone protruding from water. Part a is above the point of
support (Fig. 100). What part of the board is below the surface
of the water if the specific weight of wood is 7?
.251. A conical vessel without a bottom tightly stands on a
table. A liquid is poured into the vessel and as soon as its level
reaches the height h, the pressure of the liquid raises the vessel.
The radius of the bottom greater base of the vessel is R, the
angle between the cone generatrix and a vertical is a, and the
weight of the vessel is G. What is the density of the liquid?
252. Can water be pumped over a
wall 20 metres high with the aid of
a syphon?

Fig. 101 Fig. 102

MECHANICS 59

n .—

Fig. 103 Fig. 104

253. The vessel shown in Fig. 101 is entirely filled with wa-
ter. What will happen if plug A is removed? The radius of the
hole is about 0.5 cm.
254. Four piston pumps are made of pipe sections with a large
and a small diameters. The pumps lifted water to the same
height H-kh (Fig. 102). Which of the pistons should be pulled
with a greater force to keep it in equilibrium? Disregard the
weight of the pistons.
255. A piston weighing G=3 kgf has the form of a circular
disk with a radius R = 4 cm. The disk has a hole into which a
thin-walled pipe with a radius r = 1 cm is inserted. The piston
can enter a cylinder tightly and without friction, and is initially
at the bottom df the cylinder. What height H will the piston
rise to if m=700 g of water is poured into the pipe?
256. A vessel with a hole in its bottom is fastened on a cart.
The mass of the vessel and the cart is M and the area of the
vessel base is A. What force F should the cart be pulled with
so that a maximum amount of water remains in the vessel? The
dimensions of the vessel are shown in Fig. 103. There is no
friction.
257. The following design of a perpetuum mobile was suggested
(Fig. 104). A hermetic vessel is divided into two halves by an
air-tight partition through which a tube and a water turbine of
a special design are passed. The turbine is provided with cham-
bers having covers which close and open automatically. The
pressure p, in the lower part of the vessel is greater than the
pressure p2in the upper part, and the water rises along the tube
filling an open chamber of the turbine. After this the chamber
closes and the disk turns. In the lower part of the vessel the
chamber opens automatically and returns the water. After this
60 PROBLEMS

the chamber closes hermetically, etc. Why will this machine not
function perpetually?
258. The following alternative of the machine described in
Problem 257 was suggested. Air-tight chambers (Fig. 105) are
filled with water in the right-hand side of the disk and lower.
At the bottom the chambers open and, in contrast to the ma-
chine in Problem 257, the walls of the chambers are automati-
cally retracted into the disk. In the upper portion of the vessel
the walls are automatically pushed out and the chambers are
filled with water. Otherwise this perpetuum mobile is designed
on the same lines as the previous one. Why will it also fail
to work?
259. Three vessels with attached bottoms are submerged into
water to the same depth (Fig. 106). Each bottom will fall
off if the respective vessel is filled with 1 kgf of water. Will
the bottom fall off if the vessels are filled with 1 kgf of oil?
1 kgf of mercury? or if a weight of 1 kgf is placed into each
vessel?
260. A body is weighed on an accurate analytical balance
placed under a glass hood. Will the reading of the balance
change if the air is pumped out from the hood?
261. A man carries a tyre tube and decides to make it light-
er by using the expulsive force of air (according to Archi-
medes' principle). For this purpose he inflates the tube, thus
increasing its volume. Will his aim be achieved?
262. What error is made in weighing a body with a volume
of V = 1 litre if when weighed in the air copper weights weigh-
ing G, = 800 gf are placed on the pan of the balance. The
specific weight of copper y, = 8.8 gf/cm3and of air To= 1.29 gf/litre.

Fig. 105 Fig. 106

MECHANICS 61

Fig. 107

263. A cup and a U-shaped mercury barometers are brought

into equilibrium on a very sensitive balance (Fig. 107). The
barometers are made of the same material, have tubes of the
same diameter and contain the same amount of mercury. The
distance between the soldered ends of the tubes and the upper
levels of the mercury in them is also the same. How will the
equilibrium of the balance change if the atmospheric pressure
grows?
264. Appraise the weight of the Earth's atmosphere.
265. An air mattress is filled with air to a certain pressure
exceeding the atmospheric pressure. When will the air pressure
in the mattress be greater: when a man stands on it or when
he lies on it?
266. A wheel of a motor vehicle is designed as follows.
A rubber tube enclosed in a tyre casing is placed onto a me-
tallic rim. The tube is then inflated with air. The air pressure
in the top and the bottom of the tube is the same. Besides
the air pressure, the rim is acted upon by the force of gravity
(Fig. 108). Why does the rim not lower? What holds it in a
state of equilibrium?
267. A steam boiler consists of a cylindrical portion and two
hemispherical heads (Fig. 109), all of the same radius. The cy-
linder walls are 0.5 cm thick. All the parts of the boiler are
62 PROBLEMS

made of the same material. How thick should the walls of the
heads be for the strength of all the parts of the boiler to be
identical?
268. What shape should a steam boiler be given to obtain
the maximum strength with the given wall thickness?
269. Why is ballast always taken on a stratosphere balloon,
although extra weight inevitably decreases its ceiling?

1-11. Hydro- and Aerodynamics

270. Two holes with an area of A = 0.2 cm2 each are drilled
one above the other in the wall of a vessel filled with water.
The distance between the holes H = 50 cm. Every second
Q = 140 cm' of water is poured into the vessel. Find the point
where the streams flowing out of the holes intersect.
271. A broad vessel with water stands on a smooth surface.
The level of the water in the vessel is h. The vessel together
with the water weighs G. The side wall of the vessel has at the
bottom a plugged hole (with rounded edges) with an area A. At
what coefficient of friction 'between the bottom and the surface
will the vessel begin to move if the plug is removed?
272. When a stream of liquid flows out of a vessel through
a hole with an area A0, the force that acts on the wall with
the hole is 2pA,, smaller than the force acting on the opposite
wall (see Problem 271).
If a tube is inserted into the hole as shown in Fig. 110, the
difference between the forces acting on the opposite walls will
approxithately equal pAo, since the tube will prevent the motion
of the liquid near the walls.
On the other hand, the change in the momentum of the li-
quid flowing out of the vessel in a unit of time is always 2pA,

Fig. 108 Fig. 109

MECHANICS 63

Fig. 110 Fig. 111

where A is the cross-sectional area of the stream. How can these
two facts be brought into agreement?
273. A stream of water flowing out of a pipe with a diameter
of d=1 cm at a velocity of v = 1 m/s strikes a vertical wall.
Determine the force acting on the wall, assuming that the pipe
is perpendicular to it and neglecting splashing of the water.
274. A gas flows with a velocity v along a pipe with a cross
section A bent through 90 degrees. The density of the gas is p.
What force does the gas act on the pipe with? Disregard the
compression of the gas and friction.
275. Find the force acting on the blade of an undershot wheel
(Fig. 111) if the stream after impinging on the blade continues
to move with the velocity of the blade.
The height of the water head is h, the radius of the wheel
is R, the angular velocity of the wheel is w and the cross-sec-
tional area of the stream is A.

Fig. 112
64 PROBLEMS

Fig. 114

276, A ship gets a large hole in its underwater portion

(Fig. 112). In what direction will it begin to move as a result
of this?
277. A liquid flows out of a broad vessel through a narrow
pipe (Fig. 113). How are the pressure and velocity of the liquid
in the vessel and in the pipe distributed along a vertical?
278. The vessel with water described in the previous problem
is suspended from a spring balance. The lower end of the pipe
is closed with a plug. How will the reading of the balance
change at the first moment after the plug is removed and the
liquid begins to flow out?
279. A vessel with water is placed on one pan of a balance
in equilibrium (Fig. 114). Will the equilibrium change if the
cock is opened? The outflowing water gets onto the same pan
on which the vessel is placed.
280. Figure 115 shows a self-acting water lifting device cal-
led a hydraulic ram. The principle of its operation is based on
the phenomenon of a hydraulic impact—a sharp increase in the
pressure of a liquid flowing along a tube when its flow is sud-
denly stopped, for example, by the shutting of a valve that
discharges the water from the tube.
A tube with a length of 1=2 metres and a diameter of
d=20 cm is lowered into a brook with a current velocity of
v = 400 cm/s.
MECHANICS 65

(a) (0)
Fig. 116 Fig. 117

First let valve V 2be open and valve V, be shut. A sharp

increase in pressure will cause valve V, to open (valve V 2 will
close at the same time) and the water will flow up into ves-
sel A. The pressure drops, valve V, shuts and V 2opens. The
water in the tube assumes its course and the phenomenon is
repeated in the previous sequence.
Find the amount of water raised by the ram in one hour to
a height of h = 30 metres if each valve opens thirty times a
minute.
281. During storms, when the velocity of the wind is very
high, it tears off the roofs of buildings. Two cases can be dis-
tinguished: (1) if the roof is fastened more firmly at points A
and B than at ridge C, the wind will break the roof along
ridge C and raise both halves up (Fig. 116a); (2) if the roof is
secured more firmly at the ridge and less firmly at points A
and B, the wind will first lift the roof up and then carry it
aside (Fig. 1166). How do you explain this phenomenon?
282. Why will a light celluloid ball placed in a stream of
a gas or water issuing at a high velocity from a tube with a
narrow neck freely hover in this stream (Fig. 117)?
283. The demonstration device shown in Fig. 118 consists of
two disks A and B. The hole in the centre of disk A is con-
nected by a pipe to a cylinder containing compressed air. Disk
B hangs on three pins along which it can move freely up and
down. If a stream of compressed air is passed through the pipe,
the lower disk will begin to knock against the upper one.
Explain the cause of this phenomenon.
3-1865
66 PROBLEMS

Fig. 118 Fig. 119

284. The bottom of a broad vessel is provided with a narrow

tube through which the water can flow out of the vessel
(Fig. 119). A screen is placed between the vessel and the tube.
If a light ball is submerged to the bottom of the vessel the
water flows out of it, and the ball will not rise to the surface.
If the outflow of the water is stopped, the ball will imme-
diately rise to the surface. Why?
(This experiment can easily be conducted in a sink with a
ping pong ball.)
285. A pump is designed as a horizontal cylinder with a pis-
ton having an area of A and an outlet orifice having an area
of a arranged near the cylinder axis. Determine the velocity of
outflow of a liquid from the pump if the piston moves with a
constant velocity under the action of a force F. The density of
the liquid is p.

Fig. 120 Fig. 121

MECHANICS 67

286. In Problem 285, the velocity v may become infinitely

high even with a small force F when a—,- A. Explain this pa-
radoxical phenomenon.
287. A water clock (clepsydra) used in ancient Greece is de=
signed as a vessel with a small orifice 0 (Fig. 120). The time
is determined according to the level of the water in the vessel.
What should the shape of the vessel be for the time scale to
be uniform?
288. A cylindrical vessel with a liquid rotates with an angu-
lar velocity co around a vertical axis (Fig. 121). Determine the
change of pressure in the horizontal cross section of the vessel
depending on the distance to the axis of rotation.
Note. Apply the method described in solving Problem 203.
289. Find the shape of the surface of a liquid in a cylindri-
cal vessel rotating with an angular velocity co around a vertical
axis (i.e., the height of the liquid level depending on the dis-
tance to the axis of rotation).
290. Why do the tea leaves gather in the middle of a glass
after stirring?
CHAPTER 2
HEAT.
MOLECULAR PHYSICS

2-1. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids

291. An iron tyre is to be fitted onto a wooden wheel 100 cm

in diameter. The diameter of the tyre is 5 mm smaller than
that of the wheel. How much should the temperature of the
tyre be increased for this purpose? The coefficient of linear ex-
pansion of iron a1 = 12X 10 -6 deg-1.
292. Why is only iron or steel used as reinforcement in con-
crete structures, while other metals, duralumin for example, are
never employed?
293. Why is a greater time required to measure the tempera-
ture of a human body with a thermometer than to shake it down?
294. The height of a mercury column measured with a brass
scale at a temperature of t1 is H1. What height H0 will the
mercury column have at to= 0°C? The coefficients of linear ex-
pansion of brass a and of volume expansion of mercury Y are
known.
295. How can the temperature of a human body be measured
with a thermometer if the temperature of the ambient air is
42°C?
296. Determine the lengths of an iron and a copper ruler to and
/; at t = 0°C if the difference in their lengths at t1 = 50°C and
t 2= 450°C is the same in magnitude and equal to 1 = 2 cm. The
coefficient of linear expansion of iron a1 = 12 x 10-6 deg-1and
of copper a, = 17 x 10-6 deg-1.
297. The period of oscillations of a pendulum depends on the
length, which changes with the temperature. How should the
pendulum be suspended so that its length does not change with
the temperature?
298. A glass cylinder can contain mo =100 g of mercury at
a temperature of to =0°C. When t1 = 20°C, the cylinder can con-
tain m1 = 99.7 g of mercury. In both cases the temperature of
the mercury is assumed to be equal to that of the cylinder. Use
these data to find the coefficient of linear expansion of glass a,
bearing in mind that the coefficient of volume expansion of
mercury y1 = 18 x 10-5 deg-1.
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 69

299. A clock with a metallic pendulum is Ti = 5 seconds fast

each day at a temperature of t, = 15°C and T2= 10 seconds
slow at a temperature of 1,— + 30°C. Find the coefficient a of
thermal expansion of the pendulum metal, remembering that the
period of oscillations of a pendulum T = , where 1 is
the length of the pendulum and g is the gravity acceleration.

2-2. The Law of Conservation of Energy.

Thermal Conductivity
300. A brick with a mass in is lowered onto a cart with a
mass M that moves rectilinearly with a constant velocity of vo.
Find the amount of heat liberated in this case.
301. An iron washer slides down a weightless rubber cord
with a length 10 (Fig. 122). The force of friction between the
cord and the washer is constant and equal to f. The coefficient
of elasticity of the cord k is known.
Find the amount of heat Q evolved.
What part of the work produced by fric-
tion on the cord will be converted in-
to heat?
302. A refrigerator consuming P watts
converts q litres of water into ice in
minutes at a temperature 1.

lo

--a

7
;

Al A2

Fig. 122 Fig. 123

70 PROBLEMS

What quantity of heat will be liberated by the refrigerator

in a room during this time if the heat capacity of the refrige-
rator can be neglected?
303. Will the temperature in a room drop if the door of a
working refrigerator is opened?
304. It is easiest to heat premises by means of electric ap-
pliances. Is this method the most advantageous from the ener-
getic point of view?
305. Equal quantities of salt are dissolved in two identical
vessels filled with water. In one case the salt is one large crystal
and in the other—powder.
In which case will the temperature of the solution be higher
after the salt is completely dissolved, if in both cases the salt
and the water originally had the same temperatures?
306. It is known that if water is heated or cooled with cer-
tain care it can retain its liquid state at temperatures below
0°C and higher than + 100°C.
A calorimeter with a heat capacity of q = 400 cal/deg con-
tains m1 = 1 kg of water cooled to t1 = —10°C. Next m2 =100 g
of water overheated to t 2 = 120°C is added to it.
What is the temperature in the calorimeter?
307. An incandescent lamp consuming P =54 watts is immer-
sed into a transparent calorimeter containing V = 650 cm3 of
water. During T = 3 minutes the water is heated by t = 3.4°C.
What part Q of the energy consumed by the lamp passes out
of the calorimeter in the form of radiant energy?
308. The area of a brick wall facing a street is A = 12 m2
and its thickness d= 1 metre. The temperature of the outside
air T o =—15°C and that of the air in the room T = + 15°C.
What amount of heat is lost from the room in 24 hours? The
coefficient of thermal conductivity of brick is X = 0.003 cal/cm x
x s • deg.
309. A wall consists of two adjoining panels made of diffe-
rent materials. The coefficients of thermal conductivity and the
thicknesses of the panels are X„ d1 and X„ d2, respectively
(Fig. 123). The temperatures of the external surfaces of the
wall are T, and T, (where T o > T1) and are kept con-
stant. Find the temperature T, on the plane between the pa-
nels.
310. Assuming in Problem 309 that the panels have the same
thickness d, determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity
of the wall.
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 71

a'

A2 a'

7; 7;
Az AZ A

A2
AZ

Fig. 124 Fig. 125 Fig. 126

311. A wall consists of alternating blocks with a length d

and coefficients of thermal conductivity X and X, (Fig. 124).
The cross-sectional areas of the blocks are the same. Determine
the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the wall.
312. Two walls I and II of the same thickness are made of
heterogeneous metals, as shown in Figs. 125 and 126. In what
case will the coefficient of thermal conductivity be greater?
313. During one second m grammes of water boils away in a
pan. Assuming that heat is received by the water only through
the bottom of the pan and neglecting the transfer of heat from
the pan walls and the water surface to the ambient air, deter-
mine the temperature T of the pan bottom in contact with the
heater. The area of the pan bottom is A and its thickness d.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity is X.

2-3. Properties of Gases

314. The cap of a fountain-pen is usually provided with a
small orifice. If it is clogged, the ink begins to leak out of the
pen. What is the cause of this phenomenon?
72 PROBLEMS

315. A barometer gives wrong readings because some air is

present above the mercury column. At a pressure of po,= 755 mm
Hg the barometer shows p1 =748 mm, and at p02 = 740 mm it
shows p2 = 736 mm. Find the length 1 of the barometer tube
(Fig. 127).
316. A glass tube with a length of l = 50 cm and a cross sec-
tion of A = 0.5 cm2 is soldered at one end and is submerged
into water as shown in Fig. 128.
What force F should be applied to hold the tube under , the
water if the distance from the surface of the water to the sol-
dered end is h = 10cm and the atmospheric pressure po= 760 mm Hg?
The weight of the tube G = 15 gf.
317. A narrow tube open at both ends is passed through the
cork of a vessel filled with water. The tube does not reach the
bottom of the vessel (Mariotte's vessel shown in Fig. 129). Draw
a diagram showing how the pressure p of the air in the vessel
depends on the quantity of water Q that has flowed out.
318. Upon each double stroke a piston pump sucks in a vo-
lume v0 of air. When this pump is used to evacuate the air
from a vessel with a volume V it performs n double strokes.

t
h

Fig 127 Fig. 128 Fig. 129

HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 73

The initial pressure inside the vessel po is equal to atmospheric

pressure.
After that, another pump with the same active volume vo
begins to suck in the atmospheric air, also making n double
strokes. What will the pressure in the vessel be?
319. A mercury column with a length 1 is in the middle of
a horizontal tube with a length L closed at both ends. If the
tube is placed vertically, the mercury column will shift through
the distance Al from its initial position.
At what distance will the centre of the column be from the
middle of the tube if one end of the tube placed horizontally
is opened? if the upper end of the tube placed vertically is
opened? if the lower end of the tube placed vertically is
opened?
The atmospheric pressure is H cm Hg. The temperature remains
the same.
320. Bearing in mind that, according to Avogadro's law, the
volume of one gramme-molecule of any gas under standard con-
ditions (temperature 0°C and pressure 1 atm) is 22.4 litres,
find the constant in the equation of state of an ideal gas (the
Clapeyron-Mendeleyev equation) for a quantity of a gas equal
to one mole and prove that this constant is the same for all
gases.
321. Write the equation of state for an arbitrary mass of an
ideal gas whose molecular weight IA is known.
322. How would the pressure inside a fluid change if the
forces of attraction between the molecules suddenly disappeared?
323. A vessel contains one litre of water at a temperature of
27° C. What would the pressure in the vessel be if the forces
of interaction between the water molecules suddenly disappeared?
324. Is the pressure the same inside a gas and at the wall
of the vessel containing this gas?
325. Is the concentration of gas molecules inside a vessel and
at its wall the same?
326. Find the temperature of a gas contained in a closed ves-
sel if its pressure increases by 0.4 per cent of the initial pres-
sure when it is heated by 1°C.
327. A thin-walled rubber sphere weighing G = 50 gf is filled
with nitrogen and submerged into a lake to a depth of h = 100
metres.
Find the mass of the nitrogen m if the sphere is in a position
of equilibrium. Will equilibrium be stable? The atmospheric
74 PROBLEMS

pressure p0 =760 mm Hg. The temperature in the lake t = +4°C.

Disregard the tension of the rubber.
328. Two hollow glass balls are connected by a tube with a
drop of mercury in the middle. Can the temperature of the am-
bient air be appraised from the position of the drop?
329. A cylinder closed at both ends is separated into two
equal (42 cm each) parts by a piston impermeable to heat. Both
the parts contain the same masses of gas at a temperature of
27°C and a pressure ofl atm.
How much should the gas be heated in one part of the cylin-
der to shift the piston by 2 cm? Find the pressure p of the gas
after shifting of the piston.
330. Dry atmospheric air consists of nitrogen (78.09 per cent
by volume), oxygen (20.95 per cent), argon (0.93 per cent) and
carbon dioxide (0.03 per cent). Disregarding the negligible ad-
mixtures of other gases (helium, neon, krypton, xenon), deter-
mine the composition of the air (in per cent) by weight.
331. Find the mean (effective) molecular weight of dry at-
mospheric air if the composition of the air in per cent is known
(see Problem 330).
332. The density of the vapour of a compound of carbon and
hydrogen is 3 g/lit at 43°C and 820 mm Hg. What is the mo-
lecular formula of this compound?
333. When will the change in the pressure of a gas be grea-
ter—if it is compressed to a certain extent in a heat-imperme-
able envelope or upon isothermal compression?
334. A gas that occupies a volume of 1 11 = 1 lit at a pressure
of p1 = 1 atm expands isothermally to a volume of V2 = 2 lit.
Then, the pressure of the gas is halved at the same volume.
Next the gas expands at a constant pressure to V4 = 4 litres.
Draw a diagram of p versus V and use it to determine the
process in which the gas performs the greatest work. How does
the temperature change?
335. A cyclic process 1-2-3-1 depicted on a V-t diagram
(Fig. 130) is performed with a certain amount of an ideal gas.
Show the same process on a p-V diagram and indicate the
stages when the gas received and when it rejected heat.
336. A gas heated geyser consumes V0 =1.8 m3 of methane
(CH4) an hour. Find the temperature t 2of the water heated
by the geyser if the water flows out at a rate of v =50 cm/s.
The diameter of the stream D=1 cm, the initial temperature
of the water and the gas t, =11°C and the calorific value of
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 75

V
6

111

Y
Fig. 130 Fig. 131

methane go = 13,000 cal/g. The gas in the tube is under a pres-

sure of p = 1.2 atm. The efficiency of the heater r1= 60 per cent.
337. A closed vessel impermeable to heat contains ozone (03)
at a temperature of 11 =527°C. After some time the ozone is
completely converted into oxygen (02).
Find the increase of the pressure in the vessel if q= 34,000
cal have to be spent to form one gramme-molecule of ozone
from oxygen.
Assume that the heat capacity of one gramme-molecule of
oxygen at a constant volume is equal to Cv = 5 cal/deg•mole.
338. Twenty grammes of helium in a cylinder under a piston
are transferred infinitely slowly from a state with a volume of
V1 = 32 lit and a pressure of p1 =
4.1 atm to a state with V 2 =9 lit and
p2 =15.5 atm. What maximum tem-
perature will the gas reach in this
process if it is depicted on the p-V
diagram as a straight line (Fig. 131)?
339. Will the energy of the air in
a room increase if a stove is heated
in it?
Note. Assume the energy of a unit
of mass of the air u to be proportio-
nal to the absolute temperature, i.e.,
u =cT.
340. The temperature in a room
with a volume of 30 m3 rose from
Fig. 132 15°C to 25°C. How much will the mass
73 PROBLEMS

of the air in the room change if the atmosphere pressure p = 1

atm? The molecular (mean) weight of the air is p, = 28.9 g/mole.
341. A small tube filled with air and open at the bottom is
placed into a water-filled open vessel with a screen on the top
(Fig. 132). The tube cannot be turned over. Draw a diagram
showing how the depth of submergence of the tube depends on
the temperature of the water if the temperature first slowly
increases and then gradually decreases.
342. A cylinder contains m = 20 g of carbon dioxide under
a heavy piston. The gas is heated from the temperature t, = 20° C
to t, = 108° C. What work is performed by the gas?
343. What quantity of heat should be imparted to carbon
dioxide (see Problem 342) expanding at a constant pressure as
a result of heating? The molar heat of the carbon dioxide (heat
capacity of one gramme-molecule) at a constant volume is
Cv= 6.864 cal/mole • deg.

2-4. Properties of Liquids

344. Is it more difficult to compress a litre of air to three
atmospheres, or a litre of water?
345. How can a minimum and a maximum thermometers be
made using the phenomena of wettability and unwettability?
346. The surface layer of a liquid is frequently likened to a
stretched rubber film. In what respect does this analogy disagree
with reality?
347. To remove a grease spot from a fabric it is good to
apply some petrol to the edges of the spot, while the spot itself
should never be wetted with petrol immediately. Why not?
348. Why is moisture retained longer in soil if it is harrowed?
349. Skiing boots are usually warmed up to ensure that they
absorb grease better. Should the boots be warmed up outside
or inside?
350. Why can an iron be used to remove greasy spots from
clothing?
351. Why do drops of water appear at the end of a piece
of firewood in the shade when it is being dried in the sun?
352. A vessel whose bottom has round holes with a diameter
of d = 0.1 mm is filled with water. Find the maximum height
of the water level h at which the water does not flow out. The
water does not wet the bottom of the vessel.
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 77

353. A soapy film is stretched over a rectangular vertical wire

frame (Fig. 133). What forces hold section abcd in equilibrium?
354. A cube with a mass m = 20 g wettable by water floats
on the surface of water. Each face of the cube a is 3 cm long.
What is the distance between the lower face of the cube and
the surface of the water?
355. The end of a capillary tube with a radius r is immersed
into water. What amount of heat will be evolved when the
water rises in the tube?
356. A capillary tube is lowered into a vessel with a liquid
whose vapour pressure may be neglected. The density of the
liquid is p. The vessel and the tube are in a vacuum under the
bell of an air pump (Fig. 134). Find the pressure inside the
liquid in the capillary tube at a height h above the level of
the liquid in the vessel.
357. The course of reasoning given below is usually followed
to prove that the molecules of the surface layer of a liquid have
surplus potential energy. A molecule inside the liquid is acted
upon by the forces of attraction from the other molecules which
compensate each other on the average. If a molecule is singled
out on the surface, the resulting force of attraction from the
other molecule is directed into the liquid. For this reason the
molecule tends to move into the liquid, and definite work should

a 6

Fig. 133 Fig. 134

78 PROBLEMS

Fig. 135 Fig. 136

be done to bring it to the surface. Therefore, each molecule of

the surface layer has excess potential energy equal to this work.
The average force that acts on any molecule from the side of
all the others, however, is always equal to zero if the liquid is
in equilibrium. This is why the work done to move the liquid
from a depth to the surface should also be zero. What is the
origin, in this case, of the surface energy?
358. One end of a glass capillary tube with a radius r = 0.05 cm
is immersed into water to a depth of h= 2 cm. What pressure
is required to blow an air bubble out of the lower end of
the tube?
359. A glass capillary tube with an internal diameter of 0.5 mm
is immersed into water. The top end of the tube projects by
2 cm above the surface of the water. What is the shape of
the meniscus?
360. Water rises to a height h in a capillary tube lowered
vertically into water to a depth 1 (Fig. 135). The lower end
of the tube is closed, the tube is then taken out of the water
and opened again. Determine the length of the water column
remaining in the tube.
361. Two capillary tubes of the same cross section are lowered
into a vessel with water (Fig. 136). The water in the straight
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 79

Fig. 137 Fig. 138

tube rises to a height h. What will the level of the water be

in the bent tube and what form will the meniscus take? The
lower end of the bent tube is at a depth H below the level of
the water in the vessel.
Consider the following five cases:
(1) H > h
(2) H = h
(3) 0 < H < h
(4) H = 0
(5) H < 0 (the end of the bent tube is above the level of the
water in the vessel).
362. A soap-bubble with a radius r is placed on another
bubble with a radius R (Fig. 137). What will the form of the
soapy film separating the two bubbles be? What angles will be
formed between the films at the points of contact?
363. A wooden cross floats in water. Each arm of the cross
is coated :on one side with varnish (Fig. 138). The water will
rise to different heights on both sides of each arm owing to the
different wettability of the wood and the varnish. The wetting

- I-

Fig. 139
80 PROBLEMS

angle will be different, and therefore the horizontal component

of the force of surface tension F will also be different on each
side of an arm (Fig. 139). Will this cause the cross to rotate?
364. Light bodies wetted by water (for example, two matches)
and floating on its surface are mutually attracted. This also
occurs if bodies are not wetted (matches coated with a thin
layer of paraffine). If one body is wetted and the other not,
they will be repulsed. How can these phenomena be explai-
ned?

2-5. Mutual Conversion of Liquids and Solids

365. Water in a glass freezes at 0°C. If this water is sepa-
rated into fine drops, the water in them can be overcooled
to —40° C. For example, water drops which clouds are composed
of usually begin to freeze at a temperature below —17° C. How
can these facts be explained?
366. A vessel with 100 g of water at a temperature of 0°C
is suspended in the middle of a room. In 15 minutes the tem-
perature of the water rises to 2°C. When ice equal in weight
to the water is placed into the vessel, it melts during ten hours.
May these data be used to appraise the specific heat of fusion
of ice H?
367. Two identical pieces of ice fly toward each other with
equal velocities and are converted into vapour upon impact.
Find the minimum possible velocities of the pieces before the
impact if their temperature is —12° C.
368. A calorimeter contains ice. Determine the heat capacity
of the calorimeter if Q1 = 500 cal are required to heat it together
with its contents from 270 to 272° K, and Q 2 =16,600 cal from
272 to 274° K.
369. A calorimeter contains 400 g of water at a temperature
of +5°C. Then, 200 g of water at a temperature of +10°C are
added and 400 g of ice at a temperature of —60°C are put in.
What is the temperature in the calorimeter?
370. Ice with a mass of m2 = 600 g and at a temperature of
12 =—l0°C is placed into a copper vessel heated to ti = 350° C.
As a result, the vessel now contains m8= 550 g of ice mixed
with water. Find the mass of the vessel. The specific heat of
copper c,= 0.1 cal/deg•g.
371. When a small ice crystal is placed into overcooled water
it begins to freeze instantaneously.
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 81

(1) What amount of ice is formed from M =1 kg of water

overcooled to t = —8°C?
(2) What should the temperature of the overcooled water be
for all of it to be converted into ice?
Disregard the relation between the heat capacity of the water
and the temperature.
372. One hundred grammes of ice at a temperature of 0°C
are placed into a heat-impermeable envelope and compressed to
p = 1,200 atm. Find the mass of the melted part of the ice if
the melting point decreases in direct proportion to the pressure,
and if it lowers by 1°C when the pressure is increased by 138 atm.

2-6. Elasticity and Strength

373. A copper ring with a radius of r =100 cm and a cross-
sectional area of A = 4 mm2 is fitted onto a steel rod with
a radius R =100.125 cm. With what force F will the ring be
expanded if the modulus of elasticity of copper E = 12,000 kgf/mm2?
Disregard the deformation of the rod.
374. What work can be performed by a steel rod with a
length 1 and a cross-sectional area A when heated by t degrees?
375. A wire with a length of 2/ is stretched between two
posts. A lantern with a mass M is suspended exactly from the
middle of the wire. The cross-sectional area of the wire is A
and its modulus of elasticity E. Determine the angle a of
sagging of the wire, considering it to be small (Fig. 140).
376. A steel rod with a cross section A =1 cm2 is tightly
fitted between two stationary absolutely rigid walls. What

Si

Fig. 140
82 PROBLEMS

L
f 4
a2

Fig. 141

force F will the rod act with on the walls if it is heated

by At = 5°C?
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion of steel
a= 1.1 X 10-5deg-' and its modulus of elasticity E=
= 20,000 kgf/mm2.
377. Two rods made of different materials are placed between
massive walls (Fig. 141). The cross section of the rods is A
and their respective lengths l, and 12. The rods are heated by t
degrees.
Find the force with which the rods act on each other if their
coefficients of linear thermal expansion a, and a2 and the moduli
of elasticity of their materials E, and E2are known. Disre-
gard the deformation of the walls.

Fig. 142 Fig. 143

HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 83

A
Steel

A
Copper

A
Steel
Fig. 144

378. A homogeneous block with a mass tn = 100 kg hangs on

three vertical wires of equal length arranged symmetrically
(Fig. 142). Find the tension of the wires if the middle wire
is of steel and the other two are of copper. All the wires have
the same cross section. Consider the modulus of elasticity of
steel to be double that of copper.
379. A reinforced-concrete column is subjected to compression
by a certain load. Assuming that the modulus of elasticity of
concrete E, is one-tenth of that of iron Ei, and the cross-
sectional area of the iron is one-twentieth of that of concrete,
find the portion of the load acting on the concrete.
380. A steel bolt is inserted into a copper tube as shown
in Fig. 143. Find the forces induced in the bolt and in the

awn

Fig. 145
84 PROBLEMS

tube when the nut is turned through one revolution if the

length of the tube is 1, the pitch of the bolt thread is h and
the cross-sectional areas of the bolt and the tube are Ab and
At, respectively.
381. A copper plate is soldered to two steel plates as shown
in Fig. 144. What tensions will arise in the plates if the
temperature is increased by t° C? All three plates have the same
cross sections.
382. Find the maximum permissible linear velocity of a
rotating thin lead ring if the ultimate strength of lead
au= 200 kgf /cm2 and its density p = 11.3 g/cm3.
383. An iron block AB has both ends fixed. Hook H is
fastened with two nuts in a hole in the middle of the block
(Fig. 145). The block is clamped by the nuts with a force Fo.
What forces will act on the upper and lower nuts from the
side of the block if the hook carries a load whose weight can
change from zero to G = 2F0? Disregard sagging of the block
and the weight of the hook.

2-7. Properties of Vapours

384. Water vapour amounting to 150 g at a temperature of
+100°C is admitted into a calorimeter containing 100 g of ice
at a temperature of —20°C. What will the temperature inside
the calorimeter be if its heat capacity is 75 cal/deg?
385. Why does a strong jet of steam burst out from a
boiling kettle when the gas burner is switched off, while no
steam was visible before?
386. Prove that the density of water vapour at a temperature
near room temperature, expressed in g/m3, is approximately
equal to the pressure of water vapour expressed in millimetres
of mercury.
387. The pressure of saturated water vapours in a hermetic
vessel increases with the temperature as shown in Fig. 146.
The pressure of an ideal gas at constant volume is directly
proportional to the temperature.
Using a table of the properties of saturating water vapours
(Table 2), find whether the equation of state of an ideal gas
can be used to calculate the density or the specific volume of
saturated water vapours. Explain the result obtained.
388. Nine grammes of water vapour at a temperature of 30° C
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 85

Table 2. Properties of Saturating Water Vapours

Specific Specific
Pressure volume Pressure volume
t (°C) (kgf/cma) of vapour t (°C) (kgf/cm') of vapour
(m 3/kg) (m3/kg)

17.2 0.02 68.3 151.1 5 0.3818

45.4 0.1 14.96 158.1 6 0.3214
59.7 0.2 7.80 164.2 7 0.2778
75.4 0.4 4.071 169.6 8 0.2448
85.45 0.6 2.785 174.5 9 0.2189
93.0 0.8 2.127 179.0 10 0.1980
96.2 0.9 1.905 187.1 12 0.1663
99.1 1 1.726 194.1 14 0.1434
100 1.0333 1.674 200.4 16 0.1261
116.3 1.8 0.996 206.2 18 0.1125
119.6 2 0.902 211.4 20 0.1015
132.9 3 0.617 232.8 30 0.0679
142.9 4 0.4708 249.2 40 0.0506

are compressed isothermally in a cylinder under a piston. At

what volume will the vapour begin to condense?
Note. Use Table 2.
389. The relative humidity in a room is 10 per cent at a tem-
perature of 15°C. How will the relative humidity change if the
temperature in the room gradually increases by 10° C?
390. A cold autumn drizzle settled down for the day. Washing
is hung up to dry in a room. Will it dry faster if the window
is opened?
391. Two vessels connected by tubes with cocks are filled
with water to different levels (Fig. 147). The air has been pumped
out of the vessels. What will occur if the vessels are connected
(1) by opening the cock in the lower tube, (2) by opening the
cock in the upper tube?
392. What is the relative humidity of air at a temperature of
ti= 10° C if the moisture from this air, when the latter has been
heated to t 2 =30° C, begins to condense after isothermal compres-
sion from 1 to JO at.
Note. Use Table 2.
393. A porous body is placed for drying under the bell of a
vacuum pump. The pressure under the bell is maintained at 6.5 mm
86 PROBLEMS

Fig. 146 Fig. 147

Hg for one hour, after which it sharply drops. The capacity of

the pump is 60 lit/min. The temperature under the pump bell
is t = 5°C. What amount of water did the body contain?
394. Water with a mass of m = 30 g at a temperature of 0°C
is in a heat-insulated cylinder under a weightless piston. The
area of the piston A=512 cm' and the external pressure p = 1 atm.
What height will the piston rise to if an electric heater conta-
ined in the cylinder supplies Q = 5,760 cal?
CHAPTER 3
ELECTRICITY
AND MAGNETISM

3-1. Electrostatics
395. What is the force of interaction between point charges
of one coulomb at a distance of 1 km from each other?
Can a small (several centimetres) body have an electrostatic
charge of one coulomb?
396. Three identical small balls, each weighing 0.1 gf, are
suspended at one point on silk threads having a length of l = 20 cm.
What charges should be imparted to the balls for each thread to
form an angle of a= 30° with the vertical?
397. Two identical balls are suspended on threads at a distance
from each other. The balls are given equal charges and immersed
in kerosene. Determine the density of the material of the balls
if the threads do not deflect from the vertical in a vacuum or
in kerosene. The density of kerosene po= 0.8 g/cm3 and its per-
mittivity (dielectric constant) 8 = 2.
398. Two small balls with equal but opposite charges are secured
in a horizontal plane at a distance a from each other. A third
charged ball is suspended on a string. The point of suspension
is first so moved that the third ball, when in a state of equili-
brium, is precisely above the first ball at a distance a from it,
and then it is so moved that the third ball is above the second
one. Find the angles through which the string is deflected from
the vertical if the angle of deflection above one of the balls is
twice that above the other.
399. In classical experiments performed to measure the charge
of an electron, a charged drop of oil is placed between the hori-
zontal plates of a plane capacitor. Under the action of an electro-
static field, the drop moves uniformly upward, covering a certain
distance during the time ti, or downward, when the sign of the
charge on the plates changes, covering the same distance during
the time t2.
Assuming the force of friction between the drop and the air
to be proportional to the velocity of the drop, find the time t
during which the drop travels the same distance after the field
is switched off.
88 PROBLEMS

400. If only one charged body is available, can it be used to ob-

tain a charge exceeding many times in absolute magnitude that
which it itself has?
401. A charged body has some energy. What is the source of
the energy in a body which receives a charge as a result of the
process described in the solution to Problem 400?
402. Can two likely-charged balls be attracted to each
other?
403. A thin wire ring with a radius R carries an electric
charge q. The centre of the ring contains a charge Q of the
same sign as q, and Q>q. Find the force which the ring is
stretched with.
404. Two point charges Q1 and Q2 are at a distance d from
each other. Find the intensity of the electric field at a point at
a distance r1from the charge Q1 and r2 from the charge Q2.
Consider the cases of opposite and like charges.
405. Three identical positive charges Q are arranged at the
vertices of an equilateral triangle. The side of the triangle is a.
Find the intensity of the field at the vertex of a regular tetra-
hedron of which the triangle is the base.
406. A positive charge Q is uniformly distributed over a thin
wire ring with a radius R. Find the intensity of the electric
field at points on the axis of the ring at a distance r from its
centre.
407. Find the points on the axis of the charged ring (see
Problem 406) at which the intensity of the electric field is ma-
ximum. Determine the intensity of the field at these points.
408. Two parallel metal plates, each with an area A, carry
the charges Q1 and Q 2 . The distance between the plates is much
less than their linear dimensions. Determine the intensity of the
electric field at points A, B, and C (Fig. 148).
409. Two large current-conducting plates are arranged parallel
to each other. The distance between them is much less than their
dimensions. One of the plates is given a charge + Q. What are
the charges induced on the surfaces of the other plate?
410. A molecule is at a distance r from the axis of a charged
infinitely long metallic cylinder. Find the force acting on the
molecule if the intensity of the cylinder field is expressed by
the formula E=— (q is the charge per unit of cylinder length)
and the molecule has the form of a "dumb-bell" with a length
1 and with charges + Q and — Q at its ends.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 89

411. Two molecules of equal mass are at a certain distance

from the axis of a charged cylinder. One molecule has a constant
electric moment p = Q1 (see Problem 410). An "elastic" force
acts between the charges of the other molecule, i.e., the dis-
tance 1 is determined from the expression QE = kl, where E is
the mean intensity of the field acting on the molecule and k is
a proportionality factor.
First, the electric moments of the molecules are the same and
their velocities are zero.
Which molecule will reach the surface of the cylinder quicker
under the action of the force of attraction?
412. A charge + Q is imparted to a rectangular metal plate
with sides a and b. The thickness c of the plate is much smal-
ler than a and b. Find the intensity of the field created by this
charged plate at points in space close to the centre of the plate.
413. A point electric charge + Q is at a distance d from a
large current-conducting plate. Find the force with which the
plate acts on the point charge.
414. A point charge + Q1is brought up to a distance d from
the centre of the metal plate described in Problem 412. The
distance d is much smaller than sides a and b of the plate.
Determine the force with which the plate acts on the charge
-+ Q1 . When will a positively charged plate attract a positive
point charge?
415. What potential can an isolated metal sphere with a ra-
dius R in the air be charged to if the intensity of the electric
field that causes a puncture in the air is E0 =30,000 V/cm?
416. A body with a charge —q is introduced through a small
orifice into a hollow current-conducting sphere with a radius R
carrying a charge + Q. What is the potential of a point in space
at a distance of R > r from the centre of the sphere?

472

A 9

F ig. 148 Fig. 149 Fig. 150

90 PROBLEMS

417. A metal leaf is attached to the internal wall of an electro-

meter insulated from the earth (Fig. 149). The rod and the
housing of the electrometer are connected by a conductor, and
then a certain charge is imparted to the housing. Will the leaves
of the electrometer deflect? What will happen to the leaves if
the conductor is removed and the rod is then earthed?
418. The housing of the electrometer described in Problem 417
is given a charge (the conductor is absent). Will the leaves of
the electrometer deflect in this case? Will the angle of deflection
of the leaves change if the rod is earthed?
419. By touching different points on a metal bucket having
a narrow bottom with a test ball connected by a wire to an
earthed electrometer (Fig. 150), we can observe an identical
deflection of the leaves of the electrometer at any position of
the ball. If the wire is removed, the deflection of the leaves of
the electrometer, whose rod the ball is made to contact, will
depend on what point of the bucket surface (external or inter-
nal) we touched previously. Why?
420. Why does an electrometer connected by a wire to the
metal body shown in Fig. 151 make it possible to measure the
potential of the body? Why do the leaves deflect in proportion
to the density of the charge on separate portions of the body
when the charge is transferred from the body to the electrometer
with the aid of an insulated current-conducting ball?
421. An uncharged current-conducting sphere with a radius R
is at a distance d from a point charge Q. What is the poten-
tial of the sphere?
422. An isolated current-conducting sphere with a radius R
carries a charge + Q. What is the energy of the sphere?
423. A metal sphere two metres in diameter is in the centre
of a large room and charged to a potential of 100,000 V. What
quantity of heat will be liberated if the sphere is connected to
the earth with a conductor?
424. Two metal balls with radii of r1= 1 cm and r2 = 2 cm
at a distance of R = 100 cm from each other are connected to
a battery with an electromotive force of e = 3,000 V. Find the
force of interaction of the balls, disregarding the interaction of
the connecting wires.
425. Two small balls carry charges different in magnitude and
identical in sign. One of the balls is secured. If the second ball
is released, it can perform the mechanical work IV, as it moves
away under the action of the electrostatic forces of repulsion.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 91

Fig. 151 Fig. 152

If before the second ball is released, the balls are connected

by a conductor for a certain time, the second ball upon moving
away can perform the mechanical work W2.
Calculate the quantity of heat liberated in the conductor when
the balls are connected, and find the energy at the expense of
which this heat is liberated and the mechanical work changed.
426. A spherical envelope with a radius R is charged uniformly
with a charge Q. Find the expanding force per unit of envelope
area.
427. There are three charges on a straight line: a positive one
q and two negative ones Q. At what ratio between the charges
can they be so arranged that the entire system is in equilibri-
um? Will this equilibrium be stable?
Draw the relation between the potential energy for each charge
and its position on the straight line, assuming that the other
two charges are stationary.
428. An electric charge Q moves from infinity toward a me-
tallic plate. Find the kinetic energy of the charge when it is
at a distance d from the plate. The initial velocity of the charge
is zero. The dimensions of the plate are infinitely great.
429. Charges are so arranged on the surface of an infinitely
long cylinder that the right-hand half of the cylinder surface
from section 00' is charged positively, and the left-hand half
negatively (Fig. 152). The density of the charges increases in
both directions directly proportional to the distance from sec-
tion 00'.
Prove that the intensity of the electric field at all points
inside the cylinder will be the same everywhere and directed
along the axis of the cylinder as shown in the figure by the
arrow.
430. An analogy is frequently drawn between capacitance and
the capacity of a vessel. How should the vessel be shaped for
this analogy to be true?
92 PROBLEMS

gf

ef Fit
Liizgi j -
Te
Fig. 153 Fig. 154

431. Appraise the capacitance of a human body in the order

of its magnitude.
432. Will the readings of an electrometer joined to a galva-
nic cell change if a capacitor is connected in parallel with it?
Will the capacitance of the capacitor have any significance?
433. Four identical plane capacitors with an air dielectric are
connected in series. The intensity of the field at which the air
is punctured is Ea =3 x104 V/cm. The distance between the
plates d= 0.7 cm.
(1) What maximum voltage can be fed to this battery of ca-
pacitors?
(2) What will this maximum voltage be if one of the capa-
citors is replaced by a similar one in which glass is used as a
dielectric?
The permittivity of glass s= 7 and the puncturing field inten-
sity for glass Eg =9 x104 V/cm.
434. Determine the voltages U, and U 2on the capacitors
(Fig. 153) if e, = 12 kV and i2 = 13 kV, C, = 311F and C2 =7p.F.
Disregard the conductivity of the dielectrics.
4
If
3 5
=C
cyl
II s/Ne
??
Fig. 155
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 93

Fig. 156
C
435. Find the capacitance Co of the battery of identical capa-
citors shown in Fig. 154.
436. Each edge of a cube made of wire contains a capacitor
C (Fig. 155). Find the capacitance of this battery if it is con-
nected to the circuit by means of conductors joined to the oppo-
site apices A and B of the cube.
437. The spark-capacitor transformer designed by Arkadyev can
be used to obtain short-time high voltages. A diagram of the
device is shown in Fig. 156.
A group of capacitors connected in parallel by conductors AB
and CD having a very high resistance is joined to a high-vol-
tage source.
The upper plate of each capacitor is connected through a spark
gap to the lower plate of the following capacitor (gaps 1, 2, 3
and 4). Each following gap is greater than the preceding one.
A discharge occurs when the potential difference between the
plates attains the puncturing voltage of the first gap. After this
the second, third, etc., gaps will be punctured. What will the
potential difference be when the last gap is punctured if there
are n capacitors and the voltage applied is Vo?
438. The plates of a charged plane capacitor are alternately
earthed. Will the capacitor be discharged?
439. A plane capacitor is charged to a potential difference U.
Both plates are arranged symmetrically with respect to the earth
so that their potentials relative to it are + U/2 and —U/2,
respectively.
How will the potentials of the plates change relative to the
earth if the first plate is earthed, then disconnected from the
earth, after which the second plate is earthed?
440. One of the plates of a capacitor connected to a battery
with an e.m.f. of e is earthed (Fig. 157). Will the potentials
of the capacitor plates change with respect to the earth if the
earthing wire is removed?
441. Two plane capacitors with capacitances C1and C, are
charged to potential differences U 1and U 2(U1 U2).
94 PROBLEMS

Prove that if these capacitors are connected in parallel, their

total electrostatic energy diminishes. Explain the drop in the
energy.
442. A dielectric in the form of a sphere is introduced into a
homogeneous electric field. How will the intensity of the field
change at points A, B and C (Fig. 158).
443. One of the plates of a plane capacitor with a mica die-
lectric carries a positive charge of Q= 1.4 x 105CGSQ. The other
plate isolated from earth is not charged. The area of each plate
A = 2,500 cm2. The permittivity of mica sr = 7.
Find the intensity of the field in the space between the plates.
444. What is the force of interaction of the balls connected
to the battery (Problem 424) if they are immersed in kerosene?
The permittivity of kerosene Er =2.
445. The plates of a plane capacitor are connected to a storage
battery whose e.m.f. is e. Calculate the mechanical work per-
formed by the electric field when the plates are moved if the
initial distance between the plates is d1, the final distance is d2,
and d,< d1. Disregard the evolution of heat in the battery and
the feeding conductors.
446. Elongated pieces of a dielectric are usually placed along
the force lines of an electric field. It would seem that the se-
parate molecules of a non-polar dielectric only stretch along
the field, and never rotate. In a dielectric consisting of dipole
molecules the average number of molecules that rotate clockwise
when the field is switched on is equal to the number of mole-
cules rotating in the opposite direction. Why does the entire
piece of dielectric rotate?
447. The space between the plates of a plane capacitor is
filled with a dielectric as shown in Fig. 159. The area of each

A C

Fig. 157 Fig. 158

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 95

ZAVW
1 T
(a) (b) Fig. 159

plate is A and the permittivity of the dielectric is Er. Find the

capacitance of the capacitor in both cases.
448. Determine the energy of a plane capacitor having the
space between its plates filled with a dielectric.
449. A plane capacitor is filled with a dielectric whose per-
mittivity is C r . The intensity of the field in the dielectric is E.
What is the intensity of the field in a space made inside the
dielectric and having the form of a long thin cylinder directed
along the field or the form of a parallelepiped one side of
which is much smaller than the other two? The smaller side is
directed along the field.
450. Two rectangular plates with a length 1 and an area A
are arranged parallel to each other at a distance d. They are
charged to a potential difference U (plane capacitor). A dielect-
ric with a permittivity et whose thickness is d and whose width
is equal to that of the plates is drawn into the space between
the latter. The length of the dielectric is greater than 1
(Fig. 160). Find the resulting force F acting on the dielectric
from the side of the field depending on the distance x.
451. Solve Problem 450 if the
capacitor is connected to a battery
whose e.m.f. is U. Disregard the re-
sistance of the connecting wires.
452. The following design of a per-
petuum mobile has been suggested.
Kerosene is poured into commu-
nicating vessels (Fig. 161). One part
1

Fig. 160 Fig. 161

96 PROBLEMS

of the vessel is placed into a strong electric field between

the plates of a capacitor owing to which the level of the kero-
sene in this part is higher than in the other. A chain of balls
is passed over two pulleys.
The specific weight of the material of the balls is less than
that of the kerosene.
The lifting force acting on the balls will be greater in the
left-hand part than in the right-hand one because more balls
are immersed in the kerosene in the left-hand part. For this
reason the inventor believes that the chain should start rotating
clockwise. Why will there actually be no rotation?
453. The space between the plates of a plane capacitor is
filled with a dielectric whose permittivity is 8,.. One plate is
given a charge +Q and the other —Q. Determine the density
of the bound electric charges that appear on the surface of the
dielectric and the forces that are exerted by the field on the
dielectric.
454. The space between the plates of a plane capacitor is
filled with a dielectric. Each molecule of the dielectric is assu-
med to have the form of a "dumb-bell" with a length 1 whose
ends carry charges and —Q. The number of molecules in
a unit of volume (1 cm3) is n.
Let us assume further that all the molecules have turned along
the electric field under its action. Find the intensity E of the
field inside the capacitor filled with the dielectric if before fill-
ing it the intensity of the field was E0.
455. A dielectric consists of molecules each of which can be
represented as two charges +Q and —Q between which an
"elastic force" acts. The latter term should be understood to mean
that x (the distance between the charges +Q and —Q) can be
found from the equality kx= QE, where E is the intensity
of the field acting on the charges, and k is a proportionality
factor.
Assume that a unit of volume (1 cm3) of the dielectric con-
tains n molecules. Solve Problem 454, assuming that the space
between the plates of the plane capacitor is filled with a die-
lectric of this type.
Determine the permittivity of the dielectric.
456. A capacitor is filled with the dielectric whose properties
are described in Problem 455.
Find the energy stored in the dielectric owing to its polari-
zation.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 97

V /J
.

V
Fig. 162 Fig. 163

3-2. Direct Current

457. Is there an electric field near the surface of a conductor
carrying direct current?
458. Draw approximately the arrangement of the force lines
of an electric field around a homogeneous conductor bent to
form an arc (Fig. 162). The conductor carries direct current.
459. Determine the resistance r if an ammeter shows a cur-
rent of 1 = 5 A and a voltmeter 100 V (Fig. 163). The internal
resistance of the voltmeter R =2,500 Q.
460. What resistance r should be used to shunt a galvanome-
ter with an internal resistance of R = 10,000 ohm to reduce its
sensitivity n = 50 times?
461. Determine the voltage across a resistance R using a volt-
meter connected to its ends. What relative error will be made
if the readings of the voltmeter are taken as the voltage applied
before it was switched on? The current intensity in the circuit
is constant.
462. An ammeter is connected to measure the current inten-
sity in a circuit with a resistance R. What relative error will
be made if connection of the ammeter does not change the cur-
rent intensity in the cir-
cuit? The voltage across 2
the ends of the circuit is
kept constant.

Fig. 164 Fig. 165

4-1865
98 PROBLEMS

Fig. 166 Fig. 167

463. Two conductors with temperature coefficients of resist-

ance a1 and a2 have resistances R01 and R02at 0°C. Find the
temperature coefficient of a circuit consisting of these conduc-
tors if they are connected in series and in parallel.
464. Find the resistance of the circuit shown in Fig. 164. Dis-
regard the resistance of the connecting wires AC'C and BC"D.
465. Find the resistance of the hexagon shown in Fig. 165 if
it is connected to a circuit between points A and B. The resis-
tance of each conductor in the diagram is R.
466. Find the resistance of a wire cube when it is connected
to a circuit between points A and B (Fig. 166). The resistance
of each edge of the cube is R.
467. Resistances R, and R2, each 60Q, are connected in se-
ries (Fig. 167). The potential difference between points A and
B is U = 120 V. Find the reading U 1of a voltmeter connected
to points C and D if its internal resistance r = 120Q.
468. Wires identical in cross section A and resistivity p are
soldered into a rectangle ADBC (Fig. 168) with the diagonal
AB of the same cross section and material. Find the resistance
between points A and
B and between C and
D if AD= BC = a
and AC = BD=b.

C
Fig. 169
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 99

469. Figure 169 shows the diagram of a Wheatstone bridge

used to measure resistances. litre R., is the unknown resistance,
R, a standard resistance, G a galvanometer connected by a slid-
ing contact D to a homogeneous conductor AB with a high re-
sistance (a slide wire).
Prove that the equation Ro= Fis true when no current flows
through the galvanometer. Disregard the resistance of the con-
necting wires.
470. What resistance should be connected between points C
and D (Fig. 170) so that the resistance of the entire circuit
(between points A and B) does not depend on the number of
elementary cells?
471. The output voltage can be reduced in the output circuits
of generators as desired by means of an attenuator designed as
the voltage divider shown in Fig. 171.
A special selector switch makes it possible to connect the
output terminal either to the point with a potential Uo produ-
ced by the generator, or to any of the points U 1, U 2, Un,
each having a potential k times smaller (k> 1) than the pre-
vious one. The second output terminal and the lower ends of
the resistances are earthed.
Find the ratio between the resistances R1:R2:R3with any
number of cells in the attenuator.
472. What devices are needed to verify Ohm's law experimen-
tally, i.e., to show that the current intensity is directly pro-
portional to the potential difference?
473. A charge Q is imparted to two identical plane capaci-
tors connected in parallel.
1/17-z e 147-1
RI

Fig. 171

4*
100 PROBLEMS

R At the moment of time t = 0 the distan-

-----4 F ce between the plates of the first capacitor
begins to increase uniformly according to
the law cl1 = cl,± vt, and the distance bet-
ween the plates of the second capacitor to
+r – decrease uniformly according to the law
ci2 =do —vt. Neglecting the resistance of
Fig. 172 the feeding wires, find the intensity of the
current in the circuit when the plates of
the capacitors move.
474. Find the work performed by an electrostatic field (see
Problem 473) when the distance between the plates of the first
capacitor increases and that between the plates of the second
capacitor simultaneously decreases by a.
475. A curious phenomenon was observed by an experimenter
working with a very sensitive galvanometer while sitting on
a chair at a table. (The galvanometer was secured on a wall
and the ends of its winding connected to an open key on the
table.) Upon rising from the chair and touching the table with
his hand, the experimenter observed an appreciable deflection
of the galvanometer pointer. If he touched the table while sit-
ting on the chair there was no deflection. Also, the galvanome-
ter showed no deflection when he touched the table without
first sitting down. Explain this phenomenon.
476. The following effect was observed in a very sensitive
galvanometer when the circuit was opened. If a charged body
is brought up to one end of the winding of the galvanometer,
its pointer deflects. If the body is brought up to the other end
of the winding, the deflection is in the same direction. Explain
this phenomenon.
477. How is the potential distributed in a Daniell cell when
the external circuit is opened?
gl 82 8,
4.11.82 6
1 82
1471 7 62
+ H-7-1 - + I- 1-1-1 +
'1 B rz g
6,>82 87=82 6,, > 82 61=62
11`72 1i= re
(a) (6) (c) (d)
Fig. 173
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 101

478. Show graphically the distribution of a potential along

the closed circuit illustrated in Fig. 172 and on this basis de-
duce Ohm's law for a closed circuit.
479. Show graphically the approximate distribution of a po-
tential along the closed circuits depicted in Fig. 173.
Determine the current intensity for each circuit and the po-
tential difference between points A and B. Disregard the resis-
tance of the connecting wires.
480. Prove that an electromotive force in a circuit contain-
ing a galvanic cell is equal to the work of forces of non-elec-
trostatic origin when a single positive charge moves along a
closed circuit.
481. About 106,000 calories are evolved when one mole of
zinc combines with sulphuric acid and about 56,000 calories are
consumed when a mole of copper is liberated from blue vitriol.
Use these data to find the e. m. f. of a Daniell cell.
482. Two Daniell cells with internal resistances of 1'1 = 0.852
and r, = 1.3Q and the same e. m. f. s are connected in parallel
and across an external resistance R. Find the ratio between the
quantities of the zinc dissolved in these elements during a de-
finite interval of time.
483. A Daniell cell is made of absolutely pure materials.
Find the consumption of zinc and crystals of blue vitriol
CuSO4• 5H20 if the cell produces a current of 0.1 A in eight hours.
484. In a Daniell cell, copper is replaced by wax coated
with a layer of graphite. Describe the phenomena that will
occur in such a cell if the zinc is connected to the graphite
layer by a wire.
485. How will the e. m. f of the battery shown in Fig. 174
change if the partition between the vessels is removed? A solu-
tion of sulphuric acid is used as the electrolyte.
486. A homogeneous carbon rod lies on the bottom of a
vessel filled with electrolyte. A voltmeter with a high resistance
is connected to the ends of the rod. A zinc rod bears against
the middle of the carbon rod (Fig. 175).
What will the voltmeter show if the zinc rod is placed ver-
tically? How will the readings of the voltmeter change if the
zinc rod is inclined to the right or the left?
487. A hollow current-conducting sphere with a radius of
R = 5 cm is placed into an electrolytic bath filled with a solu-
tion of blue vitriol. The surface of the sphere has an orifice
with a radius of r = 0.5 mm.
102 PROBLEMS

Fig. 174 Fig. 175

How much will the weight of the sphere increase if the

copper is deposited during t= 30 min with a current density
in the electrolyte of j =0.01 A/cm2.
488. If a capacitor carrying a charge Q is discharged through
an electrolytic bath with acidified water, m grammes of deto-
nating gas will be liberated. According to Faraday's law, the
quantity of substance evolved during electrolysis depends only
on the amount of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
This means that if the capacitor is discharged through N se-
ries-connected baths, then mN grammes of detonating gas will
be liberated. N can be made as great as required to obtain any
quantity of the gas. Combustion of this gas can produce any
amount of energy, which is obviously inconsistent with the law
of conservation of energy, since the initial energy of a charged
capacitor is not infinitely great. Explain this fact.
489. When detonating gas explodes, 34,500 cal are liberated
per gramme of reacted hydrogen. Use these data to find the
minimum e. m. f. of a battery at which the electrolysis of water
is possible.
490. In electrolysis, positive and negative ions are continu-
ously neutralized on the respective electrodes. What maintains
the concentration of the ions in the electrolytes at a constant
level? In what sections of the electrolyte is the reduction in the
number of the ions compensated?
491. The total density of the current in electrolytes is deter-
mined as the sum of the current of the positive ions and that
of the negative ions:
j = e (n±v ± n_v_)
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 103

where e is the charge of an ion, and n and v are the concentra-

tions and velocities of the positive and negative ions.
Why is the amount of substance evolved, for example, on
the cathode considered to be proportional to the full current,
and not to the current en,v+?
492. What minimum change in temperature can be deter-
mined with the aid of an iron-constantan thermocouple, if the
measuring instrument (galvanometer) has a sensitivity of 10-s A
and a resistance of R = 20Q? The e. m. f. of the thermocouple
is 50 microvolts (50 x 10-6 V) per degree and its resistance
r= 5Q.
493. The temperature of the hot joints of a thermoelectric
battery t1 = 127° C and of the cold ones t, = 27°C. The e. m. f.
of the battery e= 4 V. Two calories of heat are supplied to the
heated joints in a unit of time to maintain a constant tempe-
rature.
An electrolytic bath with a solution of blue vitriol is connec-
ted to the battery. What maximum (theoretical) amount of
copper can be deposited on the cathode in a unit of time?
494. A current with an intensity of I flows through a sto-
rage battery with an internal resistance of r and an e. m. f.
of e. What is the potential difference across the terminals of
the battery?
495. A voltmeter with a resistance of R1 = 100Q connected
to the terminals of a cell shows a potential difference of 2 V.
When this cell is connected across a resistance of R = 15Q, an
ammeter connected to the circuit shows a current intensity of
I = 0.1 A. Find the e. m. 1. of the cell if the resistance of the
ammeter R2 =1Q.
496. Why can a galvanic cell with an e. m. f. of several
volts produce a large current, while an electrostatic machine
having an e. m. f. rated at dozens of thousands of volts gene-
rates a negligible current?
497. In the circuit shown in Fig. 176, the capacitor C2 is
punctured and the resistance between its plates is finite. What
is the potential difference between the plates of each of the
capacitors if the key 1( is closed?
498. When will two series-connected galvanic cells connected
to an external- resistance give a lower current than one of these
cells connected to the same resistance?
499. A storage battery with an e. m. f. of e = 24 V was con-
nected to one end of a two-conductor telephone line with a
104 PROBLEMS

length of L = 5.6 km to find an insulation breakdown between

the wires. It was found that if the conductors at the other end
of the line were opened, the current flowing through the battery
was I, 1.5 A, and if short-circuited the current was 12 =2 A.
—

The short-circuit current of the battery 13= 96 A and the resi-

stance of each conductor of the line r —752. Find the resistance
of the insulation R at the point of breakdown.
500. Galvanic cells with e. m. f.s of ei = 2 V and 6,2 =1.5 V
are connected as shown in Fig. 177a. A voltmeter with zero in
the middle of the scale shows a voltage of u =1 V and its
pointer deflects in the same direction as when 1key K is open.
What will the voltmeter show if the cells are connected as shown
in Fig. 177b? Disregard the current branched off into the volt-
meter.
501. Solve Problem 500 if, with key K closed (Fig. 177a),
the pointer of the voltmeter deflects in the direction opposite
to the one in which it deflects with the key open.
502. Two cells with e. m. f. s of 6,1 =2 V and 6,2 =1 V are
connected as shown in Fig. 178. The resistance R=0.5S2. The
internal resistances of the cells are the same and equal to 15-2
each. Determine the currents flowing through the cells and the
resistance R. Disregard the resistance of the feeding wires.
503. At what resistance R in the circuit of Problem 502 will
the current not flow through a galvanic cell with an e. m. f. e3?
At what values of R will the current through this cell be
directed against the e. m. f. of the cell?
504. Can a resistance of R=0.25.2 and a current of 1=21A
be obtained in an external circuit with the aid of 24 storage
battery cells, each with an e. m. f. of 6,0 =2 V and an internal

iff
A

(a) (b)
Fig. 177 Fig. 178
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 105

resistance of r =0.3Q by connecting them into separate iden-

tical groups?
505. An electric stove designed for 220 V is to be adapted
for 110 V without changing or shortening the coil so that its
power remains the same. What should be done for this?
506. A lamp the resistance of whose filament in a heated
state is R=2.9Q is placed into a calorimeter containing a mix-
ture of water and ice. In what time will the amount of water
in the calorimeter increase by m=15 g if the lamp is connec-
ted to mains with a voltage of u= 220 V? The specific heat of
fusion of ice H = 80 cal/g.
507. An electric lamp with a tungsten filament consumes
50 watts. When the lamp burns, the temperature of its fila-
ment is 2,500°C. What power will be consumed by the lamp
at the first moment after it is switched on? The temperature
coefficient of resistance of tungsten a = 4.5 x 10-3deg-'.
508. Why does the incandescence of the lamps in a room
noticeably drop as soon as a high-power device (for example,
an electric iron) is switched on, and after a brief inter-
val of time increase, reaching about the same value as be-
fore?
509. The wires leading from the mains into a building have
a resistance of Ro= 0.552. The voltage in the mains is constant
and equal to U o = 127 V. What is the maximum permissible
power of the electric energy consumed in the building if the
voltage across the devices connected to the mains should not
drop below U=120 V?
510. An electric tea-kettle has two windings. When one of
them is switched on the kettle begins to boil in t, minutes,
and when the other is switched on—in t 2minutes. In what
time will the kettle begin to boil if both windings are switched
on simultaneously in series and in parallel?
511. An electric heater has three windings. If two windings
are connected in parallel and the third is connected to them
in series, then with various combinations of the windings the
water in the tank will begin to boil in 20, 40 and 16 minu-
tes, respectively.
In what time will the water begin to boil if all the win-
dings are connected (1) in series? (2) in parallel?
512. When a direct current flows through a conductor, the
amount of energy liberated is QU, where Q is the charge pas-
sing through the conductor and U the potential difference, while
106 PROBLEMS

an energy of QU/2 is liberated when a capacitor is dischar-

ged. Why?
513. When electric energy is transmitted over great distan-
ces, a transformer is used to so increase the voltage as to reduce
the current intensity at the same power. According to the Joule-
Lenz law, the amount of heat evolved in the wires Q
= 0.24I2Rt, and therefore the losses due to heat evolution will
be small with small currents.
U2
On the other hand, Q = 0.24 — t, i. e., the amount of heat
evolved grows with an increase in the voltage. Explain why an
increase in the voltage saves electric energy when it is trans-
mitted over great distances.
514. When two identical lamps are connected in series to the
circuit of a battery, the voltage drop across the internal resi-
stance is k% of the e. m. f. The rated voltage of the lamp is
U volts and the rated power p watts. Determine the internal
resistance r of the battery.
515. A storage battery with an e. m. f. of 6 = 10 V and an
internal resistance of r = 1S2 is connected across an external
resistance R and liberates in it a power P = 9 watts. Find the
potential difference U across the terminals of the battery. What
is the cause of the ambiguity of the result?
516. What maximum useful power (evolved on an external
resistance) can be produced by a storage battery with an e. m. f.
of e= 10 V and an internal resistance of r= 1Q? What is the
resistance of the external circuit?
517. Determine the efficiency rl of the storage battery in
Problems 515 and 516. How does the efficiency depend on the
external resistance with a constant internal resistance? How
does the useful power change in this case? Can I be equal to
unity?
518. The efficiency of a source of current connected to an
external resistance R is lb= 60 per cent. What will the
efficiency'12 be if the external resistance is increased six
times?
519. A storage battery with an initial e. m. f. of 4 is char-
ged from a station rated at U volts. The internal resistance of
the battery is r. Find the useful power spent to charge the
battery and the power used to liberate the heat in it.
520. Does the useful power spent to charge a storage battery
exceed the heat evolved in it?
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 107

521. A conductor carries a current of 1= 10 A.

The cross-sectional area of the conductor A = 5 cm2
and the number of free electrons in 1 cm3 of the
conductor n = 1023. Find the directed velocity of
the electrons v assuming it to be the same for all
the electrons.
522. A metal rectangular parallelepiped with
Fig. 179 sides d, b, c (d>c, b>c) moves with an acce-
leration a in the direction shown by the arrow
in Fig. 179. Find the intensity of the electric field produced by
the accelerated motion of the metal block and the density of
the electric charges on its surfaces that are perpendicular to the
direction of motion.
523. A solid metal cylinder whose radius is R rotates with
a constant angular velocity w. Find how the field intensity
depends on the distance to the axis of the cylinder and deter-
mine the potential difference between the surface of the cylin-
der and the axis.

3-3. Electric Current in Gases and a Vacuum

524. Will a glow discharge occur if an anode is placed into
a cathode dark space (the region of the cathode drop)?
525. Figure 180 shows a diagram of an X-ray tube with a
cold cathode: C is the cathode, A the anode and A, the anti-
cathode. A high voltage is created between the anode and the
cathode. The electrons accelerated near the cathode (region of
the cathode drop) bombard the anticathode with a high velocity
and initiate X-rays. Why is the tube provided with two electro-
des, an anode and an anticathode, instead of one?

Fig. 180 Fig. 181

108 PROBLEMS

1■•->-
•■■

Fig. 182 Fig. 183 Fig. 184

526. Why are the anode and the anticathode of an X-ray

tube connected by a wire (see Problem 525)? What will occur
if the anticathode is isolated?
527. Figure 181 shows a Geiger-Muller counter of elementary
particles. A high voltage is produced between the housing of
tube A and a thin wire ab that is only slightly smaller than
the critical voltage necessary to ignite the charge.
When a fast charged particle enters the counter, the molecu-
les of the gas are ionized and a discharge begins. The flow of
current through the circuit is accompanied by a drop of vol-
tage across the large resistance R. This voltage drop is recorded
after amplification by corresponding instruments.
For the counter to answer its purpose, the discharge caused
by the particle should be quickly extinguished. What extingui-
shes the discharge in the circuit in Fig. 181?
528. A capacitor with a capacitance C=8 cm and a distance
between the plates of d= 3 mm is connected to a high-voltage
source through a resistance of R= 103Q (Fig. 182).
The air in the space between the plates of the capacitor is
ionized by X-rays so that n=104ionic pairs form in one cubic
centimetre per second. The charge of each ion is equal to that
of an electron.
Find the voltage drop across the resistance R assuming that
all the ions reach the plates before they recombine.
529. What will occur to a burning electric arc if the negative
carbon is intensively cooled? What will occur if the positive
carbon is cooled?
530. Why is an electric iron with a thermocontroller used
only with alternating current?
531. What energy in ergs will an electron acquire after pass-
ing through a potential difference of 1 V in a vacuum? (In ato-
mic physics this energy is taken as the unit "electron-volt".)
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 109

532. Does the trajectory of a charged particle in an electro-

static field coincide with a force line?
533. A broad metal plate is connected to earth through a
galvanometer. A charged ball flies along a straight line above
the plate at a distance much less than the linear dimensions
of the plate (Fig. 183).
Draw an approximate diagram showing how the current flowing
through the galvanometer depends on time.
534. An electron moves along a metal tube with a variable
cross section (Fig. 184). How will its velocity change when it
approaches the neck of the tube?
535. A potential difference U is created between a filament
emitting electrons and a current-conducting ring (Fig. 185). The
electrons move with an acceleration along the axis of the ring.
Their kinetic energy increases while the battery producing the
potential difference U performs no work, since no current flows
through the circuit. (It is assumed that the electrons do not
impinge upon the ring.) How can this be brought into agreement
with the law of conservation of energy?
536. A charge +Q is uniformly distributed over a thin ring
with a radius R. Find the velocity of a negative point charge
— Q at the moment it passes through the centre 0 of the ring
if the charge —Q was initially at rest at point A sufficiently
removed from the ring (Fig. 186). The mass of the charge —Q
is equal to m. The ring is stationary.
537. The plates of a plane capacitor with a capacitance C
at a distance of / from each other carry charges +Q and —Q.
An electron flies into the middle of the capacitor with a
velocity vo directed parallel to the plates.
What is the velocity of the electron at a sufficiently great
distance from the capacitor?
What is the nature of the change in the velocity of the
electron (in absolute magnitude) when it moves inside and out-
side of the capacitor?

Fig. 185 Fig. 186

110 PROBLEMS

Fig. 187 Fig. 188

Consider the following three cases:

(1) at the initial moment the electron is at the same distance
from both plates of the capacitor;
(2) at the initial moment the electron is at a distance of 1/4
from the positive plate;
(3) the electron is at a distance of 1/4 from the negative plate.
538. A battery (directly heated) triode is connected to the
circuit shown in Fig. 187. The e. m. f. of the B battery e ,= 80 V,
of the A battery e2=6V and of the C battery e, = 2 V.
With what energies will the electrons reach the anode? How
will the energy of the electrons reaching the anode change if
the e. m. f. e, changes in magnitude and even in sign?
Assume the anode current to be small as compared with the
heating current.
539. The anode current of a diode can be related to the po-
tential difference Ua between the electrodes within a certain
voltage range by the equation a = AU a + BUg.
Find the anode current if the diode is connected in series
with a resistance of Ra= 20 k52 to the circuit of a battery with
an e. m. f. of e = 120 V. For the given diode A = 0.15 mA/V and
B = 0.005 mA/V2. Disregard the internal resistance of the battery.
540. Two electronic valves are connected in parallel. They
are connected to the circuit of a battery with an e. m. f. of
e = 300 V in series with a resistance of R =4k52 (Fig. 188). The
relation between the anode current i on the anode voltage Ua
for each valve can be approximately expressed as i = AU a + BUL
where for one valve A1 = 0.07 mA/V, B1 = 0.005 mA/V2 and for
the other Az = 0.03 mA/V, B2 = 0.01 mA/V2 .
Determine the anode currents of the valves disregarding the
internal resistance of the battery.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 111

541. An electronic valve (one of the triodes 6H8C) is con-

nected to the circuit of a battery with an e. m. f. of e= 250 V
in series with a resistance of R=104 5.2 (Fig. 189).
The valve grid is connected to the negative pole of a small
battery (e1 =3 V) and the cathode to its positive pole. In this
case the voltage drop across the resistance R reaches U 1 =95 V.
If the grid circuit includes a battery with e2 =6V, the poten-
tial difference across the resistance R will be U 2= 60 V.
What will the potential difference between the anode and the
cathode of the valve be if the grid and the cathode are short-
circuited? Consider the grid characteristic of the valve as a
straight line in the range of the grid potential change being
considered.
542. Three identical diodes whose anode characteristics can be
approximately represented by sections of straight lines:
la = 0 at Ua <0
/a =kU a at Ua > 0
where k= 0.12 mA/V, are connected to a circuit as shown in
Fig. 190.
Draw a diagram showing how the current I in the circuit
depends on the voltage V if e1 - 2 V, e2= 5 V, es = 7 V, and V
can change from —10 V to +10 V.
543. Calculate the sensitivity of a cathode-ray tube to voltage,
i. e., the deflection of the light spot on the screen caused by a
potential difference of 1 V on the control grids. The length of
the control grids is 1, the distance between them is d, the distance
from the end of the grids to the screen is L, and the accelerating
potential difference is Uo.

Fig. 189 Fig. 190

112 PROBLEMS

3-4. Magnetic Field of a Current. Action of a Magnetic

Field on a Current and Moving Charges
544. Determine the dimension and magnitude of the coefficient k
in the expression for the intensity of the magnetic field of a
solenoid H = k 43-tI ' if H is measured in oersteds and I in
cgs electrostatic units.
The dimension of the oersted coincides with that of the electric
field intensity in cgs units.
545. Two windings connected as shown in Fig. 191 are wound
around a thin iron ring with a radius R = 10 cm. The first wind-
ing has 2,000 turns and the second 1,000 turns. Find the inten-
sity of the magnetic field inside the ring if a current of I = 10A
flows through the windings.
546. A current I flows through an infinitely long conductor
ABC bent to form a right angle (Fig. 192).
How many times will the intensity of the magnetic field change
at point M if an infinitely long straight conductor BD is so
connected to point B that the current I branches at point B
into two equal parts and the current in the conductor AB re-
mains the same?
Note. Take into account the fact that the intensity of a mag-
netic field induced at a certain point by a small element of
current is perpendicular to the plane containing this element
and a radius-vector drawn from this current element to the
given point.
547. A current flows through a conductor arranged in one plane
as shown in Fig. 193. Find the intensity of the magnetic field

Fig. 191 Fig. 192 Fig. 193

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 113

Fig. 194 Fig. 195 Fig. 196

at an arbitrary point on line AB, which is the axis of symmetry

of the conductor.
548. How will a magnetic pointer be positioned if it is placed
in the centre of a single-layer toroidal solenoid through which
a direct current flows?
549. A current I flows along an infinite straight thin-walled
pipe. Bearing in mind that the intensity of the magnetic field
of an infinite straight conductor at a distance r from it is pro-
portional to 11r, find the intensity of the magnetic field at an
arbitrary point inside the pipe.
550. Remembering that the intensity of a magnetic field inside
a long cylindrical conductor H =k2ajr, where j is the current
density and r is the distance from the conductor axis, find the
intensity of the field at an arbitrary point on a long cylindrical
space inside the conductor (Fig. 194) through which a current
with a density j flows. The axis of the space is parallel to the
axis of the conductor and is at a distance d from it.
551. Draw the distribution of the force lines of a magnetic
field in the space of the cylindrical conductor described in
Problem 550.
552. Determine the dimension and the magnitude of the coef-
ficient k in the expression for the force F = kHIl sin cp acting
from a magnetic field on a current if H is in oersteds and I in
cgs electrostatic units.
114 PROBLEMS

553. Will the density of a direct current flowing in a cylindrical

conductor be constant across the entire cross section of the
conductor?
554. A lightning arrester is connected to earth by a circular
copper pipe. After lightning strikes, it is discovered that the
pipe became a circular rod. Explain the cause of this phenomenon.
555. A very great current is made to flow for a short time
through a thick winding of a solenoid. Describe the deformation
of the winding from the viewpoint of quality.
556. The magnetic system of a galvanometer consists of a
magnet, pole shoes A and B, and a cylinder made of soft iron
(Fig. 195). The magnetic force lines in the gap between the
shoes and the cylinder are perpendicular to the surface of the
cylinder. The intensity of the magnetic field is H. A rectangular
coil with n turns is placed in the gap on axis 0. The sides of
the coil are parallel to the diameter and the generatrix of the
cylinder. The area of each turn is A. One end of a spiral spring
is so attached to the axis of the coil that when the latter ro-
tates through an angle a, the deformation of the spring creates
a rotational moment ka that tends to turn the coil to a posi-
tion of equilibrium. Determine the angle through which the coil
will turn if a current I passes through it.
557. A current of I = 1 A flows through a wire ring with a
radius R = 5 cm suspended on two flexible conductors. The ring
is placed in a homogeneous magnetic field with an intensity of
H = 10 Oe whose force lines are horizontal. What force will the
ring be tensioned with?
558. A wire ring with a radius R = 4 cm is placed into a
heterogeneous magnetic field whose force lines at the points of
intersection with the ring form an angle of a= 10° with a normal
to the plane of the ring (Fig. 196). The intensity of the mag-
netic field acting on the ring H = 100 Oe. A current of I = 5 A
flows through the ring. What force does the magnetic field act
on the ring with?
559. A rectangular circuit ABCD with sides a and b placed
into a homogeneous magnetic field with an intensity H can
revolve around axis 00' (Fig. 197). A direct current I constantly
flows through the circuit.
Determine the work performed by the magnetic field when
the circuit is turned through 180° if initially the plane of the
circuit is perpendicular to the magnetic field and arranged
as shown in Fig. 197.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 115
560. A conductor is placed into a magnetic
field whose intensity H forms an angle a with
IO the conductor. A force F=kH11 sin a acts on
b the section of the conductor with a length /
H when it carries a current I. If F is expressed
0 in dynes, H in oersteds, I in amperes and 1
a in centimetres, then k=0.1.
ift This force is the resultant of all the forces
that act on the moving electrons present at
A 17 this moment in the volume of the section of
the conductor with a length 1.
Find the force which the magnetic force
acts on one electron with.
Fig. 197 561. Can a magnetic field independent of time
change the velocity of a charged particle?
562. How will an electron move in a homogeneous magnetic
field if the velocity of the electron at the initial moment is per-
pendicular to the force lines of the field?
563. How will an electron move in a homogeneous magnetic
field if the velocity of the electron at the initial moment forms
an angle a with the force lines of the field?
564. A current I flows along a metal band with a width
AB=a placed in a magnetic field with an intensity H perpen-
dicular to the band (Fig. 198). Find the potential difference
between points A and B of the band.
565. Determine the numerical value of the potential difference
(see Problem 564) if H = 10,000 Oe, the band width a = 1 cm,
its thickness d=0.1 mm, and the current I = 10 A. The number
of electrons in a unit of vo-
lume is n = 9 x 1021cm-3. H
566. An uncharged metal V.
block has the form of a rec-
tangular parallelepiped with
sides a, b, and c (a> c,b>c).
The block moves in a magne-
A

ell

B
Fig 198 Fig. 199
116 PROBLEMS

tic field in the direction of side a with a velocity v. The inten-

sity of the magnetic field H is perpendicular to the base of
the block with the sides a and c (Fig. 199).
Determine the intensity of the electric field in the block and
the density of the electric charges on the surfaces of the paral-
lelepiped formed by sides a and b.
567. An uncharged metal cylinder with a radius r revolves about
its axis in a magnetic field with an angular velocity w. The
intensity of the magnetic field is directed along the axis of the
cylinder.
What should the intensity of the magnetic field be for no
electrostatic field to appear in the cylinder?
3-5. Electromagnetic Induction. Alternating
Current
568. Determine the direction of the intensity of an electric
field in a turn placed in a magnetic field (Fig. 200) directed away
from us in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the turn.
The intensity of the magnetic field grows with time.
569. A rectangular circuit ABCD moves translationally in the
magnetic field of a current flowing along straight long conductor
00' (Fig. 201). Find the direction of the current induced in the
circuit if the turn moves away from the conductor.
570. A non-magnetized iron rod flies through a coil connected
to a battery and an ammeter (Fig. 202). Draw an approximate
diagram of the change of current in the coil with time as the
rod flies through it.
571. A current in a coil grows directly with time. What is the
nature of the relation between the current and time in another
coil inductively connected to the first one?

A .0

O
Fig. 200 Fig. 201 Fig. 202
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 117

a
g 2 E

a
27 F
Fig. 203 Fig. 204

572. Will the result of Problem 571 change if an iron core is

inserted into the second coil?
573. A wire ring with a radius r is placed into a homogeneous
magnetic field whose intensity is perpendicular to the plane of
the ring and changes with time according to the law H = kt.
Find the intensity of the electric field in the turn .

574. A ring of a rectangular cross section (Fig. 203) is made

of a material whose resistivity is p. The ring is placed in a ho-
mogeneous magnetic field. The intensity of the magnetic field is
directed along the axis of the ring and increases directly with
time, H =kt. Find the intensity of the current induced in the
ring.
575. A coil having ti turns, each with an area of A, is con-
nected to a ballistic galvanometer. (The latter measures the quantity
of electricity passing through it.) The resistance of the entire
circuit is R. First the coil is between the poles of a magnet in
a region where the magnetic field H is homogeneous and its
intensity is perpendicular to the area of the turns. Then the coil
is placed into a space with no magnetic field.
What quantity of the electricity passes through
1 the galvanometer? (Express the answer in cou-
lombs.)
576. Determine the current in the conductors
of the circuit shown in Fig. 204 if the intensi-
ty of a homogeneous magnetic field is perpen-

Fig. 205
I dicular to the plane of the drawing and changes
in time according to the law H = kt. The resi-
stance of a unit of length of the conductors is r.
577. The winding of a laboratory regulating
autotransformer is wound around an iron core ha-
}18 PROBLEMS

Fig. 206 Fig. 207

ving the form of a rectangular toroid (Fig. 205). For protection

against eddy (Foucault) currents the core is assembled of thin
iron laminas insulated from one another by a layer of varnish.
This can be done in various ways:
(1) by assembling the core of thin rings piled on one another;
(2) by rolling up a long band with a width h;
(3) by assembling the core of rectangular laminas / x h in size,
arranging them along the radii of the cylinder.Which is the best way?
578. A direct induced current I is generated in a homogeneous
circular wire ring. The variable magnetic field producing this cur-
rent is perpendicular to the plane of the ring, concentrated near
its axis and has an axis of symmetry passing through the centre
of the ring (Fig. 206).
What is the potential difference between points A and B? What
is the reading of an electrometer connected to these points?
579. A variable magnetic field creates a constant e.m.f. e in
a circular conductor ADBKA (see Problem 578). The resistances
of the conductors ADB, AKB and ACB (Fig. 207) are equal to
R1, R2 and R3, respectively. What current will be shown by
ammeter C? The magnetic field is concentrated near the axis of
the circular conductor.
580. The resistance of conductor ACB (see Problem 579) is
R3= 0. Find the currents /,, I, and 13and the potential diffe-
rence U A- U 8.
581. A medical instrument used to extract alien particles from
an eye has the form of a strong permanent magnet or an electro-
magnet. When brought close to the eye (without touching it) it
extracts iron and steel particles (filings, chips, etc.).
What current should flow through the electromagnet to extract,
without touching the eye, metal objects made of non-ferromagne-
tic materials (aluminium, copper, etc.)?
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 119

582. A wire ring secured on the axis passing through its centre
and perpendicular to the force lines is placed in a homogeneous
magnetic field (Fig. 208). The intensity of the field begins to
grow. Find the possible positions of equilibrium of the ring and
show the position of stable equilibrium. What will happen if the
intensity of the field decreases?
583. A conductor with a length 1 and mass m can slide with-
out friction along two vertical racks AB and CD connected
by a resistor R. The system is in a homogeneous magnetic field
whose intensity H is perpendicular to the plane of the drawing
(Fig. 209).
How will the movable conductor travel in the field of gravity
if the resistance of the conductor itself and the racks is negle-
cted?
584. A conductor with a mass m and length 1 can move without
friction along two metallic parallel racks in a horizontal plane
and connected across capacitor C. The entire system is in a
homogeneous magnetic field whose intensity H is directed upward.
A force F is applied to the middle of the conductor perpendi-
cular to it and parallel to the racks (Fig. 210).
Determine the acceleration of the conductor if the resistance
of the racks, feeding wires and conductor is zero. What kinds
of energy will the work of the force F be converted into? Assume
that the velocity of the conductor is zero at the initial moment.
585. Considering the motion of a straight magnet in a plane
perpendicular to a wire and using the law of conservation of
energy, prove that the field of a long forward current dimin-
ishes with the distance from the wire as 1/R.
586. A cylinder made of a non-magnetic material has N turns
of a wire (solenoid) wound around it. The radius of the cylinder
R
4 1-C

07

OH F
B
F ig. 209 Fig. 210
120 PROBLEMS

is r and its length 1 (r The resistance of the wire is R.

What should the voltage at the ends of the solenoid be for the
current flowing in it to increase directly with time, i.e., 1 = kt?
587. A solenoid (see Problem 586) is connected to a battery
whose e.m.f. ise. The key is closed at the moment t = 0. What
is the intensity of the current flowing through the circuit of
the solenoid if the resistance R of the solenoid, battery and
feeding wires is neglected?
588. Calculate the work of the battery (see Problem 587)
during the time T. What kind of energy is this work converted
into?
589. A ring made of a superconductor is placed into a homo-
geneous magnetic field whose intensity grows from zero to Ho.
The plane of the ring is perpendicular to the force lines of the
field. Find the intensity of the induction current appearing in
the ring. The radius of the ring is r and its inductance L.
590. A superconductive ring with a radius r is in a homoge-
neous magnetic field with an intensity H. The force lines of the
field are perpendicular to the plane of the ring. There is no
current in the ring.
Find the magnetic flux piercing the ring after the magnetic
field is switched off.
591. Find the inductance of a coil wound onto the iron core
shown in Fig. 211. The number of turns of the coil N, the
cross-sectional area A, the perimeter of the core (medium line)
1 and the permeability of the core tt, are known.
Note. Take into account the fact that the intensity of the
magnetic field inside the core is practically constant and can
be approximately expressed by the formula H=0.4n T I.
592. Estimate approximately the coefficient of mutual induc-
tance of the windings of a transformer. Consider the windings

Fig. 211 Fig. 212

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 121

as coils of identical cross section. .Disregard the dispersion of

the force lines of the magnetic field.
Note. The coefficient of mutual inductance of two circuits is
the ratio between the magnetic flux .D induced by the magnetic
field of the first circuit through the area limited by the second
circuit and the magnitude of this current M = 4) .
593. A light aluminium disk is suspended on a long string in
front of the pole of an electromagnet (Fig. 212).
How will the disk behave if an alternating current is passed
through the winding of the electromagnet? The resistance of
the disk is small.
594. When a capacitor carrying a charge Q is connected in
parallel with an uncharged capacitor having the same capaci-
tance, the energy of the electric field of the system is halved
(see Problem 441). Without resorting to the law of conservation
of energy, prove by direct calculations that the amount of heat
evolved in the wires is W e Q2 is the ini-
where W e° =2c
2 ,
tial energy of the system. Disregard the inductance of the con-
necting wires.
595. Find the effective magnitude of an alternating current
that changes according to the law:
/ = /o when 0 < t <

I = 0 when < t <

T <t <-85-T
1=-10 when T
5
1=0 when —
8
T <t <T
= 10 when T <t < -987 T
etc., (Fig. 213).
596. A d-c ammeter and an a-c thermal ammeter are connec-
ted to a circuit in series. When a direct current is passed through
the circuit, the d-c ammeter shows I1 = 6 A. When a sinusoidal
alternating current flows through the circuit, the a-c ammeter
shows / 2 = 8 A. What will the reading of each ammeter be if a
direct and an alternating currents flow simultaneously through
the circuit?
122 PROBLEMS

T
2
0
_l Fig. 213

597. An alternating sinusoidal current flows through a coil

without any ohmic resistance. Draw a diagram showing the pro-
duct of the current and the voltage (instantaneous power) changes
depending on time. Explain the nature of the curve.
What is the average power consumed by the coil per period?
598. Like an electric arc, daylight lamps have a dropping
current-voltage characteristic, and for this reason a coil with a
high inductance (choke) is connected in series with the lamp as
a ballast resistance for stable burning. Why are ordinary less
expensive resistors not used?
599. Why are capacitors connected in parallel with electric
devices having a high inductance (chokes, for example), if there
are many of them in a-c mains?
600. (a) A tap C is made from the middle of a coil with an
iron core (the winding is a thick copper wire with many turns)
(Fig. 214). A constant potential difference U 1is created between
points B and C. Find the voltage U 2between points A and B.
(b) A variable potential difference with an amplitude U1(for
example, from town mains) is applied between points B and C.
Find the amplitude U, of the variable potential difference between
points A and B.
601. Why does the presence of
a very high voltage in the secon-
dary winding of a step-up trans-
former (see Problem 513) not lead

Fig. 214 Fig. 215

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 123

to great losses of energy

due to the evolution of heat
in the winding itself?
602. Show that the pro-
11 2
portion T.= N , where I,
and 12 are the currents in
the windings and N1and
N 2the numbers of turns
Fig. 216 in them, exists, if the
no-load current of a tran-
sformer and the ohmic resistance of its windings are neglected.
Consider the windings as coils with the same cross section.
603. What puncturing voltages should capacitor C and diode D
be calculated for if the rectifier (Fig. 215) can operate both with
or without load?
604. An alternating voltage with an amplitude of U =600 V
is excited at the ends of the secondary winding of a transfor-
mer supplying a biphase rectifier (Fig. 216). The capacitance of
the capacitor C is so high that the current I flowing through
the resistance R= 5 kQ can be considered as approximately con-
stant (I = 40 mA).
Assuming that each of the diodes passes no current in the
opposite direction, find the share of the period T during which
no current flows through the valve.
3-6. Electrical Machines
605. The resistance in the load circuit of an a-c generator
increases. How should the power of the motor revolving the
generator change for the frequency of the alternating current to
remain the same?
606. The force acting on a moving charged particle from
the side of a magnetic field (the Lorentz force) is always per-
pendicular to the velocity. Therefore, this force performs no
work (see Problem 561).
Why does an electric motor operate in this case? We know
that the force acting on a conductor carrying a current is cau-
sed by the action of the field on separate particles whose mo-
tion produces a current.
607. Can a d-c series motor connected to mains with a
voltage of U = 120 V develop a power of P = 200 watts if the
resistance of its windings is R = 20 Q?
124 PROBLEMS

608. Determine the efficiency of a series and a shunt-wound

motors if they develop the maximum power. The voltages ac-
ross the terminals U and the resistances of the windings of the
rotor R1and the stator R2are the same in both motors and
are known.
609. The rotor of a model of a d-c motor consists of one
turn in the form of a rectangle. The intensity of the magnetic
field H produced by a permanent magnet (north at the left and
south at the right) is directed along the radius because the gap
between the pole shoes and iron cylinder C is very small
(Fig. 217).
A potential difference U is applied to the turn, whose area
is A and resistance is R.
Find the power of the motor as a function of the angular
velocity co. At what angular velocity co will the power be ma-
ximum, and what will the current be at this power?
610. Determine how the rotational moment (torque) M de-
pends on the angular velocity, using the condition of the
previous problem.
611. Find the nature of the relation between the power of
a d-c motor (see Problem 609) and the intensity of the magne-
tic field H at a given speed. At what value of H does the
power reach its maximum?
612. Determine the intensity of the magnetic field in a d-c
motor (see Problem 609) at which the torque M is maximum.
The speed of the armature is known.
613. A d-c shunt-wound motor develops a mechanical power
of P = 160 watts with a voltage across the terminals of
U = 120 V. The armature rotates at n = 10 rev/s. Determine the
maximum possible speed of
the motor at this voltage.
The resistance of the armature
is R = 20 52.
614. A d-c shunt-wound
motor has an angular velocity
of the armature rotation of
= 100 rad/s at a voltage of
U = 120 V across the terminals.
The resistance of the motor
armature winding is R = 2052.
What electromotive force will
Fig. 217 this motor develop when used
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 125

as a generator if it is rotated with the same angular velocity?

The voltage in the stator windings is kept constant and equal
to 120 V. At the velocity indicated, the mechanical moment on
the motor shaft is M= 1.6 x 107dyne • cm.
615. How will the speed n of a shunt-wound motor change
when the current in the stator windings grows if the voltage across
the armature U and the mechanical moment M applied to the
armature axis remain constant?
616. What parameters of mains would determine the power
of a d-c series motor connected to them if the winding of the
motor were made of a superconductor?
617. Prove that if the windings of a three-phase generator
are star-connected (Fig. 218), the voltages between linear con-
ductors U„, U„ and U 23 are 1/.3 times greater than the phase
voltages U,,, UO2 and UO3.
618. Prove that when the windings of a three-phase generator
and the load resistances are star-connected (Fig. 219), the cur-

Ch

Fig. 220 Fig. 221

126 PROBLEMS

rent I4 flowing through the neutral conductor is zero if

R1 =R2 =R3 =R.
619. Prove that if the intensities of the magnetic field gene-
rated by three pairs of electromagnets are equal in amplitude
2
and shifted in phase through -a- TE (Fig. 220), the resultant mag-
netic field can be described by a vector rotating with a constant
angular velocity co about point 0.
Each pair of electromagnets creates magnetic fields directed
along the respective diameters of the ring: H1, 112 and H 3. The
electromagnets are fed with an alternating current having the
frequency co.
620. Two identical coils perpendicular to each other are
divided in half and connected to a circuit as shown in Fig. 221.
The inductance of the choke Ch and the ohmic resistance R
are so selected that the intensities of the currents in the coils
are the same. The ohmic resistance and inductive reactance of
the coils are much less than the inductive reactance of the
choke.
What will occur if an aluminium cylinder A secured on an
axis is introduced into the space between the poles of the coils?
CHAPTER 4
OSCILLATIONS
AND WAVES

4-1. Mechanical Oscillations

621. A weight suspended from a long string oscillates in a
vertical plane and is deflected through an angle a from the ver-
tical (a mathematical pendulum). The same weight can rotate
over a circumference so that the string describes a cone (a co-
nical pendulum). When will the tension of the string deflected
through an angle a from the vertical be greater?
622. A clock with an oscillation period of the pendulum of 1
second keeps accurate time on the surface of the Earth. When
will the clock go slower in a day: if it is raised to an altitude
of 200 metres or lowered into a mine to a depth of 200 metres?
623. Two small spheres each with a mass of tn = 1 g are
secured to the ends of a weightless rod with a length d = 1 metre.
The rod is so suspended from a hinge that it can rotate without
friction around a vertical axis passing through its middle. Two
large spheres with masses M = 20 kg are fastened on one line
with the rod. The distance between the centres of a large
sphere and a small one L =16 cm (Fig. 222). Find the period
of small oscillations of this torsion pendulum.
624. What is the period of oscillations of a mathematical
pendulum in a railway carriage moving horizontally with an
acceleration a?

Fig. 222
128 PROBLEMS

625. Find the period of oscillations of a pendulum in a lift

moving vertically with an acceleration a.
626. A block performs small oscillations in a vertical plane
while moving without friction over the internal surface of a
spherical cup. Determine the period of oscillations of the block
if the internal radius of the cup is R and the face of the
block is much smaller than R.
627. How will the period of oscillations of the block in the
cup change (see Problem 626) if, besides the force of gravity,
the cup is acted upon by a force F directed vertically upward?
The mass of the cup M is much greater than that of the
block m.
628. How will the period of oscillations of the block in the
cup change (see Problem 626) if the cup is placed onto a smooth
horizontal surface over which it can move without friction?
629. A hoop with a mass m and a radius r can roll without
slipping over the internal surface of a cylinder with a radius R
(Fig. 223). Determine the period of motion of the hoop centre
if the angle cp is small.
630. Find the period of oscillations of the pendulum shown
in Fig. 224. Consider the rod carrying the masses m, and m2
to be weightless.
631. Find the period of oscil-
lations of a pendulum made of
a thin homogeneous half-ring
with a radius r suspended on
weightless strings OA and OB as
shown in Fig. 225.
632. Figure 226 shows a mech-
anical system consisting of a
weight with a mass m, spring
A with a coefficient of elasti-

Fig. 223 Fig. 224

OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 129

city k and a pulley with a mass M. A string passed over the

pulley connects the weight to the spring. Find the period of
oscillations of the weight if the pulley is a thin-walled cylinder.
633. With what frequency will a bottle with a mass of
m = 200 g and a cross-sectional area of A = 50 cm2 oscillate if
it floats on the surface of water in a vertical position?
Note. Remember that the period of oscillations of a weight
m
on a spring is T =231 k ' where k is the coefficient of elas-
ticity of the spring.
634. Mercury is poured into communicating cylindrical ves-
sels. Find the oscillation period of the mercury if the cross-
sectional area of each vessel is A = 0.3 cm2 and the mass of the
mercury m=484 g. The specific weight of mercury is
= 13.6 gf/cm3.
635. A mine pierces the Earth along one of its diameters. In
what time will a body thrown into the mine reach the centre
of the Earth? There is no resistance to motion.
636. A string secured at its ends is stretched with a force f.
A point weight with a mass m is attached to the middle of the
string (Fig. 227). Deter-
mine the period of small
oscillations of the weight.
The mass of the string
and the force of gravity
can be neglected.
637. How will the pe-
riod of vertical oscilla-

Fig. 225 Fig. 226

5-1865
130 PROBLEMS

Fig. 227

tions of a weight hanging on two identical springs change if

the series connection of the springs is changed to a parallel one?
638. Two mathematical pendulums each with a length / are
connected by a weightless spring as shown in Fig. 228. The
coefficient of elasticity of the spring is k. In equilibrium the
pendulums occupy a vertical position and the spring is not de-
formed. Determine the frequencies of small oscillations of the two
linked pendulums when they are deflected in one plane through
equal angles in one direction (oscillations in phase) and in
opposite directions (oscillations in antiphase).
639. A force of 5 kgf should be applied to the handle of an
open swinging door to keep it in equilibrium (the door is retur-
ned to its usual closed position of equilibrium by springs). Can
the door be opened by a force of 10 gf applied to the same
handle? Disregard friction in the door hinges.
640. A weightless rod with a length / is rigidly attached to
a weightless pulley with a radius r. The end of the rod carries
a mass m (Fig. 229). A string to whose free end a mass M is

Fig. 228
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 131

Fig. 229

fastened is passed over the pulley. In what condition will the

motion of the system be oscillatory if the angle a between the
rod and the vertical is zero at the initial moment?

4-2. Electrical Oscillations

641. Why is a permanent magnet needed in a telephone re-
ceiver? Why must the intensity of the magnetic field of this
magnet be greater than the maximum intensity of the magne-
tic field generated by the current flowing through the winding
of the telephone coil?
642. Find the frequency of natural oscillations in a circuit
consisting of a solenoid with a length of 1 =3 cm, a cross-sec-
tional area of S1= 1 cm2 and a plane capacitor with a plate
area of S2 =30 cm2, the distance between them being d = 0.1 cm.
The number of solenoid turns is N = 1,000.
643. An electric circuit consists of a capacitor with a cons-
tant capacitance and a coil into which a core can move. One
core is made of ferrite and is used as an insulator, and the
other is made of copper. How will the frequency of natural
oscillations of the circuit change if (a) the copper core, (b) the
ferrite core, is moved into the coil?
5*
132 PROBLEMS

Ie

Fig. 230 Fig. 231

644. The capacitors described in Problem 594 are connected

by a superconductor. No heat is liberated. How can the dec-
rease in the energy of the electric field be explained in this
case from a qualitative point of view?
645. A voltage of V,=Viocos cot is applied to the vertically
deflecting plates of an oscillograph and a voltage of V 2 =V20
cos (o)t—y) to the horizontally deflecting plates. Find the
trajectory of the cathode beam on the oscillograph screen if
the phase difference between the voltage on the plates is
(pi = –9
2-and c1'2=
646. Figure 230 shows a circuit consisting of a battery E, a
neon tube N, a capacitor C and a resistor R.
The characteristic of the neon tube (current in the tube
versus voltage) is shown in Fig. 231. Current does not flow
through the tube when the voltage is low. When the potential
in the tube reaches V, (striking potential), the tube ignites,
the current jumps to Is and then grows in proportion to V. If
the voltage drops, the current drops at a slower rate than that
at which it increased. The tube goes out at an extinguishing
potential V,.
Draw the approximate relation between the change of vol-
tage across the capacitor and the time when the key K is
closed.
647. How will the period of relaxation oscillations change in
a circuit with a neon tube (see Problem 646) if the capacitance
of the capacitor C and the resistance R change?
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 133

648. A plane capacitor incorporated into an oscillatory circuit

is so designed that its plates can move relative to each other.
How can the circuit be made to oscillate parametrically by
moving the plates?

4-3. Waves
649. A thin string is replaced by another made of the same
material, but with a double diameter. How many times should
the tension of the string be changed to retain the previous
frequency of oscillations?
650. Find the frequencies of natural oscillations of a steel
string with a length of / =50 cm and a diameter of d= 1 mm
if the tension of the string is T=2,450 dynes. The density of
steel is p =7.8 g/cm3.
651. Find the frequencies of the natural oscillations of an air
column in a pipe with a length of 1= 3.4 metres closed at both
ends.
652. A tuning fork with a frequency of natural oscillations
of v = 340 s-1sounds above a cylindrical vessel one metre high.
Water is slowly poured into the vessel. At what level of the
water in the vessel will the sound of the tuning fork be appre-
ciably intensified?
653. What is the shape of the front of the shock wave pro-
duced in air when a bullet flies at a supersonic velocity?
654. A jet airplane flies at a velocity of 500 m/s at a dis-
tance of 6 km from a man. At what distance from the man was
the plane when the man heard its sound?
655. If a source of sound and a man are about at the same
altitude the sound is heard better in the direction of the wind
than in the opposite direction. How can you explain this pheno-
menon?
656. Why can TV programmes be seen only within the range
of direct visibility?
657. A radio direction finder operates in pulse duty. The pulse
frequency is f =1,700 cps and its duration is T-0.8 ps. Deter-
mine the maximum and minimum range of this finder.
658. Besides the wave transmitted directly from the station
(point A), a TV aerial (point C in Fig. 232) receives the wave
reflected from the iron roof of a building (point B). As a result
a double image appears. How many centimetres are the images
shifted with respect to each other if the aerial and the roof are
134 PROBLEMS

(---8km---4"- O

\ I
4km 4km

•■
•■■
•■■
•

Fig. 232 Fig. 233

located as shown in Fig. 232? The width of the TV screen is
1= 50 cm.
Note. Remember that the image is resolved into 625 lines,
and 25 frames are transmitted a second.
659. A vibrator with a length of 1=0.5 metre is immersed
into a vessel with kerosene (sr = 2). What is the length of the
electromagnetic wave radiated by the vibrator in a vacuum as
it emerges from the vessel?
660. Figure 233 depicts a TV aerial. How is the plane of
oscillations of the magnetic vector of the wave coming from the
TV centre orientated?
CHAPTER 5
GEOMETRICAL
OPTICS

5-1. Photometry
661. A round hall with a diameter of D=30 metres is illu-
minated by a lamp secured in the centre of the ceiling. Find
the height h of the hall if the minimum illumination of the
wall is double that of the floor.
662. A lamp rated at /, = 100 cd hangs above the middle of
a round table with a diameter of D = 3 metres at a height of
H —2 metres. It is replaced by a lamp with 12 = 25 cd and
the distance to the table is changed so that the illumination
of the middle of the table remains as before. How will the illu-
mination of the edge of the table change?
663. Sources of light S, and S2of equal intensity are arran-
ged at the vertices of an isosceles right triangle (Fig. 234). How
should a small plate A be positioned for its illumination to be
maximum? The sides of the triangle AS, = AS2 =a.
664. An attempt to use a photometer to measure the luminous
intensity of a certain source of light failed since the luminous
intensity was very high and the illumination of the photometer
fields with the aid of a standard source could not be equalized
even when the source being investigated was placed on the very
edge of the photometer bench. Then a third source was employed
with a luminous intensity lower than that of the one being inves-
tigated. At a distance of r1 = 10 cm from the photometer the
standard source produced the same illumination of the fields as

Fig. 234
136 PROBLEMS

the third one that was placed at a distance of r2 =50 cm. After
that, the standard source was replaced by the one being investi-
gated and equal illuminations were obtained at distances from
the photometer r8= 40 cm (source being investigated) and
r4=10 cm (auxiliary source). Find how many times the lumi-
nous intensity of the source being investigated is greater than
that of the standard source.
665. The ray of a searchlight falls on the wall of a house and
produces a bright spot with a radius of r = 40 cm. How many
times will the illumination of the wall of a remote house be
smaller if the radius of the spot on it is 2 metres?
666. A lamp with a luminous intensity of I = 100 cd is fastened
to the ceiling of a room. Determine the total luminous flux
falling onto all the walls and the floor of the room.
667. What part of the energy radiated by the Sun reaches
the Earth? The radius of the Earth is 6,400 km and the average
distance from the Earth to the Sun is 149, 000, 000 km.
668. A hot glowing wire is placed on the axis of a hollow
cylinder with a radius R. The length of the wire is much greater
than the height of the cylinder. How many times will the illu-
mination of the internal surface of the cylinder change if its
radius is R 2(assume that R 2< R1)?
669. At what height should a lamp be hung above the centre
of a round table to obtain the maximum illumination on its
edges?
670. Why can a text be read through tissue paper only if
the paper is placed directly on the page?

5 -2. Fundamental Laws of Optics

671. Why is the shadow of a man's legs on the ground sharp
and that of his head diffused? In what conditions will the
shadow be equally distinct everywhere?
672. How should a pencil be held above a table to obtain
a sharp shadow if the source of light is a daylight lamp in the
form of a long tube secured on the ceiling?
673. In autumn, when the trees have shed all their leaves,
one can frequently see shadows from two parallel branches.
The lower branch produces a sharp dark shadow and the
upper branch a broader and lighter one. If two such shadows
are accidently superimposed, one can see a bright light stripe
in the middle of the darker shadow, so that the shadow seems
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
137

ATI 16E
B CP Fig. 235 Fig. 236

to be a double one (Fig. 235). How do you explain this pheno-

menon?
674. When sunrays pass through a small opening in the foliage
at the top of a high tree, they produce an elliptical spot on the
ground. The major and minor axes of the ellipses are a= 12 cm
and b = 10 cm, respectively. What is the height of the tree H?
The angular dimensions of the Sun's disk are (3=1/108
rad.
675. A periscope is designed with two reflecting prisms. Deter-
mine the ratio of the widths of these prisms if the distance between
them AB = L and the distance from the lower prism to the eye
of the observer BC = l (Fig. 236). The objects viewed through
the periscope are at a great distance from it.
676. What minimum height should a flat mirror secured ver-
tically on a wall have for a man to see his reflection full size
without changing the position of his head? Determine also the
required distance between the floor and the lower edge of the
mirror.
677. Sunrays are reflected from a horizontal mirror and fall
on a vertical screen. An oblong object is placed on the mirror
(Fig. 237). Describe the shadow on the screen.
678. In what conditions does the shape of the reflection of
a sunbeam from a small mirror not depend on the shape of the
mirror?
679. How can a real landscape on a photograph be distin-
guished from its reflection in quiet water?
138 PROBLEMS

680. Find graphically the positions of an observer's eye that

will allow him to see in a mirror of finite dimensions the image
of a straight line arranged as shown in Fig. 238.
681. A flat mirror is arranged parallel to a wall at a distance
/ from it. The light produced by a point source fastened on
the wall falls on the mirror, is reflected and produces a light
spot on the wall. With what velocity will the light spot move
along the wall if the mirror is brought up to the wall with a
velocity v? How will the dimensions of the light spot change?
682. Using the condition of Problem 681, find whether the
illumination of the wall at the point where the light spot is
will change when the mirror is moved. The dimensions of the
mirror are much smaller than the distance from the mirror to
the source of light.
683. A flat mirror revolves at a constant angular velocity,
making n = 0.5 revolution per second. With what velocity will
a light spot move along a spherical screen with a radius of
10 metres if the mirror is at the centre of curvature of the screen?
684. When the Russian scientist A. A. Belopolsky investigated
the Doppler optical phenomenon he observed light repeatedly
reflected from moving mirrors (Fig. 239). The mirrors were placed
on disks revolving in different directions.
(a) The angular velocity o of rotation of the disks being known,
find the angular velocity Q of rotation of a beam that is conse-
cutively reflected n times from the mirrors.
(b) Determine the linear velocity of the n-th image at the mo-
ment when the mirrors are parallel to each other and their
reflecting portions move with a velocity v in different directions.
685. Solve Problem 684 if the disks rotate in the same direc-
tion.

Mirror
t Fig. 237
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 139

Fig. 238 Fig. 239

686. A narrow beam of light S is incident on a dihedral

angle a= 60° formed by identical flat mirrors OM and ON
secured on axis 0 (Fig. 240). After being reflected from the
mirrors, the light is focussed by lens L and gets into stationary
receiver R. The mirrors rotate with a constant angular velocity.
What part of the light energy of the beam will reach the
receiver during a time that greatly exceeds the period of rotation
if the beam passes at a distance a from an axis equal to half
the length of mirror OM?
687. Can a flat mirror be used instead of an ordinary cinema
screen?
688. A projecting camera standing near a wall in a room
produces an image with an area of A = 1 m2 on the opposite
wall. What will the area of the image be if a flat mirror is so
hung on the wall opposite the camera that the image is obtained
on the wall near which the camera stands?

Fig. 240
140 PROBLEMS

889. Two flat mirrors AO

and OB form a dihedral angle
21c
—n, where n is an inte-
ger. A point source of light
S is placed between the mir-
rors at the same distance from
both of them. Find the num-
ber of images of the source
Fig. 241 in the mirrors.
690. Two flat mirrors AO and
OB form an arbitrary dihedral
2n
angle q = — , where a is any number greater than 2. A point
a
source of light S is between the mirrors at equal distances from
them. Find the number of images of the source in the mirrors.
691. In what direction should a beam of light be sent from
point A (Fig. 241) contained in a mirror box for it to fall onto
point B after being reflected once from all four walls?
Points A and B are in one plane perpendicular to the walls
of the box (i.e., in the plane of the drawing).
692. Why does the water seem much darker directly below an
airplane flying over a sea than at the horizon?
693. Over what distance will a beam passing through a plane-
parallel plate be displaced if the thickness of the plate is d,
the refraction index is n and the angle of incidence is i?
Can the beam be displaced by more than the thickness of the
plate?

Fig. 242 Fig. 243

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 141

694. At what values of the refrac-

: tion index of a rectangular prism can
c a ray travel as shown in Fig. 242?
The section of the prism is an isosce-
. les triangle and the ray is normally
incident onto AB.
695. A rectangular glass wedge is
lowered into water. The refraction in-
\ dex of glass is n1 = 1.5. At what ang-
--►4 b 14— le a (Fig. 243) will the beam of light
Fig. 244 normally incident on AB reach AC en-
tirely?
696. On bright sunny days drivers frequently see puddles on
some parts of asphalt country highways at a distance of 80-100
metres ahead of the car. As the driver approaches such places,
the puddles disappear and reappear again in other places approxi-
mately at the same distance away. Explain this phenome-
non.
697. A thick plate is made of a transparent material whose
refraction index changes from n1on its upper edge to n2 on its
lower edge. A beam enters the plate at the angle a. At what
angle will the beam leave the plate?
698. A cubical vessel with non-transparent walls is so located
that the eye of an observer does not see its bottom, but sees
all of the wall CD (Fig. 244).
What amount of water should be poured into the vessel for
the observer to see an object F arranged at a distance of b= 10 cm
from corner D? The face of the vessel is a= 40 cm.
699. A man in a boat is looking at the bottom of a lake.
How does the seeming depth of the lake h depend on the angle i
formed by the line of vision with the vertical? The actual depth
of the lake is everywhere the same and equal to H.
700. The cross section of a glass prism has the form of an
equilateral triangle. A ray is incident onto one of the faces
perpendicular to it. Find the angle cp between the incident ray
and the ray that leaves the prism. The refraction index of glass
is n = 1.5.
701. The cross section of a glass prism has the form of an
isosceles triangle. One of the equal faces is coated with silver.
A ray is normally incident on another unsilvered face and, being
reflected twice, emerges through the base of the prism perpendicular
to it. Find the angles of the prism.
142 PROBLEMS

702. A ray incident on the face of a prism is refracted and

escapes through an adjacent face. What is the maximum permissible
angle of refraction of the prism a if it is made of glass with
a refraction index of n = 1.5?
703. A beam of light enters a glass prism at an angle a and
emerges into the air at an angle 6. Having passed through the
prism, the beam is reflected from the original direction by an
angle y. Find the angle of refraction of the prism y and the
refraction index of the material which it is made of.
704. The faces of prism ABCD made of glass with a refraction
index n form dihedral angles: L A = 90°, L B = 75°, L C= 135°
and L D = 60° (the Abbe prism). A beam of light falls on face
AB and after complete internal reflection from face BC escapes
through face AD. Find the angle of incidence a of the beam
onto face AB if a beam that has passed through the prism is
perpendicular to the incident beam.
705. If a sheet of paper is covered with glue or water the
text typed on the other side of the sheet can be read. Explain
why?

5 3. Lenses and Spherical Mirrors

-

706. Find the refraction index of the glass which a symmetrical

convergent lens is made of if its focal length is equal to the
radius of curvature of its surface.
707. A piano-convex convergent lens is made of glass with a
refraction index of n= 1.5. Determine the relation between the
focal length of this lens f and the radius of curvature of its con-
vex surface R.
708. Find the radii of curvature of a convexo-concave con-
vergent lens made of glass with a refraction index of n= 1.5
having a focal length of f =24 cm. One of the radii of curvature
is double the other.
709. A convexo-convex lens made of glass with a refraction
index of n= 1.6 has a focal length of f =10 cm. What will the
focal length of this lens be if it is placed into a transparent
medium with a refraction index of n1 = 1.5? Also find the focal
length of this lens in a medium with a refraction index of
rt, = 1.7.
710. A thin glass lens has an optical power of D=5 diopters.
When this lens is immersed into a liquid with a refraction
index n2, the lens acts as a divergent one with a focal length
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 143

V~B of 1= 100 cm. Find the refra-

ction index n2 of the liquid if
that of the lens glass is r
1.5.
711. The distance between an
object and a divergent lens is
m times greater than the focal
A length of the lens. How many
Fig. 245 times will the image be smaller
than the object?
712. The hot filament of a lamp and its image obtained with
the aid of a lens having an optical power of four diopters are
equal in size. Over what distance should the lamp be moved
away from the lens to decrease its image five times?
713. The distance between two point sources of light is 1= 24 cm.
Where should a convergent lens with a focal length of f =9 cm
be placed between them to obtain the images of both sources at
the same point?
714. The height of a candle flame is 5 cm. A lens produces
an image of this flame 15 cm high on a screen. Without touching
the lens, the candle is moved over a distance of 1 = 1.5 cm
away from the lens, and a sharp image of the flame 10 cm
high is obtained again after shifting the screen. Determine the
main focal length of the lens.
715. A converging beam of rays is incident onto a divergent
lens so that the continuations of all the rays intersect at a
point lying on the optical axis of the lens at a distance of
b= 15 cm from it.
Find the focal length of the lens in two cases:
(1) after being refracted in the lens, the rays are assembled
at a point at a distance of a1 = 60 cm from the lens;
(2) the continuations of the refracted rays intersect at a point
at a distance of a2 =60 cm in front of the lens.
716. The distance between an electric lamp and a screen is
d= 1 metre. In what positions of a convergent lens with a focal

.B

N2
Fig. 246
144 PROBLEMS

.s
Ne

Fig. 247

length of f =21 cm will the image of the lamp filament be

sharp?
Can an image be obtained if the focal length is f' = 26 cm?
717. A thin convergent lens produces the image of a certain
object on a screen. The height of the image is h1. Without
changing the distance between the object and the screen, the
lens is shifted, and it is found that the height of the second
sharp image is h2. Determine the height of the object H.
718. What is the radius R of a concave spherical mirror at
a distance of a =2 metres from the face of a man if he sees
in it his image that is one and a half times greater than on
a flat mirror placed at the same distance from the face?
719. Figure 245 shows ray AB that has passed through a
divergent lens. Construct the path of the ray up to the lens
if the position of its foci F is known.
720. Figure 246 shows a luminescent point and its image
produced by a lens with an optical axis N1N2. Find the position
of the lens and its foci.
721. Find by construction the optical centre of a lens and
its main foci on the given optical axis N 1N 2if the positions
of the source S and the image S' are known (Fig. 247).
722. The position of the optical axis N 11■
12, the path of ray
AB incident upon a lens and the refracted ray BC are known
(Fig. 248). Find by construction the position of the main foci
of the lens.
723. A convergent lens produces the image of a source at
point S' on the main optical axis. The positions of the centre
of the lens 0 and its foci F are known, and OF <OS'. Find
by construction the position of source S.

A
B
Fig. 248
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 145

.S

N7 • 8' Ng Fig. 249

724. Point S' is the image of a point source of light S in

a spherical mirror whose optical axis is N1N2 (Fig. 249). Find
by construction the position of the centre of the mirror and
its focus.
725. The positions of optical axis N 1N 2of .a spherical mir-
ror, the source and the image are known (Fig. 250). Find by
construction the positions of the centre of the mirror, its focus
and the pole for the cases: (a) A—source, B—image; (b) B —
source, A—image.
726. A point source of light placed at a distance from a
screen creates an illumination of 2.25 lx at the centre of the
screen. How will this illumination change if on the other side
of the source and at the same distance from it we place:
(a) an infinite flat mirror parallel to the screen?
(b) a concave mirror whose centre coincides with the centre
of the screen?
(c) a convex mirror with the same radius of curvature as
the concave mirror?
727. A man wishing to get a picture of a zebra photographed
a white donkey after fitting a glass with black streaks onto
the objective of his camera. What will be on the photograph?
728. The layered lens shown in Fig. 251 is made of two
kinds of glass. What image will be produced by this lens with

• 49 A

•A R
N2

Fig. 250 Fig. 251

146 PROBLEMS

a point source arranged on the optical axis? Disregard the reflec-

tion of light on the boundary between layers.
729. The visible dimensions of the disks of the Sun and the
Moon at the horizon seem magnified as compared with their
visible dimensions at the zenith. How can it be proved experi-
mentally with the aid of a lens that this magnification is
apparent?

5-4. Optical Systems and Devices

730. A source of light is located at double focal length from
a convergent lens. The focal length of the lens is f =30 cm.
At what distance from the lens should a flat mirror be placed
so that the rays reflected from the mirror are parallel after
passing through the lens for the second time?
731. A parallel beam of rays is incident on a convergent
lens with a focal length of 40 cm. Where should a divergent
lens with a focal length of 15 cm be placed for the beam of
rays to remain parallel after passing through the two lenses?
732. An object is at a distance of 40 cm from a convex
spherical mirror with a radius of curvature of 20 cm. At what
distance from the object should a steel plate be placed for the
image of the object in the spherical mirror and the plate to
be in one plane?
733. At what distance from a convexo-convex lens with a
focal length of f =1 metre should a concave spherical mirror
with a radius of curvature of R = 1 metre be placed for a beam
incident on the lens parallel to the major optical axis of the
system to leave the lens, remaining parallel to the optical axis,
after being reflected from the mirror? Find the image of the
object produced by the given optical system.
734. An optical system consists of two convergent lenses with
focal lengths [1 =20 cm and f1 = 10 cm. The distance between
the lenses is d=30 cm. An object is placed at a distance of
a1 = 30 cm from the first lens. At what distance from the second
lens will the image be obtained?
735. Determine the focal length of an optical system consis-
ting of two thin lenses: a divergent one with a focal length fl
and a convergent one with a focal length f 2. The lenses are
fitted tightly against each other, so that the distance between
them can be neglected. The optical axes of the lenses coin-
cide.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 147

Fig. 252

736. A parallel beam of light is incident on a system con-

sisting of three thin lenses with a common optical axis. The focal
lengths of the lenses are equal to f1 = + 10 cm, f2 = —20 cm
and + 9 cm, respectively. The distance between the first
and the second lenses is 15 cm and between the second and
the third 5 cm. Find the position of the point at which the
beam converges when it leaves the system of lenses.
737. A lens with a focal length of f = 30 cm produces on a
screen a sharp image of an object that is at a distance of
a = 40 cm from the lens. A plane-parallel plate with a thickness
of d=9 cm is placed between the lens and the object perpen-
dicular to the optical axis of the lens. Through what distance
should the screen be shifted for the image of the object to
remain distinct? The refraction index of the glass of the plate
is n =1.8.
738. An object AB is at a distance of a = 36 cm from a lens
with a focal length of f = 30 cm. A flat mirror turned through 45°
with respect to the optical axis of the lens is placed behind
it at a distance of l= 1 metre (Fig. 252).
At what distance H from the optical axis should the bottom
of a tray with water be placed to obtain a sharp image of the
object on the bottom? The thickness of the water layer in the
tray is d= 20 cm.
739. A glass wedge with a small angle of refraction a is pla-
ced at a certain distance from a convergent lens with a focal
length f, one surface of the wedge being perpendicular to the
optical axis of the lens. A point source of light is on the other
side of the lens in its focus. The rays reflected from the wedge
produce, after refraction in the lens, two images of the source
148 PROBLEMS

displaced with respect to each other by d. Find the refraction

index of the wedge glass.
740. A concave mirror has the form of a hemisphere with
a radius of R = 55 cm. A thin layer of an unknown transparent
liquid is poured into this mirror, and it was found that the
given optical system produces, with the source in a certain
position, two real images, one of which coincides with the
source and the other is at a distance of 1 = 30 cm from it.
Find the refraction index n of the liquid.
741. A convexo-convex lens has a focal length of f1 = 10 cm.
One of the lens surfaces having a radius of curvature of
R = 10 cm is coated with silver. Construct the image of the
object produced by the given optical system and determine the
position of the image if the object is at a distance of a= 15 cm
from the lens.
742. A recess in the form of a spherical segment is made in
the flat surface of a massive block of glass (refraction index n).
The piece of glass taken out of the recess is a thin convergent
lens with a focal length f. Find the focal lengths f1 and f2 of
the spherical surface obtained.
743. A narrow parallel beam of light rays is incident on a
transparent sphere with a radius R and a refraction in-
dex n in the direction of one of the diameters. At what
distance f from the centre of the sphere will the rays be focus-
sed?
744. Find the position of the main planes of a transparent
sphere used as a lens.
745. An object is at a distance of d= 2.5 cm from the surface
of a glass sphere with a radius of R= 10 cm. Find the position
of the image produced by the sphere. The refraction index of
the glass is n =1.5.
746. A spherical flask is made of glass with a refraction in-
dex n. The thickness of the flask walls AR is much less than
its radius R.
Taking this flask as an optical system and considering only
the rays close to the straight line passing through the centre of
the sphere, determine the position of the foci and the main
planes of the system.
747. A beam of light is incident on a spherical drop of water
at an angle i. Find the angle 0 through which the beam is
deflected from the initial direction after a single reflection from
the internal surface of the drop.
GEOMETRICAL OPT ICS 149

748. A parallel beam of rays is incident on a spherical drop

of water.
(1) Calculate the angles 0 through which the rays are deflected
from the initial position for various angles of incidence: 0, 20,
40, 50, 55, 60, 65, and 70°.
(2) Plot a diagram showing 0 versus i and use it to find the
approximate value of the angle of minimum deflection 0„,in •
(3) Determine the values of the angle 0 near which the rays
issuing from the drop are approximately parallel.
The refraction index of water is n = 1.333. (This value of n
,

is true for red rays.)

749. What magnification can be obtained with the aid of a
projecting camera having a lens with a main focal length of
40 cm if the distance from the lens to the screen is 10 metres?
750. Calculate the condenser of a projecting camera, i.e., find
its diameter D and focal length f, if the source of light has
dimensions of about d= 6 mm, and the diameter of the lens is
Do =2 cm. The distance between the source of light and the
lens is l = 40 cm. The size of a slide is 6 x9 cm.
751. In some photographic cameras ground glass is used for
focussing. Why is transparent glass not used for this purpose?
752. Two lanterns of the same luminance are at different
distances from an observer.
(1) Will they appear to the observer as equally bright?
(2) Will their images on photographs be equally bright if the
lanterns are photographed on different frames so that their
images are focussed?
753. An object is photographed from a small distance by two
cameras with identical lens speeds, but different focal lengths.
Should the exposures be the same?
754. It can be noticed that a white wall illuminated by the
setting Sun seems brighter than the surface of the Moon at the
same altitude above the horizon as the Sun. Does this mean that
the surface of the Moon consists of dark rock?
755. Why does a swimmer see only hazy contours of objects
when he opens his eyes under water, while they are distinctly
visible if he is using a mask?
756. A short-sighted man, the accommodation of whose eye
is between a1 = 12 cm and a2 =60 cm, wears spectacles through
which he distinctly sees remote objects. Determine the minimum
distance as at which the man can read a book through his
spectacles.
150 PROBLEMS

757. Two men, a far-sighted and a short-sighted ones, see

objects through their spectacles as a man with normal eyesight.
When the far-sighted man accidently put on the spectacles of
his short-sighted friend, he found that he could see distinctly
only infinitely far objects.
At what minimum distance a can the short-sighted man read
small type if he wears the spectacles of the far-sighted man?
758. An object is examined by a naked eye from a distance D.
What is the angular magnification if the same object is viewed
through a magnifying glass held at a distance r from the eye
and so arranged that the image is at a distance L from the eye?
The focal length of the lens is f.
Consider the cases:
(1) L=oo
(2) L = D.
759. The objective is taken out of a telescope adjusted to
infinity and replaced by a diaphragm with a diameter D. A screen
shows a real image of the diaphragm having a diameter d at
a certain distance from the eyepiece. What was the magnification
of the telescope?
760. The double-lens objective of a photographic camera is
made of a divergent lens with a focal length of f, = 5 cm in-
stalled at a distance of l= 45 cm from the film. Where should
a convergent lens with a focal length of f 2= 8 cm be placed to
obtain a sharp image of remote objects on the film?
761. Calculate the diameter D of the Moon's image on a nega-
tive for the three different positions of the lenses described in
Problem 760.
The diameter of the Moon is seen from the Earth at an angle
of cp = 31'5" = 0.9 x 10-2 rad.
762. The main focal length of the objective of a microscope
is fob = 3 mm and of the eyepiece fey,— 5 cm. An object is at
a distance of a = 3.1 mm from the objective. Find the magni-
fication of the microscope for a normal eye.
CHAPTER 6
PHYSICAL
OPTICS

6-1. Interference of Light

763. Two light waves are superposed in a certain section of
space and extinguish each other. Does this mean that a quantity
of light is converted into other kinds of energy?
764. Two coherent sources of light S, and S2are at a distance 1
from each other. A screen is placed at a distance D -1 from
the sources (Fig. 253). Find the distance between adjacent in-
terference bands near the middle of the screen (point A) if the
sources send light with a wavelength X.
765. Two flat mirrors form an angle close to 180° (Fig. 254).
A source of light S is placed at equal distances b from the
mirrors. Find the interval between adjacent interference bands
on screen MN at a distance OA =a from the point of intersec-
tion of the mirrors. The length of the light wave is known and
equal to X. Shield C does not allow the light to pass directly
from the source to the screen.
766. Lloyd's interference experiment consisted in obtaining
on a screen a pattern from source S and from its virtual image S'
in mirror AO (Fig. 255). How will the interference pattern
obtained from sources S and S' differ from the pattern consi-
dered in Problem 764?

•S
1
A

• S2

Fig. 253
152 PROBLEMS

767. Two point sources

with the same phases of
oscillation are on a straight
line perpendicular to a
screen. The nearest source
b Sy'
A is at a distance of D2■ .
a from the screen. What
shape will the interference
bands have on the screen?
What is the distance on
the screen from the per-
N pendicular to the nearest
F ig. 254 bright band if the dist-
ance between the sources is
/ -= nA >> X (n is an integer)?
768. Find the radius rk of the k-th bright ring (see Prob-
lem 767) if D=1=nk, nil, and k=n, n 1, n-2, etc.
-

769. How can the experiment described in Problem 767 be

carried out in practice?
770. Light from source S is incident on the Fresnel biprism
shown in Fig. 256. The light beams refracted by the different
faces of the prism partly overlap and produce an interference
pattern on a screen on its section AB.
Find the distance between adjacent interference bands if the
distance from the source to the prism is a= 1 metre and from
the prism to the screen b = 4 metres. The angle of refraction
of the prism is a = 2 x 10-3 rad.
The glass which the prism is made of has a refraction index
of n = 1.5. The length of the light wave k = 6,000 A.
771. How many interference bands can be observed on a screen
in an installation with the biprism described in the previous
problem?

Fig. 255
PHYSICAL OPTICS 153

772. The following method is used to facilitate the fabrication

of a biprism with an angle close to 180° (see Problem 770).
A biprism with an angle p that appreciably differs from 180°
is placed into a vessel filled with a liquid having a refraction
index n1, or serves as one of the walls of this vessel (Fig. 257).
Calculate the angle 6 of an equivalent biprism in air. The
refraction index of the prism substance is n2.
Perform the calculations for n1 = 1.5 (benzene), n2 -1.52 (glass),
13= 170°.

Fig. 257 Fig. 258

154 PROBLEMS

773. A convergent lens with a focal length of f = 10 cm is

cut into two halves that are then moved apart to a distance
of d = 0.5 mm (a double lens). Appraise the number of interfe-
rence bands on a screen at a distance of D = 60 cm behind the
lens if a point source of monochromatic light (X = 5,000 A) is
placed in front of the lens at a distance of a= 15 cm from it.
774. A central portion with a width of d = 0.5 mm is cut out of
a convergent lens having a focal length of f = 10 cm, as shown
in Fig. 258. Both halves are tightly fitted against each other.
The lens receives monochromatic light (X = 5,000 A) from a point
source at a distance of a = 5 cm from it. At what distance
should a screen be fixed on the opposite side of the lens to
observe three interference bands on it?
What is the maximum possible number of interference bands
that can be observed in this installation?
775. Find the distance between the neighbouring bands of an
interference pattern produced by a lens with a radius of R = 1 cm,
described in Problem 774, if this distance does not depend on
the position of the screen.
At what position of the screen will the number of interference
bands be maximum?
The source sends monochromatic light with a wavelength of
= 5,000A.
776. What will occur with the interference pattern in the
installation described in Problem 775 if a plane-parallel glass
plate with a thickness of d1 = 0.11 cm is introduced into a light
beam that has passed through the upper half of the lens and
a plate d2 = 0.1 cm thick into a light beam that has passed
through the lower half of the lens? The refraction index of glass
is n = 1.5. The plates are arranged normally to the light beams
passing through them.
777. Why are Newton's rings formed only by the interference
of rays 2 and 3 reflected from the boundaries of the air layer
between the lens and the glass (Fig. 259), while ray 4 reflected
from the flat face of the lens does not affect the nature of the
interference pattern?
778. Will the nature of the interference pattern change in the
installation described in Problem 765 if shield C is removed?
Consider the distance a to be great (one metre). 'I he waves
radiated by the source are not monochromatic.
779. Will Newton's rings be seen more distinctly in reflected
light or in transmitted light?
PHYSICAL OPTICS 155

1423

Fig. 259

780. Dust prevents contact between a plane-convex lens and

the glass plate on which it is placed. The radius of Newton's
fifth dark ring is r1 = 0.08 cm.
If the dust is removed the radius of this ring will increase
to r2 =0.1 cm. Find the thickness of the dust layer d if the
radius of curvature of the convex surface of the lens is R = 10 cm.
781. A plane-convex lens with a radius of curvature R2 < R,
is placed with its convex side onto the surface of a plane-concave
lens having a radius of curvature of R1. Find the radii of New-
ton's rings that appear around the point of contact of the lenses
if monochromatic light with a wavelength k is normally incident
onto the system.
782. A thin coat of a transparent substance with a refraction
index n lower than that of glass is applied to the surface of optical
glass (coated glass) to reduce its reflection factor (reflectance).
Estimate the thickness of this coat if light rays are incident
almost normally onto the optical glass.
783. A normal eye can discern various colour tints with a
difference of wavelengths of 100 A. Bearing this in mind, esti-
mate the maximum thickness of a thin air layer at which an
interference pattern caused by superposition of the rays reflected
from the boundaries of this layer can be observed in white light.
784. A monochromatic flux from a remote source with a
wavelength is, is almost normally incident on a thin glass wedge.
A screen is placed at a distance d from the wedge. A lens with
a focal length f projects the interference pattern produced in
the wedge onto the screen. The distance between the interference
bands on the screen Al is known. Find the angle a of the
wedge if the refraction index of glass is n.
156 PROBLEMS

6-2. Diffraction of Light

785. Calculate the radii of the Fresnel zones of a spherical
wave with a radius a for point B removed by a distance of
a +6 from a source of monochromatic waves with a length of 2„
bearing in mind that a)■, and
786. Calculate the radii of the Fresnel zones of a plane wave
for point B removed from the wave front by a distance of
b.?■ „ where ? is the wavelength of the source.
787. A point source of monochromatic light with a wavelength
of X--5,000 A is at a distance of a= 6.75 metres from a shield
having an aperture with a diameter D=4.5 mm. A screen is
placed at a distance of b=a from the shield (Fig. 260). How
will the illumination change at point B of the screen lying
on the axis of the beam if the diameter of the aperture is
increased to D1 =5.2 mm?
788. How can the fact that an increase of the aperture (see
Problem 787) may reduce the illumination on the axis of a beam
be agreed with the law of conservation of energy? Indeed, the
total luminous flux penetrating behind the shield increases
when the aperture grows.
789. A plane light wave (7,,=6,000 A) is incident on a shield
with a circular diaphragm. A screen is placed at a distance of
b=2 metres behind the diaphragm. At what diameter D of the
diaphragm will the illumination of the screen at point B lying
on the axis of the light beam be maximum?
790. Assuming the distances from a source to a shield and
from the shield to a screen to be about the same and equal
to a, find the conditions in which the diffraction of light
waves with a length 7, on the aperture in the shield will be
sufficiently distinct (the intensity on the axis of the beam will
depend on the diameter of the aperture).

17
B
E- a b

Fig. 260
PHYSI CAL OPTICS 157

Fig. 261
701. Prove that a bright spot will be observed at point B
behind circular screen C (Fig. 261) if its dimensions are suffi-
ciently small.
792. At what distance from each other should two men stand
for an eye to distinguish them from a distance of about 11 km?
The resolving power of a normal eye is approximately F.
793. A plane light wave (with a length k) is normally inci-
dent on a narrow slit with a width b. Determine the directions
to the illumination minima.
794. Find the optimum dimensions of the aperture in a pin
hole camera depending on the wavelength, i.e., the radius r
of the aperture at which a point source will appear on the
camera wall as a circle of minimum diameter, if the distance
from the source of light to the camera is great as compared
with its depth d.
Note. The directions to the illumination minima are deter-
mined in the order of their magnitude by the same formula as
in the case of a slit (see Problem 793), the diameter of the
aperture 2r being used instead of the width of the slit b.
795. A monochromatic wave is normally incident on a diffrac-
tion grating with a period of d = 4 x 10-4cm. Find the wave-
length k if the angle between the spectra of the second and
third orders is a=2°30'. The angles of deflection are small.
796. A plane monochromatic wave (? =5 x 10-5cm) is incident
on a diffraction grating with 500 lines. Determine the maximum
order of the spectrum k that can be observed when the rays
are normally incident on the grating.
797. Find the constant d of a grating that can analyse infra-
red radiation with wavelengths up to k=2 x10-2 cm. The
radiation is normally incident on the grating.
798. A monochromatic wave is normally incident on a diffrac-
tion grating with a period of d=4 x 10-4cm. A lens with a
158 PROBLEMS

focal length of f = 40 cm that produces an image of the diffrac-

tion pattern on a screen is arranged behind the grating.
Find the wavelength ? if the first maximum is obtained at
a distance of 1 = 5 cm from the central one.
799. A source of white light, a diffraction grating and a
screen are immersed into water. What will the changes in the
diffraction pattern be if the angles by which the light rays are
deflected by the grating are small?
800. Light passed through a light filter is normally incident
on a diffraction grating with a period of d= 2 x 10-4cm. The
filter passes wavelengths from k, = 5,000 A to k, = 6,000 A. Will
the spectra of different orders be superposed?
801. Solve Problem 796, assuming that a plane wave
(k =5 x10-5cm) is incident on the grating at an angle of 30°.
802. Solve Problem 797, assuming that the rays may fall on
the grating diagonally.
803. Find the condition that determines the directions to the
principal maxima if light waves fall diagonally on a grating
with a period d> (k is the order of the spectrum).

6-3. Dispersion of Light and Colours of Bodies

804. A beam of white light falls at an angle of a= 300 on
a prism with a refraction angle of y = 45°. Determine the angle
0 between the extreme rays of the spectrum when they emerge
from the lens if the refraction indices of the prism for the
extreme rays of the visible spectrum are nr= 1.62 and n,„ = 1.67.
805. White light is incident from a point source on the
optical axis of a convexo-convex lens at a distance of a = 50 cm
from it. The radii of curvature of the lens are R1 = R, =40 cm.
A diaphragm with a diameter of D= 1 cm that restricts the
cross section of the light beam is placed tightly in front of
the lens. The refraction indices for the extreme rays of the
visible spectrum are nr =1.74 and n0 = 1.8, respectively. What
pattern can be observed on a screen arranged at a distance of
b =50 cm from the lens and perpendicular to its optical axis?
806. Using the results of Problem 748, construct the elemen-
tary theory of the rainbow, i. e., show that the centre of a
rainbow lies on a straight line drawn from the Sun through the
eye of an observer and that the arc of the rainbow is a part
of a circle all of whose points can be seen at an angle of 42°
PHYSICAL OPTICS 159

(for red light) with reference to the straight line connecting

the eye of the observer and the centre of the rainbow.
807. Explain from a qualitative point of view the appearance
of a double rainbow. How do the colours alternate in the pri-
mary and the reflection rainbows?
808. Can a rainbow be observed at midday in Moscow during
the summer solstice (on June 22)?
Note. At this time the Sun is the highest above the horizon
in the northern hemisphere.
809. The length of a wave in water diminishes n times,
n being the refraction index. Does this mean that a diver cannot
see surrounding objects in their natural colours?
810. The word "excellent" is written on a sheet of white
paper with a red pencil and the word "good" with a green
pencil. A green and a red pieces of glass are available. Through
which glass can the word "excellent" be seen?
811. Why do coated lenses (see Problem 782) have a purple-
violet (lilac) tint?
812. Why do the colours of thin films (for example, oil films on
water) and the colours of a rainbow have different tints?
813. A thin soapy film is stretched over a vertical frame.
When the film is illuminated by white light it shows three
bands coloured purple (crimson), yellow and light-blue (blue-
green). Find the arrangement and the order of the bands.
814. Why does the Moon, purely white in the daytime, have
a yellowish hue after sunset?
815. Why does a column of smoke rising above the roofs of
houses seem blue against the dark background of the surrounding
objects, and yellow or even reddish against the background of
a bright sky?
816. Why do the colours of moist objects seem deeper and
richer than those of dry ones?
ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER 1
MECHANICS

1-1. Kinematics of Uniform Rectilinear Motion

I. During the first hour after the meeting, the boat travelled away from
the rafts. During the next 30 minutes, when the engine was being repaired,
the distance between the boat and the rafts did not increase. The boat overtook
the rafts in one hour because its speed with respect to the water and hence
to the rafts was constant. Thus the velocity of the current
o= = 7.5
km/h =3 km/h
t 1+0.5+1
S—HFI
2. As can be seen from Fig. 262, s. Since the man moves uniformly,
S=HH
s=vt. Hence h vt. The shadow moves with a constant velocity
Hy
greater than the speed of the man. For this reason the velocity
H—h '
diagram has the form of a straight line parallel to the axis of abscissas.
3. The time of the meeting was 8 a. m. The man's speed was 4 km/h.
The other questions can easily be answered with the aid of the chart in Fig.
263—the man met the twelfth bus at a distance of 10.7 km from the mill;
the cyclist was overtaken by four buses.

Fig. 262
MECHAN ICS 161

4. The distance between the trains is s=vt; on the other hand, S=VT+UT.
v (t
Hence u— - 45 km/h.
—T)=--
-r
5. In Fig. 264, AMN shows the usual trip of the car, SC—the engineer's
walk until he met the car at point C, CB—the motion of the car after it
met the engineer.
According to the conditions, BN=-.1(M= 10 minutes. The time during
which the engineer had walked before he met the car is
KM
SD=SM—DM=SM--=55 minutes

6. The chart in Fig. 265 shows the movement of the launches between
the landing-stages M and K. It follows from the chart that the landing-stages
are served by eleven launches. A launch travelling from M to K meets eight
launches, as does a launch travelling from K to M.

Fig. 264
6-1865
162 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

4 5 5 7 Bthowu'S Fig. 265

7. Each tourist will walk half the distance and ride the bicycle the other
half. The entire distance will be covered in v-F s=5 hours 20 min-
1=2 i 202
utes.
Hence, the mean speed is v=--t—=7.5 km/h. The bicycle remains unused
during half the time of motion, i.e., during 2 hours 40 minutes.
8. Assume that the first candle burns down by the amount Ah1and the
other by Ah2 during the time At (Fig. 266). The shadow on the left wall
(from the first candle) will then lower over the distance
Ax=Ahi d- (Ahi— Ah2) = 2A/4— Ah2
and that on the right wall over the distance
Ay= Ah2 —(Ahi — Ah2)=-2Ah2 — Ahi
h
Remembering that Ahi =— At and Aha = —
4 At, we get
1.2
vi_ Ax _ 2h h h
(2t 2 tl)
At ti t2 tits
Ay 2h h h
(2ti — t2)
02 = Att2 t1 — t1t2
If t2 > t1, then 01> 0 and 02 may be negative, i.e., the shadow on the
right wall may move upward.
U. The bus is at point A and the man at point B (Fig. 267). Point C is
the spot where the man meets the bus, a is the angle between the direction
towards the bus and the direction in which the man should run, AC=--viti,
BC =vats, where t1 and t2 are the times required for the bus and the man,
respectively, to reach point C.
MECHANICS 163

Fig. 266

b a a
A glance at triangle ABC shows that AC= — where sin [3--
sin p BC •
a
Consequently, sin ex= —„ . According to the condition, t1 > t2, and
001t5
Vg 2
av
therefore sin a, i = 0.6. Hence 36°45' --< a< 143°15'.
uv2
The directions in which the man can move are within the limits of the
angle DBE. Upon running in the directions BD or BE, the man will reach
the highway at the same time as the bus. He will reach any point on the
highway between D and E before the bus.
10. The minimum speed can be determined from the conditions
avi
ti=t2, sin ce=—
,.. =
uv2
Hence v2 =2
„. v1 =2.4 m/s.
Here a=90°. Therefore, the man should run in a direction perpendicular
to the initial line (AB, Fig. 267) between him and the bus.
11. Since the man's speed in water is lower than that along the shore,
the route AB will not necessarily take the shortest time.
Assume that the man follows the route ADB (Fig. 268). Let us determine
the distance x at which the time will be minimum.
The time of motion t is
rd 2,x2 s— X 02 -ra2 ± X2 —VIX ViS
02 UO2
This time will be minimum if Yr=v2 lid 2 ±x2 —vix has the smallest value.
Obviously, the value of x that corresponds to the minimum time t does not

Fig. 267
6*
164 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

depend on the distance s. To find the value of x corresponding to the minimum

value of y, let us express x through y and obtain the quadratic equation
2yv1 4d2 —y2 (
.1
x2 „2 _2 .1"- 2
v2 v1 v2 v
,i

Its solution leads to the following expression

x- vly±
V2 VY2 d2O1— v2d2
2
4—vf
Since x cannot be a complex number, y2 ± d2v1 v:c12.
The minimum value of y is equal to ymin=c1V 4-4, and x=
dvi
corresponds to it.
vl_vt
If s< do1 , the man should immediately swim to point B along AB.
4— vi.
Otherwise, the man should run along the shore over the distance AD=s
, and then swim to B.
4-012
vi
Let us note that sin cc=— for the route corresponding to the shortest
V2
time.
12. (1) Graphically, it is easier to solve the problem in a coordinate system
related to the water. The speed of a raft equal to the velocity of the river
current is zero in this system, and the speed of the ship upstream and down-
stream will be the same in magnitude. For this reason tan cci =tan
on the chart showing the motion of the motor-ship (Fig. 269). When the ship
stops at the landing-stage, its speed with respect to the water will be equal
to the river current velocity v2. Hence tan a=v2.

Fig. 269
 MECHANICS 165

It can be seen from Fig. 269 that

BF tan av t3 —tan (
02 = tan cc=— 't3— el) —2.5 km/h
AF = t2 t2

(2) From the moment the ship meets the rafts to the moment it overtakes
them, the rafts will cover a distance equal to
44)
s--=v2 (4++

On the other hand, this distance is equal to the difference between the dis-
tances travelled by the ship upstream and downstream:
s= t3(v1 v2)—t1(01-02)
Hence,
02 (t/ t2+ t3)=t3 (VI -FLP2) - t1 (01-00
and
, t3-41)
=2.5 km/h
" 2

13. The motion of the launches leaving their landing-stages at the same
time is shown by lines MEB and KEA, where E is their meeting point
(Fig. 270). Since the speeds of the launches relative to the water are the same,
MA and KB are straight lines.
Both launches will travel the same time if they meet at the middle bet-
ween the landing-stages. Point 0 where they meet lies on the intersection of
line KB with a perpendicular erected from the middle of distance KM. The
motion of the launches is shown by lines KOD and COB. It can be seen from
Fig. 270 that AMAF is similar to ACOF, and, therefore, the sought time
MC=45 minutes.
14. The speed of the launches with respect to the water v1and the velocity
of the river current 02 can be found from the equations s=ti(v1 +02) and
5=12 (v1-02), where t1and t2are the times of motion of the launches down-
stream and upstream. It follows from the condition that t1=1.5 hours and
12 =3 hours.
166 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Hence
s (4+ t2)
2tit2 —15 km/h
=
s (t,— ti)
v2 — 2 =5 km/h
titz
The point of the meeting is at a distance of 20 km from landing-stage M.
15. Let us assume that the river flows from C to T with a velocity of 00.
Since the duration of motion of the boat and the launch is the same, we can
write the equation
S
2 +
01 + 00 (02 + Vo 02 — 00

where s is the distance between the landing-stages. Hence,

4+40,00 + 4v2v1 -4-0
and therefore
vo-= —2v2 f 1154-4v1v2 -= —20 ± 19.5
The solution v0 = — 39.5 km/h should be discarded, since with such a current
velocity neither the boat nor the launch could go upstream.
For this reason, 00 = — 0.5 km/h, i. e., the river flows from T to C.
16. The speed of the boat v with respect to the bank is directed along AB
(Fig. 271). Obviously, v = v0 + u. We know the direction of vector v and the
magnitude and direction of vector v0. A glance at the drawing shows that
vector u will be minimum when u j_ v.
Consequently,
umin =v0 cos a, where cos a=
V a2 -Fb2
17. Let the speed u be directed at an angle a to the bank (Fig. 272). Hence
t (u cos a—v)=BC --= a, and to sin a= AC=b
where t is the time the boat is in motion.
By excluding a from these equations, we get
ta (u2 —v2)-2vat—(a2 -Fb2).---0
whence t=15/21 hour. It is therefore impossible to cover the distance AB in
30 minutes.
MECHANICS 167

18. Let u, be the velocity of the wind

relative to the launch. Hence the flag on
the mast will be directed along uo. If
v is the speed of the launch with respect
to the bank, then u=-Aio +v (Fig. 273).
In triangle FCD the angle DCF = [3+a-7
and the angle FDC=a—p. According
to the sine theorem,

sin — 13)
sin (cc+ (3— a
Fig. 273 2)

sin (cc+ P — 221

and therefore v=u
sin (at-3) •
It is impossible to determine the velocity of the current from the known
speed of the launch with respect to the bank, since we do not know the di-
rection of the moving launch with respect to the water.
19. (1) If the speed of the plane relative to the air is constant and equal
to v, then its speed with respect to the Earth with a tail wind (along side BC)
is vBc=v+u, with a head wind vDA.---v—u and with a side wind vAB= C D
= 1/ 2 _u2 (Fig. 274 a and b).
Hence, the time required to fly around the square is
a 2a v+
ti— a =2a
v-hu v—u V v2 u2 v2— u2

(2) If the wind blows along the diagonal of the square from A to C, then
(see Fig. 274c)
V2= V 2A B+ U2—2uvAB cos 45°

B CB
ll

(6) (c) (d)

Fig. 274
168 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

The speed along sides AB and BC is

VAB=VBc=11 U+1/ v2 4
12

The speed along sides CD and AD (Fig. 274d)

2 , /22
VCD=VDA= V 2—
Let us leave only the plus sign before the root in both solutions to preserve
a clockwise direction of the flight. The time required to fly around the square is

4a Vv2 — u2
2
t2 =
V2— U2

Fig. 276
MECHANICS 169

20. Let us use the following notation: u12 .=speed of the second vehicle
with respect to the first one; un=speed of the first vehicle with respect to
the second one.
Obviously, uiz=u„ and 42=4+4+ 2viv2 cos a (Fig. 275). The time
sought is t=i-is— .
21. During the time At the straight line AB will travel a distance viAt
and the straight line CD a distance v2At. The point of intersection of the
lines will travel to position 0' (Fig. 276). The distance 00' can be found
vi At v At
from triangle OFO' or 0E0', where OF = =E0' and OE= 2 =FO', i. e.,
sin a sin a
00' =-.1(0F2+0E2+20F•OE cos a=v At
whence
v= 1 tl+2viv2 cos a
sin a

1-2. Kinematics of Non-Uniform and Uniformly

Variable Rectilinear Motion

22. The mean speed over the entire distance vm =ti+ t2+ ts where 4,
t, and t3are the times during which the vehicle runs at the speeds v,. v.
and 03respectively. Obviously,
s
t vi , v2 , and t,=__
3 v2
Consequently,
3010203
um /
0102±003±0203— 18 km h
23. The path s travelled by the point in five seconds is equal numerically
to the area enclosed between Oabcd and the time axis (see Fig. 6): si = 10.5 cm.
The mean velocity of the point in five seconds is vi = = 2.1 cm/s
and the mean acceleration of the point during the same time is
Av ,
a2=---=v.a cm/s2-
ti
The path travelled in 10 seconds is s2 =25 cm.
Therefore, the mean velocity and the mean acceleration are

02 =-s-1. =2.5 cm/s, a2=0.2 cm/s2

24. During a small time interval At the bow of the boat will move from
point A to point B (Fig. 277). The distance AB=viAt, where 01is the speed
of the boat. A rope length of 0A—OB=CA=--v At will be taken up during
this time. The triangle ABC may be considered as a right one, since AC . OA.
Therefore 01 =
cos a
170 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 277
25. Assume that at the initial moment t 0 the object was at point S
(Fig. 278), and at the moment t occupied the position CD. The similarity
of the triangles SCD and SBA allows us to write the equation
hl hl
AB
=SD vit
BB'
The velocity of point B at a given moment of time is v2 =--- A t-
if the
time At during which the edge of the shadow is shifted by the disi-ance BB'
tends to zero.
1 hi At hl
Since BB'=AB—AB'— hi ( 1 then
vi t At t (t+ 2 Vit (t AO'
hl
or, remembering that At < t, we have v2=— .
vit 2
at2
26. For uniformly accelerated motion x, ---xo -Foot ±- . Therefore
2
35 cm/s, a=82 cm/s2, and x0 = 11 cm is the initial coordinate of the point.
27. It follows from the velocity chart (see Fig. 8) that the initial velocity
OA
v0 =-4 cm/s (0A=4 cm/s). The acceleration a=a =1 cm/s2. First the ve-
locity of the body decreases. At the moment t1 =4 s it is zero and then
grows in magnitude.
The second chart (see Fig. 9) also shows uniformly variable motion. Before
the body stops, it travels a distance of h= 10 cm. According to the first
chart, the distance to the stop
.9 equal to the area of triangle
OAB is 8 cm. Therefore, the
charts show different motions.
A different initial velocity
, 2h
5 cm/s and a differ-
' t,
,
ent acceleration a =—
2h --=
1.25
.L
tl
cm/s2 correspond to the second
chart.
28. The mean speeds of both
the motor vehicles are the same
MECHANICS 171
and equal to
20102
v„,— =36 km/h
v
Therefore, the distance between points A and B is 72 km. The first vehicle
travelled half of this distance in t'=6/5 h, and the other half in t"=4/$ h.
The second vehicle travelled all the time with the acceleration
2s
a=-7=36 km/h2
to
and reached a speed of vi=ato =72 km/h at the end of its trip. It acquired
a speed of 30 km/h in
Vac, 5
ti=— h
a -6
and a speed of 45 km/h in t2 = -v15
a' =5/4
- h after the moment of departure.
At these moments the first vehicle moved at the same speed as the second.
At the moment when one vehicle overtook the other, both of them travelled
the same distance, and therefore the following equalities should be true
at 2 6
vit=- for t <-5- h and
2
at 2 6
+ v2 (t T for -g- h t 2 h

In the first case t=0 (the vehicles run side by side at the initial moment)
or t =5/3 h, which disagrees with the condition that t<6/5 h. In the second
case t=2 h (the vehicles arrive simultaneously at point B), and t= 1/2 h.
This does not satisfy the condition that t>6/5 h. Hence, neither vehicle
overtakes the other.
29. The maximum velocity of the ball when it touches the support is
vniax =)12gH.
During the impact the vel ocity of the ball is reversed, remaining the same
in absolute magnitude. The velocity chart has the form shown in Fig. 279a.
Figure 2796 shows how the coordinate changes with time.
2/4
30. The time during which the first ball falls is t1= =0.3 s. The

V2 h2 I
ratio of the maximum velocities of the balls is
7
t 1— = 1- •

Fig. 279
172 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 280

It follows from the velocity chart (Fig. 280) that the minimum time
T=0.3 s. Besides, the second ball may begin to fall in 0.6, 0.9, 1.2 s, etc.,
after the first ball begins to drop.
The time t during which the velocities of the two balls are the same is
0.3 s. The process periodically repeats every 0.6 second.
31. The initial equations are
gt2 g (t — Tr
n— 1
2 —n' 2

where T is the duration of motion of the body over the n-th centimetre of
its path.
Hence,

V 2n —T
2 (n— 1)

T=

32. Upon denoting the coordinate and the velocity of the first body with
respect to the tower by xi and viand those of the second by x2 and 02, we
can write the following equations
a
xi=vol — --
gt • vi=vo — gt;
2
xo = — Vo
g (t Tr
2 ; 0 2 = -vo-g (t-t)

(The upward direction is considered to be positive here.)

The velocity of the first body relative to the second is u.--
-vi —v2 =200 —er
and it does not change with time.
The distance between the bodies is
gt2
s — x2 = (200—gr) —voT +

The bodies move uniformly with respect to each other and therefore the
distance between them changes in proportion to the time.
 ▪
MECHANICS 173

Fig. 281
at2
33. According to the condition, AA'=vt and CC/=7(Fig. 281). From
the similarity of the triangles AA'0, BB'0 and CC/0 we have
AA' BB' CC'
AO =EDI -= CO
A glance at Fig. 281 shows that A0=-.AB±B0 and CO-=BC-80.
These ratios allow us to determine
AA'—CC' vt ate
BB' = 4
—2

Hence, point B moves with the initial velocity 7directed upward and a
a
constant acceleration directed downward. After reaching the height
2
h= the point will move downward.
44a '
34. Let us denote the speed of the left-hand truck at a certain moment 01
time by 01, of the right-hand one by 02, and of the towed one by 03. Then,
during the time t the left-hand truck will cover the distance
• , alt2
,s1=vit-t-
2
the right-hand truck the distance
a2t2
S2 =V21- +
2
and the towed truck the distance
a3t2
S3 V31- +
2
Si F s2
At the same time it is easy to see that 83= -
. Since this equality
2
must be true at any value of t, then
H-a2
03 = u1 + 0 2 and a3 — .2
2
174 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

35. The acceleration of the book with respect to the floor of the lift
depends on the direction of acceleration of the lift and not on the direction
of its motion (the direction of its velocity).
If the acceleration of the lift is directed upward, the acceleration of the
book will be g- F a. If it is directed downward, the acceleration of the book
g
will be —a.
36. The acceleration of the stone with respect to the Earth is g and with
respect to the railway carriage Ya2 H-g2.
37. If the speed of the lift did not change, the ball would jump up to a
height H.
In a system of reading having a constant speed equal to that of the lift
at the moment the ball begins to fall, the lift will rise during the time t to
at 2
the height ' and during the next time interval t to the height h2=
2
2
2 . Its total height of rising is h=h1-j-h2 =a12.
The sought height which the ball will jump up to above the floor of the
lift is x=H—h=H—at2.
38. The time during which the load is lifted to the height h is t=
V 2h
al
The speed of the load relative to the crane in a vertical direction at this
moment is vi=ait and in a horizontal one v2= a2t.
The total speed of the load with respect to the ground is

v=1/ vt +4+ og
gt 2
39. In free falling, body A will travel a vertical distance s1= during
the time t. During the same time the wedge should move over a distance
S2
2 . If the body is constantly in contact with the wedge, then
-=cot a, as can be seen from Fig. 282.
Therefore, the acceleration sought a=--
-g cot a.
If the acceleration of the wedge in a horizontal direction is greater than
g cot a, the body will move away from the wedge.

1-3. Dynamics of Rectilinear Motion

40. The force F applied to the sphere determines, according to Newton's
second law, the magnitude and direction of acceleration of the sphere, but
does not determine its velocity. For this reason the sphere can move in any
direction under the force F, and may also have a velocity equal to zero.
41. The resultant of all the forces is 6 kgf and coincides in direction with
the force 5 kgf. Therefore, the acceleration of the sphere is a=—=--14.7 misa
and is directed towards the force 5 kgf.
Nothing can be said about the direction of motion (see the solution
to Problem 40).
42. In the MKS (or SI) system the weight of the body G -=mg=9.8 N.
The unit of force in the technical system is 1 kgf, i. e., the force with which
MECHANICS 175

Fig. 283

the Earth attracts a body with a mass of 1 kg. In the CGS system the weight
of the body is 980,000 dynes. When Newton's second law is used to find the
force in the technical system of units, it should be borne in mind that the
mass should also be expressed in technical units.
43. The sought angle a can be determined from the ratio (Fig. 283):
mg
tan a.= —
44. The body sliding along the vertical diameter AB will cover the entire
tAa= y 2AB
distance in the time —. For an arbitrary groove arranged at
2AC
an angle a to the diameter AB, the time of motion is t Ac=
r g cos a'
Since AC= AB cos a, then tAc.-=tAB. All the bodies will reach the edge of
the disk simultaneously.
45. The force of air resistance F will reach its minimum after the
parachutist's speed becomes constant, and we have F =mg=75 kgf.
48. According to Newton's second law, N —mg= ± ma. Therefore,
N =mg+ ma if the acceleration of the lift is directed upward, and N =mg—ma
if downward, irrespective of the direction of the speed.
When a=g, then N=0. (Here and below N denotes the force of normal
pressure, or the force of normal reaction.)
47. According to Newton's second law, ma=kmg. Hence, the coefficient of
friction k= 2- . Since in an elastic impact only the direction of the velocity
g
v2
changes, irrespective of the angle, then a where s=12.5 metre._ is the
= 2s ,
total path travelled by the puck before it stops.
v2
Therefore, k= =0.102.
2gs
48. Assuming the acceleration of a motor vehicle to be constant, we can
va
write a= . Since the maximum force of friction in braking is kmg, then,
2s
according to Newton's second law, m 4=kmg,
2z where in is the mass of the
motor vehicle.
v2
Hence, k= . Upon inserting the values of o and s from the table in
2gs
this formula, we can find the coefficients of friction for various pavements.
176 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

ice k=0.1
dry snow k=0.2
wet wood block k=0.3
dry wood block k=0.5
wet asphalt k= 0.4
dry asphalt k=0.6
dry concrete k=0.7
The coefficient of friction does not depend on the speed if the accuracy to
the first digit after the decimal point is wanted.
49. When the motor vehicle accelerates, the rear wall of the fuel tank
imparts an acceleration v/t to the petrol. According to Newton's second law,
v
the force F required for this acceleration is Alp — ' where A is the area of
t
the rear wall of the fuel tank. In conformity with Newton's third law, the
petrol will act with the same force on the wall. The hydrostatic pressure of
the petrol on both walls is the same. Hence, the difference of pressures exer-
v
ted on the walls is Ap=—=-./p —
A t
50. The mass of the left-hand part of the rod m1=-17 1 and of the

right-hand part trr2=--E– (L-0, where M is the mass of the entire rod.
Under the action of the applied forces each part of the rod moves with the
same acceleration a. Therefore,
F1 —F=rnia
F — F2 = m2a
Hence the force F is
F i m2 H Fsml _ FL-1 1
±M2 I I2 7
51. The motion of the ball will be uniform. The images of the ball on the
film appear at intervals of 1=1/24 s.
The distance between the positions A and B of the ball in space that
correspond to the positions C and D of the images on the film is AB=CD
OE
,
OF
as shown in Fig. 284. The focal length of the lens OF =10 cm, 0E=15 met-
res, and CD=3 mm. The velocity of the ball
AB
v1=— =10.8 m/s.
t
When the ball is In uniform motion, mg=
-=- kv2In the second case 4 mg= kq. Hence,
Yr 4=4v! and 02 =21.6 m/s.
17 3.9 x 10-5kgf • s2/m2

52. Figure 285 shows the forces that act

Fig 284 on the weights. The equations of motion for
MECHANICS 177

the weights can be written as follows:

mia=T—m fg and m2a=m2g—T
where T is the tension of the string and a is the acceleration. (The accelera-
tions of the weights are the same since the string is considered to be
unstretchable. The weightlessness of the string and the pulley determine the
constancy of T.)
Therefore,
#12
a= g-327 cm/s2
m1+ tn2
T =m, (a + g)= 130,700 dynes= 133 gf

2H,
The time of motion t= I s.
53. If the mass of the pulleys and the rope is negligibly small, then
(Fig. 286) 2F— T=0, and T—G=ma.
Hence, F= .
(1 + (1) When a=0, we have F=
2 g 2
54. If the mass of the second weight is much greater than 200 g, both
weights will move with an acceleration somewhat below g, the acceleration
of the lighter weight being directed upwards. To make a weight of mass m
move upward with an acceleration g, a force of 2mg should be applied to it.
For this reason the string should withstand a tension of about 400 gf.
55. The dynamometer first shows F=3 kgf. If the reading of the dynamo-
meter does not change, the weight 2 kgf is acted upon by the upward forcz
of the string tension equal to 3 kgf. Therefore, this weight rises with an
acceleration of a= gThe other weight lowers with the same acceleration.
2

Fig. 286
178 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

The additional weight on the second pan can be found from the
equation
f. G±Gi. g
g X 2
—(G+Gi— F)

Hence G1=3 kgf.

56. The sphere is acted upon by three forces: the force of
gravity, the force of tension of the upper rope and the force
applied to the lower one when it is pulled (Fig. 287).
my The acceleration imparted to the sphere by the pull can be
found from the equation ma=F1+mg—F2.
For the lower rope to break, the force applied to it should
be greater than the tension of the upper one, i.e., F1 > F2.
For this condition, the acceleration imparted to the sphere
is greater than that of gravity, i.e., a > g.
Fig. 287 57. According to Newton's second law,
(mi + m2) a=mig sin a—m2g sin p—km,gcos a —km2g cos 3
The weights will be at the same height after travelling the distance s,
which conforms to the following equations: s sin a=h—s sin p and s= a-r2 .
2
Upon eliminating s and a from the three equations we obtain
m1 g-r2 (sin a+sinp) (k cos p+sin p) + 2h
m2 gr2(sin a+ sin f3) (sin cr—k cos a) — 2h
58. The equations of motion give the following formulas for the accelera-
tion of the stone:
a1=g (sin a+ k cos a) in upward motion
a2=g (sin a—k cos a) in downward motion
The kinematic equations can be written as follows:
aiti2 l=a2ta
2
; 0
2 '
We find from these five equations that
21—gt2sin a
k= "=-." 0.37
gt .21 cos a
1
t2=t117.gti —4.2 s
sin a-1
59. For this case the equations of dynamics can be written as
mg—T =ma, and T =Ma
where T is the tension of the string.
Hence,
m 2
a= M m g --Tg
MECHANICS 179

at 2
The equations of kinematics give x=vot--- ' and vt=v0— at. Upon
2
solving this system of equations, we find that in 5 seconds the cart will
stay at the same place (x=0) and will have a speed vt=7 m/s directed to
the right. The car t will cover the distance

a (4)2 1
s=-2 f 2 —17 5 metres
2

60. The ice-boat can move only in the direction of its runners. When the
speed of the boat exceeds that of the wind, the velocity of the latter with
respect to the boat has a component directed backward. If the velocity of
the wind with respect to the boat also has a component perpendicular to
the direction of motion, the sail can be so set that the force F acting on
it will push the boat forward (Fig. 288).
Therefore, the speed cf the boat can exceed that of the wind. In practice
It can be two or three times greater.
61. (1) At the initial moment the acceleration is a0=,-■ ", 13.1 m/s2. It
F
changes with time according to the law a=„, , where 11=200 kg/s is
[It
the mass of the fuel consumed by the rocket in a unit of time. A diagram
of the acceleration is shown in Fig. 289. In 20 seconds the velocity is nu-
merically equal to the hatched area, v = 300 m/s.
(2) Newton's second law can be written as
(M — RI) a =-. F — (M — pi) g — f

According to the initial conditions, 1=20 s and a=0.8 g. Hence, the force

a;117182

Velocity of wind relative

to ice-boat
20

70

1:7
20 40 t,s
Fig. 288 Fig. 289
180 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

-g

- 2g

- 3g

-4g
-5g
Fig. 290 Fig. 291

of air resistance is
f=F—(M—Rt)g—(M—µt) 0.8 g=12,800 kgf
(3) Newton's equation for the weight gives mia=kx—m1g, where m, is
the mass of the weight at the end of the spring, a is the acceleration of
the rocket, k is the coefficient of elasticity of the spring, x is the elonga-
tion of the spring. According to the condition, mlg=k10. Therefore,
(a+g). The scale of the device should be graduated uniformly
(Fig. 290). An acceleration of g corresponds to a division of one centimetre.
62. The only force acting on the bead is the reaction force of the rod N
directed at right angles to the rod. The absolute acceleration we of the bead
(relative to a stationary observer) will be directed along the line of action
of the reaction force N. The relative acceleration w,. is directed along the
rod (Fig. 291)
wa =a+wr
It follows from the triangle of accelerations that wr=acos a and
wa =--a sin a.
From Newton's second law, the reaction force is N=ma sin a.
The time t during which the bead moves along the rod can be found from
a cos a•-r2
the equation /= . Hence, t=
2 V a cos a
63. When the bead moves it is acted upon by the friction force kN and
the reaction force N.
The absolute acceleration will be directed along the resultant force F. It
follows from Fig. 292 that
kN
N =ma sin a, and wr =a cos a — —=a (cos a—k sin a)
MECHANICS 181

Hence (see Problem 62),

2/
17.a (cos a—k sin a)

If k cot a, the bead will not move with respect to the rod, and the force
of friction is ma cos a.
64. The equations of motion of the block and the body have the form:
ma= f (1)
Mb=F—f (2)

where f is the force of friction; a and b are accelerations.

Let us assume that there is no sliding, then a=b. The acceleration and
the force of friction can be found from the equations of motion. The force
of friction is f=m . For the body not to slide, the force of friction
M±m
should satisfy the inequality f kmg, i.e., -.<._. kg. If F > k (M+ m) g,
M+ m
the body will begin to slide. Here equations (1) and (2) will take the form:
ma=kmg, and Mb=F —kmg

These equations can be used to find a and b:

F—kmg
a=kg, and b=
M
Obviously, b > a. The acceleration of the body relative to the block will be
directed oppositely to the motion and will be equal in magnitude to
F—kmg kg.
M
The time during which the body moves over the block is t
21M
F — kg (M m) •

A
Fig. 292 Fig. 293
182 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

65. Initially the wagon Is in uniformly retarded motion at a speed of

v=vo —7kt4 t, where f is the force of friction equal to kmg. The body is in
f t.
uniformly accelerated motion at a speed of u=—
If the wagon is long, the speeds of the body and the wagon may become
vo
equal. This will occur at the moment of time r= . After this, both
m M+
the body and the wagon will begin to move at a constant speed equal to
M v°
. By this time the wagon will have covered a distance
M m
2M
and the body a distance
2

2m
The distance covered by the body relative to the cart is S—s. It should
be shorter than 1. Thus, the body will not slip off the wagon if S — s < 1,
i.e.,
Mv,;
2gk (M m)< 1
66. Let us consider the string element in the slit. Assume that the string
moves downward. Then, the string element will be acted upon by the force
of string tension on both sides and the force of friction (Fig. 293).
Since the mass of this string element is neglected, T 1 F—T 2-=0.
—

The equations of dynamics can be written as follows:

mig — T 1= mia
m2g — T2= —m2a
Hence
a =
(nli — m2) g — F
m1 -F ni2
67. Since the weights move uniformly, the tension of the string is equal to
the weight ml. Therefore, the force with which the pulley acts on the bar
is 2m1g, i.e., in the first case it is 2 kgf and in the second 6 kgf. In both
cases the balance will show the sum of the first and second weights, i.e.,
4 kgf. The force of friction equal to 2 kgf is applied to the bar at the side
of the second weight. In the first case it is added to the force of pressure
exerted by the pulley on the bar and in the second it is subtracted from it.
68. Since the masses of the pulleys and the string may be neglected, the
tension of the string will be the same everywhere (Fig. 294). Therefore,
m fg—T=miai
m2g —2T = m,a2
m3g—T =--- m3a3
a3
a2 -=
2
MECHANICS 183

Fig. 295

(see Problem 34). Hence,

4m1m3-3m2m3+mime
al
4m1m3 +m2m3 + mim2
a2 — minz2 — 4n/ens+ m2ms
4m1nz3 + m2m3 + mit%
4m1m3 — 3m,m, m2m3
a3 =
4mim3 + m2m3 mit%
69. The second monkey will be at the same height as the first.
If the mass of the pulley and the weight of the rope are disregarded,
the force T tensioning both ends of the rope will be the same and, therefore,
the forces acting on each monkey will equal F=T—mg. Both monkeys have
the same accelerations in magnitude and direction and will reach the pul-
ley at the same time.
70. Since the mass of the pulleys and the string is negligibly small, the
tension of the thread is the same everywhere.
Therefore,
m fg —T =mial
m2g — 2T = m2a2
2T —T
Hence, T=0 and a1=a2 _=g.
Both weights fall freely with an acceleration g. Pulleys B and C rotate
counterclockwise and pulley A clockwise.
71. (1) The forces acting on the table and the weight are shown in Fig. 295.
The equations of horizontal motion have the following form:
for the table with the pulley
Gi
F — F +Fir=—
and for the weight
F —Fir= a2
g2
184 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Let us assume that the force F is so small that the weight does not
Gi
slide over the table. Hence ai=a, and Fp.=F
G1+02 .
By gradually increasing the force F we shall thereby increase the force of
friction F fr. If the table and the weight are immovable relative to each other,
however, the force of friction between them cannot exceed the value F fr.max=kG2.
For this reason the weight will begin to slide over the table when
G2
F > F fr•max G1±G =k — (Gi+G2)= 10 kgf
GI Gi
In our case F=8 kgf, consequently, the weight will not slide, and
8
al =a,— g g 314 cm/s2
—

G1-P G2 25
(2) In this case the equations of motion fo: the table with the pulleys and
the weight will have the form:
Gi
—F 1,=—
G2
F — F p.= — a2

The accelerations of the table and the weight are directed oppositely, and the
weight will be sure to slide.
Hence, F fr=kG2.
The acceleration of the table is
a1
— F kG, 2
Gi 131 cm/s2

and it will move to the left.

72. According to Newton's second law, the change in the momentum of
the system "cannon-ball" during the duration of the shot t should be equal
to the impulse of the forces acting on the system.
Along a horizontal line
mv, cos a— Mvi=Ffr t
where Fp.T is the impulse of the forces of friction.
Along a vertical line
mv, sin a.= NT (Mg ± mg) T
—

where NT is the impulse of forces of normal pressure (reactions of a horizontal

area), (Mg±mg)T is the impulse of the forces of gravity. Remembering that
F p.=--kN, we obtain
m m M+m gt,
m vo sin a
— 00 COS CX- k— k
=
or since gT v,
vi vo(cos a—k sin a)
This solution is suitable for k < cot a. When k> cot a the cannon will remain
in place.
MECHANICS 185

1-4. The Law of Conservation of Momentum

73. The momentum of the meteorite is transmitted to the air molecules
and, in the final run, to the Earth.
74. Let us divide the mass of the disk into pairs of identical elements
lying on one straight line at equal distances from the centre. The momentum
of each pair is zero, since the momenta of both masses are equal but oppo-
sitely directed. Therefore, the momentum of the entire disk is zero.
75. The propeller of a conventional helicopter is rotated by an engine
mounted inside the fuselage. According to Newton's third law, oppositely
directed forces are applied from the propeller to the engine. These forces
create a torque that tends to rotate the fuselage in a direction opposite to
rotation of the propeller. The tail rotor is used to compensate for this torque.
In a jet helicopter the forces from the propeller are applied to the outfio-
wing gases and for this reason do not create any torque.
76. The velocity of the boat u can be found with the aid of the law of
conservation of momentum. In a horizontal direction
Mu= mv cos a
Hence, u=--8 cm/s.
77. At the highest point the rocket reaches, its velocity is zero. The change
in the total momentum of the rocket fragments under the action of external
forces (the force of gravity) is negligible since the impulse of these forces is
very small in view of the instantaneous nature of the explosion. For this
reason the total momentum of the rocket fragments before and immediately
after the explosion remains constant and equal to zero. At the same time, the
sum of the three vectors (m1v1, m2v2, m3v3) may be zero only when they are
in one plane. Hence it follows that the vectors v1, v2 and v3also lie in one
plane.
78. Let the mass of the man be m and that of the boat M. If the man
moves with a speed v relative to the boat the latter will move at a speed — u
with respect to the bank, and therefore the man moves with a speed v1=v—u
with respect to the bank.
According to the law of conservation of momentum,
m (v — u)— Mu = 0
Hence, v and the speed of the man relative to the bank is
u=m+M
M
= v.
m+M
Since the signs of viand v coincide, the distance between the man and
the bank will increase whatever the ratio between the masses m and M.
79. The speed of the boat u with respect to the shore is related to the
speed of the man v with respect to the boat by the equation v (see
u=m+M
Problem 78). The relation between the speeds remains constant during motion.
For this reason the relation between the distances travelled will be equal to
the relation between the speeds
186 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

where s is the distance travelled by the boat and 1 is its length (the distance
covered by the man in the boat).
Therefore, for the boat to reach the shore its length should be at least
i=
m +M
s=2.5 metres.
m
80. When the spring extends, it will act on both weights. The weight at
the wall will first remain stationary while the second weight will begin to
move. When the spring extends completely (i.e., is no longer deformed), the
second weight will have a certain velocity. Therefore, the system will acquire
momentum in a horizontal direction that will be retained in the following
period, since the external forces will not act in this direction. Thus, the
system as a whole will move away from the wall, the weights alternately
converging and diverging.
81. The speed of the cart will not depend on the point of impact. The
momentum of the revolving cylinder is zero, irrespective of its direction and
velocity of rotation (see Problem 74). For this reason the bullet will impart
to the "cylinder-cart" system the same momentum as it would to a cylinder
rigidly secured on the cart.
82. Let us denote the velocity of the rocket at the end of the k-th second
by vk. Gas with a mass m is ejected from the rocket at the end of the (k +1)-th
second, and it carries away a momentum equal to
m (—u+ vk)
It follows from the law of conservation of momentum that
(M —km) vk=[M —(k+1) m] vk+i - m (—u+vk)
The change in the velocity of the rocket per second is
mu
vit+1-- Elk —A 4 (k+ m

If we know how the velocity changes in one second, we can write the
expression for the velocity at the end of the n•th second
m
vn =vo -fu ( mrn-r- m 2m ± • • .± m_
nm)
83. The velocity of the rocket will grow. This becomes obvious if we pass
over to a reading system with respect to which the rocket is at rest at the given
moment. The pressure of the ejected gases will push the rocket forward.
84. Let the mass of the boat be M, that of a sack m and the velocity of
the boats 00 . When a sack is thrown out of a boat the latter is acted upon
by a certain force in a direction perpendicular to vo. It should be noted,
however, that the boat does not change its velocity, since the resistance of
the water prevents lateral motion of the boats. The velocity of a boat will
change only when a sack is dropped into it.
Applying the law of conservation of momentum to the "sack-boat" system,
we can write in the first case:
for one boat (M + m) vo— my, = (M +2m) vi
for the other one — Moo +mvi=(M-Fm) v,
Here 0, and v, are the final velocities of the boats. From these simultaneous
equations vo— vo.
M + 2m
MECHANICS 187

..--------
- .. When the- sacks are exchanged simul-
. taneously, the final velocities of the
/ \
/ q \ boats vi and v; can be found from the
/
/ \ equations:
/ 1 ,
% Mvo —mvo=(M +m) vi. ;
i
i —Mvo4- moo =(M + m) v;
1
/ • M—m
/ Hence, v; = --v2 = vo. Thus, the
M±
final velocity of the boats will be higher
in the first case.
85. External forces do not act in a ho-
rizontal direction on the "hoop-beetle" sys-
tem. For this reason the centre of gravity
of the system (point C in Fig. 296) will not
move in a horizontal plane. The distance
Fig. 296 from the centre of gravity of the system
m
to the centre of the hoop is CO— R.
m+ M
Since this distance is constant, the centre of the hoop 0 will describe a circle
with the radius CO about the stationary point C. It is easy to see that the tra-
jectory of the beetle is a circle with the radius AC= R.
m+ M
The mutual positions and the direction of motion of the beetle and the
hoop are shown in Fig. 296.
86. Since no external forces act on the system in a horizontal direction,
the projection of the total momentum of the "wedge-weights" system onto the
horizontal direction must remain constant (equal to zero). It thus follows that
the wedge will begin to move only if the weights move.
For the weight m2to move to the right, the condition
m2g sin a mig + km2g cos a

should be observed.
mi.
Therefore, — < sin a —k cos a. Here the wedge will move to the left. For
M2
the weight m2to move to the left, the following condition should be observed:
mlg> m2g sin a + km,g cos a
Or

—> sin a+ k cos a

m2

Here the wedge will move to the right.

Hence, for the wedge to be in equilibrium, the ratio between the masses
of the weights should satisfy the inequality

sin a —k cos a< —< sin a+ k cos a

m2
188 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

1 -5. Statics

87. 1 =1
1 k +1 •
88. In the position of equilibrium (Fig. 297) mg-2mg cos a=0. Therefore,
a=60°. The sought distance h=1 cot a.=—, . Equilibrium will set in after
3
the oscillations caused by the weight being lowered attenuate.
89. The equality of the projections of the forces onto the direction of the
vertical (Fig. 298) gives the equation
a a
2N sin —2F1, cos -2---= 0

where N is the force of normal pressure and F1,.<kN is the force of friction.
The weight of the wedge may usually be neglected.
Hence, tan < k and a< 2 arc tan k.
90. If the weight G1lowers over the height h, then point F will lower by h/3.
The weight G2will rise by 2h/3. Applying the "golden" rule of mechanics,
we have G1h=G2 2 h.
2
Hence, Gi = — G2.
3
91. If the box is not overturned, the moment of the force F rotating the
box in one direction, say counterclockwise, about a bottom edge is less than
or equal to the moment of the force of gravity rotating the box clockwise.
For the box to slide, the force should be greater than the maximum force of
friction applied to it. Therefore,
1
Fh < mg — and F kmg
2
whence k' —
2h •

Fig. 298
MECHANICS 189

fi
ttf t ftt tt i
1 Fig. 299
92. To turn the beam, the moment of the forces applied to its ends should
he greater than the moment of the forces of friction when they reach their
maximum.
The forces of friction are distributed uniformly along the beam (Fig. 299).
The mean arm of the forces of friction acting on the left- or right-hand part
of the beam is 1/4, if the length of the entire beam is 1.
The moment of all the forces of friction with respect to the beam centre
kG
iss 2 --. Consequently, to turn the beam around, the applied forces F
2 4
should satisfy the inequality
1 kG1
2F- > —
2 4
G
whence F > k4- .
To move the beam translationally, 2F should be greater than kG. There-
fore, it is easier to turn the beam.
Go
93. The equation of motion of the load is — G0 (Fig. 300). The
sum of the forces acting on the crane vertically is zero. Therefore, G1 + G2 =
Since the sum of the moments of the forces relative to point A
is zero, we have Fl+G =LG2.
2
Solution of these simultaneous equations gives
G1= 2.23 tonf, and G2 1.77 tonf
94. For the lever to be in equilibrium, the force applied at point D should
produce a moment equal to G• AB. The force will he minimum when the
maximum arm is equal to BD.

0/ 4 6;

AA
Wir

AF 6'

co
Fig. 300 Fig. 301
190 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

AB
Hence, F=G G , and it is directed at right angles to BD.
BD -1/2
95. If there is no friction between the floor and the boxes, the latter will
move simultaneously. If the coefficient of friction is not zero, the right-hand
box will move first (see Fig. 35), since the force applied to it by the rod
will be greater than the force applied to the left-hand box.
Indeed, the rod is acted upon from the side of the right-hand box by
the force F1directed opposite to F, and from the side of the left-hand box
by the force F 2directed along F. The sum of the forces in equilibrium is
zero. Therefore, Fi =F+ F2, and the force F1will reach the maximum force
of friction of rest before F2.
96. The equality to zero of the sum of the moments of the forces acting
on the sphere with respect to point A (Fig. 301) gives us the equation
F fr R—NR=0
Since Fp. < kN , then k > 1.
97. For a body to be at rest, the total moment of the forces that tends
to turn the body clockwise should be equal to the moment of the forces
that tends to turn the body counterclockwise around a point (around the
centre of gravity, for example). In our case the moment of the forces of
friction that turns the brick clockwise should be equal to the moment of the
forces of the pressure exerted by the plane on the brick. It follows that
the force of pressure exerted by the plane on the right half of the brick
should be greater than on the left one. According to Newton's third law,
the force with which the right half of the brick presses against the plane
should be greater than that of the left half.
98. To lift the roller onto the step, the moment of the forces turning the
roller around point A (Fig. 302) counterclockwise should at least be equal
to the moment of the forces turning it clockwise, i.e.,
G (R—h)=G R2 —(R—h)2
2±
Hence, h= Since h < R, then
2 2

h=(1-119 R 0.29R
2
99. Since the force of friction is zero on one of the planes, it is also zero
on the other one. Otherwise, the sphere would rotate around its centre, for

Fig. 802 Fig. 303

MECHANICS 191

the moment of all the other forces relative to this centre is zero (because
the arm of each of these forces with reference to the centre of the sphere
is zero).
The sums of the projections of the forces on the vertical and horizontal
directions are equal to zero (Fig. 303). For this reason
N1cos a2 —N2 cos a1=0
G—N1sin a2 —N 2 sin al =0
where N 1and N 2 are the sought pressure forces. Hence,
G
= 2.6 kgf
N1_ sin a2 + cos al • tan al
G
N2= --='" 1.5 kgf
sin al-j- cos a, • tan a2
100. Let us denote the force applied to one handle by F. The force F
will turn the drawer and induce elastic forces AT, and N2 at points A and B
(Fig. 304) which will act on the drawer from the side of the cabinet. These
forces are equal: NI=-- N2=N. Since the moment of all the acting forces
relative to the centre of the drawer C is zero, N=F — .
2a
The drawer can be pulled out if the applied force F is greater than the
maximum force of friction of rest: F > f2=2kN.
For the last inequality to be satisfied, k should be smaller than -T
a .
101. A board on a rough log forming an angle a with a horizontal plane
is similar to a body retained by the forces of friction on an inclined plane
with an angle a at its base. Therefore, in equilibrium, Fp =mg sin a. Bea-
ring in mind that F p. < kmg cos a, we have tan a<k.

Fig. 304 Fig. 305

192 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 306 Fig. 307

102. The forces applied to the ladder are shown in Fig. 305. In equilib-
rium the sums of the projections of the forces along a vertical and a hori-
zontal lines are equal to zero.
-F fr and N,=mg.
Therefore, Ni --
Since the sum of the moments of the forces relative to point B is zero,
we can write another equation
sin a
N1 cos a= mg
2
tan a
Hence, F . Since the force of friction satisfies the inequality
Fir <kN,, the ladder will be in equilibrium if
tan a <2k
103. The forces applied to the ladder are shown in Fig. 306. Since the
sum of the forces and the sum of the moments of the forces are equal to zero:
f N 2=-.mg (1)
(2)
1
f sin a+ N 1cos a-=--
mg —sin a (3)
2
The forces of friction f and Fr,. satisfy the inequalities f<kN, and
F p...<kN 2. By using the first inequality and equations (1) and (3), we get:
N, k Ni 1—2kk2
cot a _..
._— . Since k> — , then cot a . If we assume that
2Ni— 2 N,
k=tan p, the inequality can be written in a more convenient form for cal-
MECHANICS 193

culations:
cot a cot 20 or a< 2D
104. If at the moment when end B of the rod begins to rise, the force
of friction F11.<kN proves sufficient for end A not to slip, the rod will
begin to rotate around point A. Otherwise, end A will begin to ¢lip until
the force of friction F fr=kN can keep the rod in equilibrluni (Fig. 307).
After this the rod will begin to rotate around end A.
Let us find the coefficient of friction k at which slipping stops with
a definite angle a between the rod and the string.
The equality of the forces at the moment when the rod is almost hori-
zontal gives us the equations:
F p.=T cos a
G=N+T sin a
The equality of the moments of the forces with respect to point A can
be written as
1
G —=T1 sin a
2
By using this system of equations, we find that

k= N =cot a
r
1
For the rod not to slip at all it is necessary that k cot 60°=
3 V
105. The sum of the moments of the forces acting on the man relative to
his centre of gravity is zero. For this reason the force F acting from the
Earth is always directed towards the man's centre of gravity C (Fig. 308).
The horizontal component of this force cannot be greater than the maximum
force of friction of rest: F sin a< kF cos a. Hence, k tan a.

Fig. 308 Fig. 309 Fig. 310

7 —1865
194 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 311 Fig. 312

106. The ladder is acted upon by three forces: its weight G, the force
from the Earth F and the reaction of the support N (Fig. 309). Since the
wall is smooth, the force N is perpendicular to it.
It will be the easiest to determine the force F if we find the point with
respect to which the moments of the forces G and N are equal to zero. This
will be the point at which the straight lines ON and OG intersect. The
moment of the force F relative to this point should also be zero. Therefore,
the force should be directed so that it continues past point 0.
Figure 309 shows that the direction of the force F forms with the ladder
1
the angle p=30°—arc tan 2 V _,. ==--- 14°10'.
3
The force which acts on the ladder from the Earth will be directed along
the ladder only if all the other forces are applied to the centre of the lad-
der masses or act along it.
107. The ladder cannot be prevented from falling down by means of a rope
tied to its middle. The moments of the forces of reaction of the floor and
the wall as well as the moments of the force with which the rope is tensio-
ned with respect to point 0 are zero whatever the tension T (Fig. 310).
The moment of the force of gravity with respect to the same point differs
from zero. For this reason the ladder will fall down without fail.
108. From the wall the ladder is acted upon by the reaction of the sup-
port N1perpendicular to the wall. The bottom end of the ladder is acted
upon by the forces N 2(reaction of the support) and Fp. (force of friction)
(Fig. 311). If, for the sake of simplicity, we disregard the weight of the
ladder, these forces will be supplemented by the weight of the man G. The
equality of the projections of the forces along a horizontal and a vertical
lines gives us: N 2=0 and
Let the man first stand on the lower part of the ladder (point A). The
equality of the moments of the forces with respect to point 0 gives us the
equation NiCB=G• cos a • AO.
Hence, the higher the man, the greater will be the force N1. But Fp.=N i.
For this reason the force of friction retaining the ladder grows as the man
climbs up. As soon as Fir reaches its maximum value equal to kG the lad-
der will begin to slip.
MECHANICS 195

109. In equilibrium the sum of the forces acting on the picture is zero
(Fig. 312). Therefore, G=-Fp.+T cos a, and N=T sin a. The force of fric-
tion should satisfy the inequality
F p.
F p. <kN or k

The equality of the moments relative to point B gives us the equation

—I sin a= T (1 cos a+ lid2 — /2 sin2 a) sin a

2
Hence,
F fr 1 cos a+ 2 -17d2— /2 sin2 a
N I sin a
and

k
cos a+2 rd._/2 sin2 a
I sin a
110. Let us first find the direction of the force f with which rod BC acts
on rod CD. Assume that this force has a vertical component directed upward.
Then, according to Newton's third law, rod CD acts on rod BC with a force
whose vertical component is directed downward. This contradicts the symmetry
of the problem, however. Therefore, the vertical component of the force f
should be equal to zero. The force acting on rod CD from rod DE will have
both a horizontal and a vertical components, as shown in Fig. 313a.
Since all the forces acting on CD are equal to zero, F=mg and f=-f'.
The equality to zero of the moment of the forces with respect to D gives us:
cos p
f sin f!) CD -= mg — CD
2
or
tan p

Figure 313b shows the forces acting on rod DE. Since the moment of the

Fig. 313
7*
196 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 314 Fig. 315

forces with respect to E is equal to zero, it follows that

mg co2s a DE
f sin a DE = F cos a DE
Or
3mg
tan a.-- —
2f
Consequently, tan a=3 tan 13.
111. The forces acting on the box are shown in Fig. 314. The conditions
of equilibrium have the form: F cos a=F f,. and G=N+F sin a.
At the moment equilibrium is disturbed, the force of friction reaches its
kG
maximum: F f,.—kN.
— Hence, F= The value of F will be mi-
cos a+ k sin a '
nimum at an angle a corresponding to the maximum denominator. To find
the maximum let us transform the denominator, introducing a new quantity
cp instead of k so that tan p=k.
Then,
cos (a cp) —
cos a ±k sin a=
cos p
or
cos a sin a= y-1 ±k2 cos (a— p)
Since the maximum value of cos (a— IT) is unity, then
kG
ri + k
F
Hence, k— = 0.75.
112. The forces acting on the cylinder are shown in Fig. 315. Since the
cylinder does not move translationally,
F fr —F cos a= 0
F sin a mg+ N=0
—
 MECHANICS 197

The force of friction Ftr =kN. Hence,

king
F—
cos a+k sin a
The denominator of this expression can be written as A sin (a--I- q), where
A=1/- l +k2(see Problem 111).
Therefore, the minimum force with which the string should be pulled is
king
Fin V r 1 +k2
The angle alcan be found from the equation cos al -{-k sin a1= ri +k2,
and tan a, =k.
113. The forces acting on the piston and the rear lid of the cylinder are
F1=-F 2-=pA (Fig. 316a). Point C of the wheel is also acted upon in a hori-
zontal direction by the force F 2transmitted from the piston through the
crank gear.
The sum of the moments of the forces acting on the wheel with respect
to its axis is zero. (The mass of the wheel is neglected.) Therefore, Fp.R=F,r,
where Fp. is the force of friction. Since the sum of the forces which act on
the wheel is also zero, the force F3 applied to the axis by the bearings of
the locomotive is F3=Fp.+F2. According to Newton's third law, the force
F4 =-- F3acts on the locomotive from the side of the axis. Hence, the tractive
A r
effort F=F4 —Fi=Fir=pri —
R
In the second position of the piston and the crank gear, the forces we are
interested in are illustrated in Fig. 3166. For the same reason as in the pre-
vious case, F f,.=-F2

The tractive effort F=Fi —F4-

-=-F f,.=--pA—
R•
As could be expected, the tractive effort is equal to the force of friction,
for the latter is the only external force that acts on the locomotive.
114. The maximum length of the extending part of the top brick is //2.
The centre of gravity of the two upper bricks C., is at a distance of //4 from
the edge of the second brick (Fig. 317). Therefore, the second brick may
extend by this length relative to the third one.
The centre of gravity of the three upper bricks C3 is determined by the
equality of the moments of the forces of gravity with respect to C3; namely,
1
G —x)=2Gx. Hence x= i e the third brick may extend over the
2 6' •

Fig. 316
198 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

A'
Fig. 317 Fig. 318

fourth one by not more than //6. Similarly it can be found that the fourth
brick extends over the fifth one by 1/8, etc. The nature of the change in the
length of the extending part with an increase in the number of bricks is
obvious. The maximum distance over which the right-hand edge of the upper
brick can extend over the right-hand edge of the lowermost brick can be
written as the series
L=- 1 (1+ 1+- 1 1
+- ...)
2 3 4
When the number of the bricks is increased infinitely this sum tends to
infinity.
Indeed, the sum of the series
_1
-E 2 + 3 + 4 5 1- 61+ 7 8+' '
is greater than that of the series
ix Y2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 + 8± 8- + -8- ±-vP
- -

and the latter sum will be infinitely great if the number of terms is infinite.
The centre of gravity of all the bricks passes through the right-hand edge
of the lowermost brick. Equilibrium will be unstable. The given example
would be possible if the Earth were flat.
115. Let us inscribe a right polygon into a circle with a radius r (Fig. 318).
Let us then find the moment of the forces of gravity (with respect to the
MECHANICS 199

axis AK) applied to the middles of

the sides of the polygon AB, BC,
CD, DE, etc., assuming that the
force of gravity acts at right ang-
les to the drawing. This moment is
equal to pg (ABx,± BCx2 +CD.x3 +
DEx4 +EFx5 H-FK.x,), where p
is the mass of a unit of the wire
length.
From the similarity of the cor-
responding triangles it can be shown
Fig. 319 that the products ABx1, BC.x2,CDx3,
etc., are equal respectively to AB'h,
B'C'h, C'D'h, etc., where h is the apothem of the polygon.
Therefore, the moment is equal to
pgh (AB' B'C' C' D' D'E' E'F' F'K)=pgh2r
If the number of sides increases infinitely, the value of h will tend to r
and the moment to 2r2 pg. On the other hand, the moment is equal to the
product of the weight of the wire arpg and the distance x from the centre
of gravity to axis AK. Therefore, 2r2 pg=arpgx, whence x=-2-r.
116. Let us divide the semicircle into triangles and segments, as shown in
Fig. 319. The centre of gravity of a triangle, as is known, is at the point
of intersection of its medians. In our case the centre of gravity of each
2
triangle is at a distance of — h from point 0 (h is the apothem). When the
3
sides are increased infinitely in number the centres of gravity of the triangles
2
will lie on a circle with a radius of — r, while the areas of the segments
3
will tend to zero.
Thus, the problem consists in determining the centre of gravity of a se-
2
micircle with a radius of — r.
3
It follows from the solution of Problem 115 that x, which is the distance
between the centre of gravity of the semicircle and point 0, is equal to
22 4
x=- — r =- 31 r •
21 3 3
117. By applying the method used to solve Problems 115 and 116, it can
be shown that the centre of gravity is at point C at a distance
a
2 sin
= r from the centre of curvature of the arc (see Fig. 45).
a
118. From the solutions of Problems 115, 116 and 117, it can be shown
sin cc--
4 -2
that the centre of gravity is at point C at a distance of CO= r from
3 a
point 0.
119. When the centre of gravity is determined, the plate with a cut-out
portion can formally be considered as a solid one if we consider that a se-
 200 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

micircle with a negative mass equal in magnitude to the mass of the cut-out
portion is superposed on it.
The moment of the gravity forces of the positive and negative masses with
respect to axis AB is equal to
r nr2 4 ) 3
r2—
2 — — r r3 pg
pg(2
if the force of gravity acts at right angles to the drawing (see Fig. 47),
where p is the mass of a unit area of the plate (see the solution to Pro-
blem 116). On the other hand, this moment is equal to the product of the
weight of the plate and the distance x=-0C from its centre of gravity to
axis AB.
2-cr2 1
Hence, xpg(2r2 --) — r3 pg.
2 3
2
Therefore, x=3 r.
(4

1-6. Work and Energy

120. The work of a force does not depend on the mass of the body acted
upon by the given force. A force of 3 kgf will perform the work
W =Fh=15 kgf-m. This work is used to increase the potential energy
(5 kgf-m) and the kinetic energy (10 kgf-m) of the load.
121. k=0.098 J/kgf -cm.
122. First let us find the force with which the air presses on one of the
hemispheres. Assume that its base is covered with a flat lid in the form of
a disk with a radius R. If the air is pumped out from this vessel the force
of pressure on the fiat cover will be F1=pA=_pnR2. Obviously, the same
pressure will be exerted on the hemisphere by the air, otherwise the forces
will not be mutually balanced and the vessel will perpetually move in the
direction of the greater force. The number of horses should be F1/F, since
the other hemisphere may simply be tied to a post. The tensioned rope will
produce the same force as the team of horses pulling at the other side.
123. The change in the momentum of a body is equal to the impulse of
the force of gravity. Since the forces acting on the stone and the Earth are
the same and act during the same time, the changes in the momenta of
these bodies are also the same.
The change in the kinetic energy of a body is equal to the work of the
forces of gravitational attraction. The forces are equal, but the paths traver-
sed by the stone and the Earth are inversely proportional to their mas"ses.
This is why the law of conservation of energy may be written in a form
mv2
which disregards the change in the kinetic energy of the Earth: — + E 9-=const,
2
where m is the mass of the stone and E pthe potential energy of interaction.
124. According to the law of conservation of energy,

inigh=- In2lv21

where m1is the mass of the pile driver, h the height from which it drops,
and v1its velocity before the impact.
MECHANICS 201

Since the impact is instantaneous, the force of resistance cannot appreciably

change the total momentum of the system.
Seeing that the impact is inelastic
m1o1 = (m1 + m2) 02
where m2 is the mass of the pile, 02 the velocity of the driver and the pile
at the first moment after the impact.
The mechanical energy of the driver and the pile is spent on work done
to overcome the resistance of the soil F:
+ m2) z.4 (mi m2)gs Fs
2
where s is the depth which the pile is driven to into the soil.
Hence,
F= mig+ nzig+ m2g=32,500 kgf
+ m2 s
125. As a result of the inelastic impact, the linear velocity of the box
rnv
with the bullet at the first moment will be equal to u= where v is
M +in ,
the velocity of the bullet. On the basis of the law of conservation of energy,
the angle of deflection a is related to the velocity v by the expression.
(M+ m) u2 m2v2
L (1—cos a) g
2 2 (M -Fm)—(M+m)
whence
m YLg
v-2 sin a M+ni
2
126. Since the explosion is instantaneous, the external horizontal forces
(forces of friction) cannot appreciably change the total momentum of the
system during the explosion. This momentum is zero both before and directly
after the explosion.
Therefore, mol d- m2v2 = 0.
Hence, IA— .
02 m1
Since the carts finally stop, their initial kinetic energies are spent on work
against the forces of friction:
m 2
/7210
=ktnigh, and 2v2 km2gs2
2 2
o2 s
Hence, -J,= , and, therefore, s2=2 metres .

s2
127. Let us denote the speed of the body and the wagon after they stop
moving with respect to each other by u. According to the law of conserva-
tion of momentum,
(M m) u = Mvo
202 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

The wagon loses its kinetic energy in view of the fact that the force of
friction f acting on it performs negative work
Mv!, Mu2
2—2 1 `'
where S is the distance travelled by the wagon.
The body acquires kinetic energy because the force of friction acting on it
performs positive work
mug
2 =Is
Here s is the distance travelled by the body.
It is easy to see that the change in the kinetic energy of the system
iMu2 mu1
(2)
2— L 2 m2 =f (S—s)
is equal to the force of friction multiplied by the motion of the body rela-
tive to the cart.
It follows from equations (1) and (2) that
mMv!
S—sr=
21(M-Fm)
mMv,!
Since S—s <1, then
/> 2f (M-Fm)

Bearing in mind that f kmg, we have

2kg (M± m) •
128. The combustion of the second portion increases the velocity of the
rocket v by Au. Since combustion is instantaneous, then according to the law
of conservation of momentum,
(M tn)v=M (v+ AO+ m (v—u)
where m is the mass of a fuel portion, M the mass of the rocket without
fuel, u the outflow velocity of the gases relative to the rocket.
m
The velocity increment of the rocket Av= u does not depend on the
velocity v before the second portion of the fuel burns. On the contrary, the
increment in the kinetic energy of the rocket (without fuel)
M (v Av)2 Mv2
AEk — — mu ( m u v)
2 2 2M
will be the greater, the higher is v.
The maximum altitude of the rocket is determined by the energy it receives.
For this reason the second portion of the fuel can be burnt to the greatest
advantage when the rocket attains its maximum velocity, i. e., directly after
the first portion is ejected. Here the greatest part of the mechanical energy
produced by the combustion of the fuel will be imparted to the rocket, while
the mechanical energy of the combustion products will be minimum.
MECH AN ICS 203

129. It will be sufficient to

consider the consecutive combus-
tion of two portions of fuel. Let
the mass of the rocket with the
fuel first be equal to M+ 2m.
After combustion of the first
portion, the velocity of the rock-
et v—
et ,where u1 is the
velocity of the gases with respect
to the rocket. The initial velo-
city of the rocket is assumed to
be zero.
Fig. 320 The increment in the velocity
of the rocket after the second
mu2
portion burns is Av=— ' where u2 is the new velocity of the gases with
M
respect to the rocket.
Combustion of the first portion produces the mechanical energy AEI =
(M + m) v2 mu!
2 -I- 2of
'
the second portion the energy
and

M (v+2 Av)2 m (v—u2)2 (M

+ 2
)70 212
AE2 =
2
According to the initial condition, AEi = AE2. Hence,
m
/412 1 ",
in —4 ( n22 +
1\ 2 (M + m) -F 2 2M 2
Therefore, al > u2; the velocity of the gases with respect to the rocket di-
minishes because the mass of the rocket decreases as the fuel burns.
130. Both slopes may be broken into any arbitrary number of small in-
clined planes with various angles of inclination. Let us consider one of
them (Fig. 320).
The work done to lift the body up such an inclined plane is equal to
the work against the forces of gravity mg Ah plus the work against the forces
of friction Fir As.
But F f,=kmg cos a and As = 3/ . Therefore, F fr As=krrigAl. The total
cos a
work AW = mg (Ah-FkA1). If we consider all the inclined surfaces and sum
up the elementary works, the total work will be
W=/AW=- mg (1/Ah- AO= ingh+ krrigl
The work is determined only by the height of the mountain h and the length 1
of its foot.
131. The force applied to the handle will be minimum if it forms a right
angle with the handle. Denoting the force sought by F, we shall have from
the golden rule of mechanics: 2nRF =Gh. Hence, F= Gh
2nR
 204 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

132. According to the definition, the efficiency i= , where W1 =

Wi-FW 2
= GH is the work done to lift the load G to a height H, and W2 is the work
done against the forces of friction. Since the force of friction is capable of
holding the load in equilibrium, the work of this force cannot be less than
the work W1. The minimum work of the forces of friction is W2 = W 1. There-
fore, rl < 50%.
133. As the man climbs the ladder the balloon will descend by a height h.
Therefore, the work done by the man will be spent to increase his potential
energy by the amount mg (1—h) and that of the balloon by mgh (the balloon
without the man will be acted upon by the lifting force mg directed upwards).
Hence,
W = mg (1 — h)-1- mgh=mg1
This result can be obtained at once in calculating the work done by the man
in the system related to the ladder.
If the man climbs with a velocity v with respect to the ladder, he moves
at v—viwith respect to the Earth, where viis the velocity of the ascending
balloon.
According to the law of conservation of momentum, (0-01) m = Mv1.
Hence,
m
01= v
M m

134. To deliver twice as much water in a unit of time, a velocity two

times greater should be imparted to the double mass of the water. The work
tr/v2
of the motor is spent to impart a kinetic energy to the water. Therefore,
the power of the motor should be increased eight times.
135. (I) The work done to raise the water out of the pit is
H 3 3
W1= pg--2- Ax H= pgAH 2

where p is the density of water.

The work
1
Wg = --2- p 2 Ave

is required to Impart kinetic energy to the water.

The velocity v with which the water flows out of the pipe onto the
ground can be found from the ratio — A=ItR 2vt.
2
The total work is
3 I H3 A 3
W = —pg AH 2 + p
8 16 a2R4T2
(2) In the second case the work required to raise the water is less than
W I by AW; -=pgAih(H— — h
2 ). The work required to impart kinetic energy
MECHANICS 205

to the water is
(H: h A1 )3

W 2 13 TE2R 4T2

The total work W'=Wi—AW1-1-W2•

136. It is the simplest to solve the problem in a coordinate system rela-
ted to the escalator. The man will walk a distance l— zn relative
sin a
to the escalator, where VT is the distance covered by the escalator. He should
perform the work W trr mg sin a, since during the ascent the
sin a
force mg is applied over the distance l and forms an angle of 90°—a with it.
Part of the work mgh is spent to increase the potential energy of the
man, and the remainder mgzrr sin a together with the work of the motor
that drives the escalator is spent to overcome the forces of friction.
137. The relation between the elastic force and the deformation is shown
in Fig. 321. The work done to stretch (or compress) the spring by a small
amount Ax is shown by the area of the hatched rectangle AW =FAx. The total
work in stretching or compressing the spring by the amount 1, equal to its
k2
potential energy Ep, is shown by the area of triangle OBC: W =--
P 2
Let us recall that an expression for the distance covered in uniformly ac-
celerated motion can usually be obtained by similar reasoning.
138. The man acting with force F on the spring does the work W 1=— FL.
At the same time, the floor of the railway carriage is acted upon from the
side of the man by the force of friction F. The work of this force W,--=-FL.
Therefore, the total work performed by the man in a coordinate system
related to the Earth is zero, in the same way as in a system related to the train.
139. In the system of the train the work done is equal to the potential
k/ 2
energy of the stretched spring (see Problem 137) W = ' since the force of
2
friction between the man and the floor of the railway carriage does not do
work in this system.
In the system related to the Earth,
the work the man does to stretch
the spring is equal to the product
kl
of the mean force and the distan-

ce L-1, i. e., W1 (L-1). The

=2
man acts on the floor of the carria-
ge with the same mean force — The
kl
work of this force L. The
2
.2" total work in the given coordinate
k/2
system W= W / +172 -= —2— is the
Fig. 321 same as in the system of the carriage.
206 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

140. On the basis of the laws of conservation of momentum and energy

we can write the following equations:
mivi ±m2v2 =m01 m2v2
MO? MA M
M1.012 + 2142
2 + 2 2 2
where vi and 02are the velocities of the spheres after the collision.
Upon solving these simultaneous equations, we obtain
(m1— m 2) vi+ 2m2v2 , (m2 — m1) v2 + 2mivi.
01= ., and 02 =
m1-1-m2 1121+1722
(1) If the second sphere was at rest before the collision (02 =0), then
2M/Vi
V1• — (mi. — m2) 01 02=
rn2 M1+ M2

If mi. > m2, the first sphere continues to move in the same direction as before
the collision, but at a lower velocity.
If m1< m2, the first sphere will jump back after the collision. The se-
cond sphere will move in the same direction as the first sphere before the
collision.
2mv, 2mvi
(2) If mi. = m2, then v1= — and t-2 =- Upon collision
2m 2m
the spheres exchange their velocities.
141. The elastic impact imparts a velocity v to the left-hand block. At
this moment the right-hand block is still at rest since the spring is not de-
formed.
Let us denote the velocities of the left-and right-hand blocks at an arbit-
rary moment of time by u1and u2, and the absolute elongation of the spring
at this moment by x.
According to the laws of conservation of momentum and energy, we have
m (u/ H--u 2)=-mv
mui mug kx2
2 r2 2 2
or
kx2=m [v2 — (0. +4)]
Upon substituting ui ±u2 for v in the last equation, we obtain
kx2= 2muiu2
kx2
Therefore, u1u2=— m and u1+ u2 =v.
2
It can be seen from the last two equations that u1and u2 will have the
same sign and both blocks will move in the same direction.
The quantity x2 will be maximum when the product of the velocities u,
and u2is also maximum. Hence, to find the answer to the second question,
it is necessary to determine the maximum product uiu2assuming that the
sum ui -Fu, is constant and equal to v.
MECHANICS 207

Fig. 322

Let us consider the obvious inequality (u1 —u2)2 ...>_0, or ul-2u,u2+4_›...-0.

Let us add 4u1u2to the right and left sides of the inequality. Hence,
u21 ±2u1u2 + 4 4u,u2 or (th-Fu2)2 4u1u2. Since u1 +u2 =-0, then
4u,u2 <v2.
Therefore, the maximum value of u1u2 is equal to 02/4 and it is attained
when u„-= U 2=—
2"
At this moment the distance between the blocks is
m
i f xmax=I fv 277
142. The lower plate will rise if the force of elasticity acting on it is
greater than its weight: kx2 > m2g. Here x2 is the deformation of the spring
stretched to the maximum (position c in Fig. 322). Position a shows an un-
deformed spring.
For the spring to expand over a distance of x2it should be compressed
by x1(position b in Fig. 322), which can be found on the basis of the law
of conservation of energy:
kx! k.4 ,
2 2 (xi+ x2)
Hence,
2mig m2g
.x1 >

To compress
compress the spring by x1, the weight of the plate should be supple-
mented with a force which satisfies the equation F mig=kxi.
Therefore, the sought force F > mig+ m2g.
143. In a reading system related to the wall, the velocity of the ball is
v+ u. After the impact the velocity of the ball will be—(v+u) in the same
reading system. The velocity of the ball after the impact with respect to" a
stationary reading system will be
—(v+u)—u=— (v 2u) +
208 ANSWERS AND SOLUTION

The kinetic energy after the impact is 2(v+2u)2 and before the impact

02
.

The change in the kinetic energy is equal to 2mu (u +v).

Let us now calculate the work of the elastic forces acting on the ball
during the impact. Let the collision continue for 'r seconds. For the sake of
simplicity we assume that during the impact the elastic force is constant
(generally speaking the result does not depend on this assumption). Since
the impact changes the momentum by 2m (0+ u), the elastic force is
2m (v+ u)
F=
T
The work of this force is
2m (v+ u) tit
W=FS=FUT- —2m (v+ u) u

It is easy to see that this work is equal to the change in the kinetic
energy.
144. (1) Up to the moment when the rope is tensioned the stones will
fall freely
gt 2 . (t —T)2
sl= —2— an d s2 —
2
The moment of tensioning of the rope can be determined from the con-
dition 1= sl s2. Hence, t=3 seconds, s1 =44.1 metres, s2 =4.9 metres. The
—

time is counted from the moment the first stone begins to fall. When the
rope is tensioned, there occurs an elastic impact and the stones exchange
their velocities (see Problem 140). At the moment of impact v,-=gt --=-29.4 m/s,
and v2 = g (t
- — = 9.8 m/s.
The duration of falling of the first stone t1(after the rope is tensioned)
can be found from the condition
gt?
h—si==v2t1+
2
and of the second stone t2 from the condition
, gt
h — S2 v t 2 -r

Therefore t j.= 1.6 seconds, and t2 1.8 seconds.

The first stone falls during 4.6 seconds and the second during 2.8 seconds.
(2) If the rope is inelastic, the velocities of the stones after it is tensioned
01 + 02
are equalized (inelastic impact): v= =19.6 m/s. The duration of fal-
ling of the stones with the rope tensioned is determined from the equations:
, , ut2' 2
and h — s2
2 2

s1and s2 are the same as in the first case.

MECHAN ICS 209

Hence, (1 =- 1.2 seconds, and t; 3.3 seconds.

The first stone falls during 4.2 seconds and the second during 4.3 seconds.
145. If only the right-hand ball is moved aside, the extreme left-hand
ball will bounce off after the impact through an angle equal to that by
which the right-hand ball was deflected.
If two right-hand balls are simultaneously moved aside and released, then
two extreme left-hand balls will bounce off, and so on.
When the first ball strikes the second one, the first 14.11 stops and trans-
mits its momentum to the second one (see the solution to Problem 140), the
second transmits the same momentum to the third, etc. Since the extreme
left-hand ball has no "neighbour" at its left, it will bounce off (provided
there is no friction or losses of energy) through the same angle by which
the extreme right-hand ball was deflected.
When the left-hand ball, after deviation through the maximum angle,
strikes the ball at its right, the process of transmission of momentum will
take the reverse course.
When two right-hand balls are deflected at the same time, they will
transmit their momenta to the row in turn after a very small period of time.
In this way the other balls will receive two impulses that will be propagated
along the row at a certain time interval. The extreme left-hand ball will
bounce off after it receives the "first portion" of the momentum. Next, its
"neighbour" will bounce off after receiving the next portion of the momentum
from the extreme right-hand ball.
If three right-hand balls are deflected, the row of balls will receive
portions of momentum from the third, second and first ball following each
other in very small intervals of time. If four balls are deflected and released
at the same time, four balls will bounce off at the left while the other two
will remain immobile.
146. The striking ball will jump back and the other balls up to the steel
one will remain in place. The steel ball and all the others after it will
begin to move to the left with different velocities.
The fastest velocity will be imparted to the extreme left-hand ball. The
next one will move slower, etc. The balls will move apart (see the solutions
to Problems 140 and 145).
147. Assume that the weight 2m lowers through a distance of H. The
weights in will accordingly rise to the height h (Fig. 323).
2mv2 2tnv2
On the basis of the law of conservation of energy, 2mgh+- +- =
2 2
= 2mgH, or vf 2g (H—h), where v1is the velocity of the weights m
and 02 that of the weight 2m.
When the weight 2m lowers, its velocity 02 approaches the velocity
since the angles between the parts of the string thrown over the pulleys tend
to zero. In the limit, 02 01. At the same time, H — h = 1.
Therefore, the maximum velocity of the weights is
v=--
148. The velocities of the weights are the same if they cover identical
distances As in equally small intervals of time. These distances will .be the
same at such an angle ANB at which lowering of the weight m1through
As-=NK (Fig. 324) is attended by an increase in part ANB of the string
also by the amount As. Therefore, when the velocities are equal, HK
210 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

21

h h
Ii Fig. 323

As As
BK—BN=- — and FK= AK — AN=- . The triangles NHK and NFK
2 2
will be the closer to right ones, the smaller is the distance As. When
As —÷ 0, the angles NHK and NFK tend to be right ones, while the angles
KNH and KNF tend to 30°. Therefore, the velocities will be equal when
L ANB= 120°.
Let us use the law of conservation of energy to find these velocities

m,gh =2 (2— 1/ -3) m2gh+m1-12-1712

Hence,
mi — 2 (2— -11) m2 0
v2= 2gh
m1+ m2
The weights will oscillate near the position of equilibrium, which corres-
ponds to the angle ANB=2 arc cos mm tii 149°. The maximum deviation from
2
the position of equilibrium corresponds to the angle ANB=120°.
149. Since there is no slipping of the board on the rollers and of the
rollers on the horizontal surface, the distance between the axes of the rollers

Fig. 324
 MECHANICS 211

Fig. 325
in motion remains constant. For this reason the board will move translation-
ally in a horizontal direction and at the same time down along the rollers.
When the rollers move through a certain distance 1, each point on the
board (in particular, its centre of gravity A) will move in a horizontal
direction through the same distance 1 and will also move the same distance
along the rollers: AB=BC=1 (Fig. 325). (This is particularly obvious if
we consider the motion of the rollers in a coordinate system travelling
together with the rollers.) As a result, the centre of gravity of the board
will move along straight line AC inclined to the horizon at an angle a/2,
since ABC is an isosceles triangle. The motion will be uniformly accelerated.
The board acquires kinetic energy owing to the reduction of its potential
mv2
energy —=-tngl sin a, or v2 =-.2g1 sin a. On the other hand, in uniformly
a
accelerated motion v2 =2as where s= AC=21 cos
, . Hence, the accelerat ion
2
02 a
a=--=g sin .
2s 2
150. Let us calculate the difference between the potential energies for the
two positions of the chain—when it lies entirely on the table and when a
part of it x hangs from the table. This difference is equal to the weight
xg of the hanging part multiplied by x/2, since the chain is homogeneous
and the centre of gravity of the hanging end is at a distance of x/2 from
the edge of the table.
Mv2 Mg
On the basis of the law of conservation of energy, or
2 = 4/ x2
gx 2
v= . At this moment of time the acceleration can be found from
2/
gx
Newton's second law: Ma= 7 gx. Therefore,
a =g
To calculate the reaction of the table edge, let us first find the tension
of the chain at the point of its contact with the table. It is equal to the
change in the momentum of the part of the chain lying on the table
M ,„, 9 Mg
F =— ( 21— x) a— -- = — —x)x
2/ 2/ 2/2
212 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 326 Fig. 327

Let us now consider a very small element of the chain in contact with
the table edge. This element is acted upon by the three forces (Fig. 326).
Since this element is infinitely small, the sum of the three forces which act
on it should be zero.
Therefore, the force of reaction is
N = F112=172 M (1 — z) x x
22
1
When x > 1, the chain no longer touches the edge of the table.
151. Let us denote the velocity of the wagon by v. The horizontal
component of the velocity of the pendulum with respect to the wagon is
u cos f3 (Fig. 327). Since the wagon moves, the velocity of the pendulum
with respect to the rails is v+ u cos 13. The external forces do not act on
the system in a horizontal direction. Therefore, on the basis of the law of
conservation of momentum, we have
m (v+ u cos 13)±mv=0 (1)
since the system was initially at rest.
The vertical component of the pendulum velocity with respect to the
wagon and the rails is u sin 13.
According to the Pythagorean theorem, the square of the pendulum
velocity relative to the rails is (0+ u cos 13)2 + 02 sing 13.
With the aid of the law of conservation of energy, we can obtain a second
equation interrelating the velocities v and u:
M
m [(u cos (3+v)2 + u2 sin2 PI + — v2 = mgl (cos 13—cos a)
7 (2)
2
It can be found from equations (1) and (2) that
2m2g1 (cos 13—cos a) coo p
02-
(M+m) (m -Fin sine 13)
In a particular case, when 13=0 ( assuming -A-m
4— < I
m2
v2 =2 M2
— gl (1—cos a)
CI

v=2 11sin -1-6j/F1

M 2
 MECHANICS 213

Fig. 328
152. Let us denote the velocity of the wedge by v, and the horizontal
and vertical components of the velocity u of the block with reference to a
stationary reading system by ux and uy(Fig. 328).
On the basis of the laws of conservation of momentum and energy we
can write
Mv2 m u 2) =_.mgh
—Mv+mux=0, and T ( x y

It should be noted that the angle a with the horizontal surface is formed
by the relative velocity ura, i.e., the velocity of the block with respect
to the moving wedge, and not the absolute velocity of the block u, by
which is meant the velocity relative to a stationary horizontal surface.
uy
It follows from the velocity diagram (Fig. 329) that
v+ u, =tan a. Upon
solving these equations with respect to v, we obtain
2mgh
n— )2 + 1 7-
M-1-m[ 7M M1 +1)2 tan2a]
\
2gh
M M 2 M 2
—+() -1--( -7
t +1) tan2 a
m m

At the same moment of time the absolute velocity of the block is

1
u=r4-1-4=V2gh 1
1+ (1 + 111
m )2tang a
m

When the mass of the wedge is much greater than that of the block,
u tends, as should be expected, to 1/2gh.
153. The velocity of the rod with respect to the moving wedge is directed
at an angle a to the horizon, If the velocity of the wedge is added to this
relative velocity, the result will be the absolute velocity u of the rod
214 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 329 Fig. 330

(Fig. 330). The relation between the velocities is obviously equal to

u
— tan a
v
M v2 mu2
It follows from the law of conservation of energy that —T = mgh.
Upon cancelling u from these two equations, we get an expression for v:
2mgh
v=
M±nz tang
We can then write for the relative velocity of the rod:
1 2mgh
urea — cos a; M tan2 a
The velocity of the rod is
2mgh_ 2 mgtan2 a 4
u=tan a
rn+ M tan2 a 1
/ tn-1- M tan2 a -
It can be seen from this formula that the velocity of the rod changes with
the path h travelled according to the law of uniformly accelerated motion
2ah. Therefore, the acceleration of the rod is
m tan2 a
a=
m+M tan2 a

1-7. Kinematics of Curvilinear Motion

154. The driving pulley rotates with an angular velocity of co1 =23-cn1and
the driven one with a velocity of co2 =2tn2. The velocity of the drive belt
--(o,r,-=o),r 2•
is v=-
Hence, a =(`— .
r2 co, n,
The sought diameter is D,--=D2?=-100 mm.
155. (1) Let us denote the length of the crawler by L=na. Hence,
1= L is the distance between the axes of the wheels.
2
MECHANICS 215

—
The number of links taking part in translational motion is n1=
a
L— 2nR
The same number of links is at rest relative to the Earth.
2a
2riR
In rotary motion there are links.

(2) The time during which the tractor moves is to =-7-

zs . During a full re-
volution of the crawler the link will move translationally a distance 2/ at a
2/
speed of 2v. The duration of motion of one link during a revolution is — .
2v
Altogether, the crawler will make N= Therefore, the duration
NI
of translational motion of the link is . This is the time during which
v
the link is at rest.
The link will participate in rotary motion during the time
2N1 s+23-cRN—NL
t 2=to

If s> L, the number of revolutions may be assumed as a whole number,

neglecting the duration of an incomplete revolution.
12—r
156. The duration of flight of a molecule between the cylinders is t---=
During this time the cylinders will turn through the angle of and, therefore,
R—r
Rot (O R

(oR (R—r)
Hence, v=
157. Let us denote the sought radius by R and the angular speed of the
tractor over the arc by o. Hence (Fig. 331),

vi=-6.) (R-7) , and vo = (R )

2
Thus
R-7 d tio ±vi
and R— 0 =--6 m
vo z vo —v1
R+ 7

158. First the observer is at the pole (point 0 in Fig. 332). The axis of
the Earth passes through point 0 perpendicular to the drawing. Line OA
(parallel to BC) is directed toward the star. The mountain is at the right
of point A. The angle cc= coAt is the angle through which the Earth rotates
during the time At with the angular velocity co. To see the star, the observer
OC
-=---0AcoAt. The observer's speed v=at =0/4(1)=-0.7 m/s.
should run a distance 0C-
216 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

OE
/
/
/
/
/

Fig. 331 Fig. 332

159. Let us take point A from which the boat departs as the origin of the
coordinate system. The direction of the axes is shown in Fig. 333. The boat
moves in a direction perpendicular to the current at a constant velocity u.
For this reason the boat will be at a distance y from the bank in the time
t=--
Y after departure. Let us consider the motion of the boat up to the
2
middle of the river (y . The current velocity is v= y at a distance
2
y from the bank.
Upon inserting y=ut into the expression for the current, we get v- 2vout
It follows from this relationship that the boat moves parallel to the banks
2v u
with a constant acceleration a=---(1- . The boat will reach the middle of the

Fig. 333
 MECHANICS 217

c
river in the time T---=— and will be carried downstream during the same
2u
aT 2 voc
time over a distance of s= = . When moving from the middle of the
2 4u
river (point D) to the opposite bank, the boat will again be carried away
over the same distance s. Thus, the sought distance is . When the boat
at2 vu
moves to the middle of the river x= =–L-t 2 and y=ut.
2
Let us use these ratios to determine the trajectory of the boat from A to D.
We get y2=—
ocu x (a parabola). The other half of the trajectory (DB) is of the
same nature as the first one.
160. It is obvious from considerations of symmetry that at any moment
of time the tortoises will be at the corners of a square whose side gradually
diminishes (Fig. 334). The speed of each tortoise can be resolved into a radial
(directed towards the centre) and a perpendicular components. The radial
speed will be equal to v,.=—. Each tortoise has to walk a distance of
11-j-
a
1=-- to the centre.
Therefore, the tortoises will meet at the centre of the square after the time
, 1 a ,
r=—=— eiapses.
Or V
161. Ship B moves toward ship A with the speed u. At the same time
ship A sails away from ship B with the speed v cos a (Fig. 335). Therefore,
218 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 335

the distance AB reduces with a speed of v (1—cos a). Point C (the projection
of point B onto the trajectory of ship A) moves with a speed of v (1 —cos a).
For this reason distance AC increases with a speed of v cos a. Therefore, the
sum of the distances s= AB-1- AC remains constant as the ships move. At the
initial moment point C coincides with A, and therefore s=-AB=--a. After
a sufficiently great interval of time point C will coincide with B, and
s a
AB= AC=- = and the ships will move at a distance of 1.5 km from
2 2 '
each other.
162. With respect to the reading system shown in Fig. 336, the coordinates
and the velocities of the body can be determined at any moment of time
from the following formulas:
X =CIOX1 (1)
gt2
y=voyt (2)
fix=-vox (3)
vy=voy —gt (4)
Here vox =vo cos a and voy =vo sin a are the projections of the initial velo-
cities on the axes x and y. Equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) provide an answer
to all the questions stipulated in the problem.
The duration of flight T can be found from equation (2). When y=0, we
gT 2 2vo sin a
have vo sin ca.— — =O. Hence, T-
2
MECHANICS 219

The distance of the flight is L=--vo cos a T=

—
vg sin 2a This distance
g
will be maximum when a=45°:
vo2
Lmax
The height at which the body will be after the time t elapses is equal
to h=v0 sin at—g÷

The velocity of the body at the moment T is equal to v=1/- vX + 4, where

vx -
-=v0 cos a and vy =v, sin a—gt. Hence, v=---liv:4-g1/42 -2vogy sin a and
it forms an angle of p with the vertical that can be found from the equa-
vo cos a
tion tan [3 =--
vo sin a-
163. The coordinates of the body x and y change with time according to
the law
sin at
at --
- g 2
x =v0 cos at
Upon excluding the time from these expressions, we obtain an equation
for the trajectory y— x2 + tan a•x. This is an equation of a pa-
cos2
rabola. By denoting the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola (p oint A
in Fig. 336) by xo and yo, the equation of the trajectory can be written as
y— yo (x— x0)2, where
g sin2
k =- , go— 2g
cos2
and
o20 sin 2a
xo = 2g

164. The trajectory of the ball takes the form of a parabola passing through
a point with the coordinates h and s. Therefore (see the solution to Pro-
blem 163),
h= g s2 +tan as
cos2
Hence,
gs2 gs2 gs2
02 = —
02 cos2 a (tan as —h) (s sin 2a— h cos 2a)— h s2 h2 sin(2c4-0—h
where tan cp=h/s. The minimum velocity
gs2
y0— —17 g (h+ V h2+ 82)
s2+h2—k V
 220 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 337 Fig. 338

is attained when
h+ Ys2±h2
a= '4D +-31
4-= arc tan — arc tan
h2+ s2 h
(Fig. 337.)
165. The coordinates and the velocities of the body at any moment of
time with respect to the reading system shown in Fig. 338 are determined
by the same equations as in Problem 162.
At the moment when the body falls into the water its coordinate y=— H.
For this reason the duration of flight T can be found from the equation
gT 2
H = vosin aT —
2
Hence,
vo sin a + sin2a+ 2gH
T—
g
Since T > 0, we shall retain the plus sign. The distance from the bank is
vn2 sin 2a
+vo cos a
L=vocos aT " 8 v sin2a +2gH
2g
The body will be at a height h above the water after the time

vo sin a f Yv2 sin2 a+ 2g (H—h)

g
If Ihl < IH I, only the plus sign has a physical meaning. When h H,
both solutions have a meaning. During its motion the body will be twice at
the same height above the water.
It is the simplest to find the final velocity v with the aid of the law of
conservation of energy
mv2
+ mgH
Therefore,
v=i7v)--1-2gH
MECHANICS 221

Fig. 339

166. In the reading system depicted in Fig. 339, the coordinates of the
stone are determined at any moment of time by the following equations:
x=v0 cos at
gt2
y=ho +vo sin at --
2
At the moment when the stone falls, y=0 and x=s, where s is the distance
covered by the stone.
Upon solving these equations with respect to the angle a, we obtain
v2 , 2gh0 g2s2
tan a= -2– ( I ± 17.1 —v2— —)
v4
gS 0 0

This expression has a meaning when

2gho g2s2
1 + vs >. 0
o 0
vo vg +2gh vol7 +2gho
Hence, s< 0 .Its maximum value is sm„=— vg
When s is smaller, two values of the angle a correspond to each of its va-
lues, the difference between which is the less, the nearer s is to its maximum
value.

Fig 340
222 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Therefore, for the maximum distance of flight,

02 v0 1
tan a— ° = ; and a=30°
gsmax y vt +2gho 13
167. The components of the velocities of the bodies along x and y at any
moment of time are determined as
viy =v0 sin al— gt ; 0211=00 sin a2 —gt;
vi.x=vo cos a 1; and 02,_=— 00 cos a2
Let u be the velocity of the second body with respect to the first one. Hence
uu =v0 sin al —gt—vo sin a2+gt =v0 (sin al —sin a2)
ux=v, (cos a, +cos a2)
Therefore, the velocity u is equal to

2=2 cos (al +a2 ) vo

u=1/- x+tiv
2
The bodies move with respect to each other at a constant velocity. After the
time T the distance between them will be
s— 2v, cos ( (11 T
2
168. The horizontal path of the bomb s=1/./2 —h2 =v cos at, where I is
ot2
the duration of falling of the bomb. The vertical path is h--=v sin at+.
=
2
(Fig. 340).
Upon excluding the time from these equations, we find
z,2 02 2 + 21w2 _
tan a= — — 17.(
gs gs gs2
The solution with the plus sign has a meaning. The minus sign corresponds
to a < 0, i.e., the bomb is dropped when the dive-bomber is flying upward.
169. It will be convenient to solve this problem in a reading system rela-
ted to the uniformly moving vehicles.
In this system, the highway moves back with the speed of v=50 km/h,
the vehicles are at rest with respect to each other and their wheels rotate.
The linear speed of points on the circumference of the wheel and that of the
stuck stone is also y. The stone will fly the maximum distance if it flies out
when its speed forms an angle of 45° with the horizon. Let us find this
distance. Neglecting the fact that the stone is somewhat above the level of
v2 sin 2a 02
the highway when it is thrown out, we obtain 1— -= ---- 19.6 met-
res. The minimum distance between the vehicles should be 19.6 metres.
170. It will be much easier to solve the problem if the axes of coordinates
are directed along the inclined plane and perpendicular to it (Fig. 341).
In this case the components of the acceleration o' the ball on the axes x
and y will be respectively equal to cl,==gx=g sin a and ay=gy=— g cos a.
MECHANICS 223

Fig. 341 Fig. 342

Upon the first impact with the inclined plane, the velocity of the ball will
be 00 = r2gh. The initial velocity of the ball after the first impact is v0
and forms an angle a with the y-axis (Fig. 341).
The distance between the points of the first and second impacts is
g si n0112
/1 =v0 sin at, + 2 where t1is the duration of flight and is determi-
ned by the equation
g cos at?
vo cos cal u
2
2v
Hence, t1 =2
g and 11=8h sin a. The velocity of the ball at the second
impact can be found from the equations
vlz= vox +axti = vo sin a d-g sin at1=3v0 sin a
v,y=voy-kayt 1=v0cos a— g cos at — vo cos a
After the impact these velocities are equal to
V2X = V DO and v2y =— viy

The distance between the points of the second and third impacts is equal to
g sin ate
12=3v,, sin ate -k
2
where 12 is the time during which the ball is in flight. Since the initial
velocity along the y' axis is the same as during the first impact, t2 =t1.
Therefore, 12 =16h sin a.
Similarly, it can be shown that the distance between the next points
13 =24h sin a.
Consequently, 11: / 2 : /3... =-- 1 : 2: 3, etc.
224 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

171. The motion of the body can be considered as superposition of move-

ment along a circumference with a radius R in a horizontal plane and verti-
cal falling. Accordingly, the velocity of the body v at the given moment
can be represented as the geometrical sum of two components: vi =v cos a
directed horizontally and 02 =0 sin a directed vertically (Fig. 342). Here a
is the angle formed by the helical line of the groove with the horizon.
In curvilinear motion the acceleration of a body is equal to the geomet-
rical sum, of the tangential and normal accelerations. The normal acceleration
that corresponds to movement along the circumference is
vi2 v2 cost a

The vertical motion is rectilinear, and therefore abi =O.

The sought acceleration a=V cdT 1 4-r Faln, where al, and a2., are the
- - -

tangential accelerations that correspond to motion along the circumference

and along the vertical. The total tangential acceleration ct, is obviously
equal to a,=1/- adv.
The value of at can be found by mentally developing the surface of the
cylinder with the helical groove into a plane. In this case the groove will
become an inclined plane with a height nh and a length of its base 2nRn.
Apparently, at =g sin a=g
- -

Yh2+ 43c2R2
To determine a1„, let us find v from the law of conservation of energy:
mv2 8n2nhgR
— =mghn. Consequently, v2 = 2ghn and a,n= Upon inserting
.
2 h2 + 4312 R 2

Fig. 343
MECHANICS 225

the found accelerations a, and alr, into the expression for the sought accele-
ration, we get
ghlih2±4n2R2+64214n2R2
a—
h2 + 4a2R2
172. As usual, the motion of the ball can be considered as the result
of summation of vertical (uniformly accelerated) and horizontal (uniform) mo-
tions.
The simplest method of solution is to plot a diagram showing how the
coordinates of the ball along the horizontal depend on the time for the limi-
ting velocities 267 cm/s and 200 cm/s (Fig. 343). The lower broken line cor-
responds to the maximum velocity and the upper one to the minimum
velocity. In the course of time, as can be seen from the diagram, the inde-
finiteness of the ball coordinate x shown by the section of the horizontal
straight line between the lines of the diagram increases. The vertical hatching
in Fig. 343 shows the movement of the ball from M to N, and the horizontal
hatching—from N to M. The cross-hatched areas correspond to indefiniteness
in the direction of the horizontal velocity.
(1) The diagram shows that after the ball bounces once from slab N the
direction of its horizontal velocity will be indefinite when the duration of
falling OK<t <OL or t > AB (where 01<=0.15 s, OL=0.2 s and AB=0.225 s).
Hence, 10 cm < H -< 20 cm or gt 2 26 cm.
(2) The ball may strike any point on the base supporting the slabs if the
duration of falling of the ball t> AF=0.3 s.
Therefore, Hmin =44 cm.
173. (1) During the time T of a complete revolution the disk will cover a
distance equal to the length of its circumference, i.e., s=2Itr, where r is the
radius of the disk. Therefore, the translational velocity of any point on the
disk vt,.= =v. On the other hand, the linear velocity of rotation of
Tr
points on the disk rim with respect to the centre 0 is viin=cor, where to is
2o-c 2r
the angular velocity of rotation. Since e.)=-T.- , then vii,,= — =vtr•
(2) The velocity of points on the disk rim with respect to a standing obser-
ver will be the sum of the translational and rotational velocities. The total
velocity for point A will be equal to 2v.
For points B and D the velocities being added are equal in absolute mag-
nitude and their sum is -1/1) (Fig. 344a).
For point C the total velocity with respect to a standing observer is zero,
since the translational and rotational velocities are equal in absolute magni-
tude and oppositely directed.
(3) The instantaneous velocities of points on diameter AC increase in direct
proportion to the distance from point C. For this reason the motion of the
disk may be considered at the given moment of time as rotation around the
point where the disk touches the path. The axis passing through point C
perpendicular to the plane of the disk is known as the instantaneous axis of
rotation. When the disk moves, this axis constantly passes through the point
of contact between the disk and the path.
Therefore, all the points on the disk equidistant from point C at the given
moment of time will have the same total velocity with respect to a standing
8 —1 8 6 5
226 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

A 21r

Fig. 344

observer. The points which are at a distance equal to the disk radius from
the instantaneous axis (point C) will have the same velocity (in absolute
magnitude) as that of the axis, i.e., v (Fig. 344b).
174. The angle between adjacent spokes of the front wheel is cp= 2n
ATI
The wheel will seem stationary on the screen if it turns through the angle
a= kcp during the time between the filming of two successive frames T=1/24 s.
Here k is a positive integer. On the other hand, the angle of rotation of the
wheel during the time r is equal to a= or, where (I) is the angular speed of
the wheel. Therefore, the front wheel will seem stationary if.6)--=- 27
-ji and
NiT '
2akr
the speed of the cart v=cor= . The minimum speed of the cart omin =
NIT
22-tr ,
—=0.0 mis.
NI
The rear wheel will also seem stationary if

21ckir ___2ak2R
Nit N2T

liR
Hence, N 2 --= -= 9 when k1=k,=1.
175. (1) The spokes will seem to rotate counterclockwise if during the
time T (see Problem 174) the wheel turns through the angle 131which satisfies
the condition kq > 131> kg)— —
q) , where k=1, 2, 3, ... . The consecutive po-
sitions of the wheel spokes are shown for this case in Fig. 345a. It seems to
sitions
the audience that each spoke turns through the angle a <-LPcounterclock-
2
wise. The possible angular velocities lie within the interval

krp (2k-1) q)
> col >
2-r
MECHANICS 227

Since the front and rear wheels have the same number of spokes, the wheels
will seem to revolve counterclockwise if the speed of the cart is
kyr > v > kqv yr
(1)
-r T

R kcp1R (pR
>v> -- 2T,
kp (2)

Since R =1.5r, the second inequality can be rewritten as follows:

1.5kcpr > v > 1.5kyr 1.5 pr
2T

Both inequalities, which are congruent only when k=1, give the permissible
speeds of the cart in the form
yr
>v> 0. /0 -

2Tc
Or, since cp=T, we have 8.8 m/s > v > 6.6 m/s.
(2) The spokes of the rear wheel will seem to revolve clockwise if during
the time x the wheel turns through the angle 3,1 which satisfies the condition
(2k-1) > 132 > (k-1) p(Fig. 345b). Hence, the following inequality is true
for the speed of the cart:
(2k — 1) cpr 1.5 (k-1) qr
1.5 >v>
2r

At the same time inequality (I) should be complied with. When k=1, both
inequalities are congruent if 0.75 1
24.- > v > 0.5 . When k=2 they are con-
it
r Tr
gruent if > v > 1.5 — . If k > 2 the inequalities are incongruent.

A d'

27'22
(b) Fig. 345
228 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Therefore,
6.6 m/s > v > 4.4 m/s
or
17.6 m/s > v > 14.2 m/s
176. The instantaneous axis of rotation
(see Problem 173) passes through point C
(Fig. 346). For this reason the velocity
of point A relative to the block is
R+r
VA =v .
R —r
Point B has the velocity
Points on a circle with the radius r whose
centre is point C have an instantaneous
velocity equal to that of the spool core.
Fig. 346 177. The trajectories of points A, B and
C are shown in Fig. 347. Point B descri-
bes a curve usually called an ordinary cycloid. Points A and C describe an
elongated and a shortened cycloids.
178. The linear velocity of points on the circumference of the shaft
v,=co and that of points on the race v2 =52- . Since the balls do not
2
slip, the same instantaneous velocities will be imparted to the points on the
ball bearing that at this moment are in contact with the shaft and the race.
The instantaneous velocity of any point on the ball can be regarded as the
sum of two velocities: the velocity of motion of its centre vo and the linear
velocity of rotation around the centre. The ball will rotate with a certain
angular velocity coo (Fig. 348).
Therefore,
Vi=Vo—Wor
V2= Vo (Dor
Hence,
vo = 2.4- V2) = ( cod+ D)
In this expression, each angular velocity may be positive (clockwise rota-
cod
tion) and negative (counterclockwise rotation). When ,C2=0,

dIP

Fig. 347
 MECHANICS 229

Fig. 348 Fig. 349

179. Since the cone rolls without slipping, the points on the generatrix
OA (Fig. 349) should be stationary. This fact is used to determine the ve-
locity 52 with which the cone rotates around its axis.
coh
For point A we have -=5212 tan a. Hence, 52= . The velocity
cos a. sin a
of an arbitrary point D1on diameter AB of the cone base is the sum of two
velocities:
r co
v,==co (h cos cc —r sin a) +
sin a

where r is the distance from the centre of the base C to the given point.
For point D2 below centre C we have
ra.)
v2-= (h cos a + r sin a)—
sin a
The velocity of the lowermost point is zero and of the uppermost point
v=- aoh cos a.
180. The linear velocities should be the same where bevel gears E and C,
and E and D, mesh. Since gears E rotate with the velocity co around axle A,
and the axle rotates in another plane with the velocity SZ, the following
equation is true for gears E and C to mesh:
ro.)/ =--no+riS2
For meshing of gears E and D, a similar equation has the form
r1o12 = — ro..)+ ri.52
Hence,
252= + co,
20)= 7(co, —o2)

When wheel B rotates at a speed of Q, the angular velocities of the driv-

ing wheels may differ from each other from zero to 2Q.
230 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

1-8. Dynamics of Curvilinear Motion

181. On the basis of Newton's second law,
(M+ in) tia
—T (M+ m)g, where u=2 sin T11 Lg (see Problem 125).

Hence,
T =(M±m)g (4 sing +1)

182. T1= 10mco2/; T2 =9mco21; T3 = 7mo.)2 /, and T4 - -=4/7/co21.

183. The distances from the centre of gravity to the masses m1and m2
are equal, respectively, to
m1
x= m2 1 and y= 1
m1 -1-in2 mi. + 1112
Let us denote the velocity of the centre of gravity by u and the angular
velocity of rotation by co. Thus u+ cox=v j and u— coy =v2.
Hence,
v j— v2
(0= 1 , and u— mlul ±tri2v2
-F m2

184. The velocity of rotation will be retarded. The platform imparts to

the shell an additional momentum along a tangent to the trajectory of the
end of the cannon barrel. According to Newton's third law, the shell ejected
from the barrel will press against its inner part in a direction opposite to ro-
tation.
185. When the body touches the horizontal plane, the vertical and hori-
zontal components of its velocity will be v„,.= Y2gH sin a and vh„ =
2gH cos a. If the impact is absolutely elastic, the vertical component
will change its sign, while the horizontal component will remain the same.
The trajectory of the body will take the form of sections of parabolas
(Fig. 350), with h=H sine a and 1=2H sin 2a.
If the impact is absolutely inelastic, the vertical component of the velo-
city will be zero, and the bodywill move uniformly over the horizontal
plane with the velocity v= Y 2gH cos a.
186. The Earth acts on the motor-cycle with two forces (Fig. 351), name-
ly, N— the reaction of the support, and f —the force of friction. The sum of

Fig. 350
MECHANICS 231

these forces T is directed along the motor-cycle.

(Otherwise, the moment of the forces tending to
t tip the motor-cycle would be acting with res-
p pect to the centre of gravity 0.)
Thus, the centre of gravity is acted upon by
the resulting force F =T+ G, where G is the
weight of the motor-cyclist. Since F=T cos a= f,
a centripetal acceleration will be imparted to
the motor-cycle only by the friction force f.
= rcivz
According to Newton's second law, f -
and f kmg. Figure 351 shows that mg= f tan a.
The minimum value of R from this system
02
of equations is Rmin =k—g= 147 metres, when
f tan a =
Rg
33.3, and therefore a 73°20'.
Fig. 351 187. Let us consider the intermediate position
of the rod when it has moved through the angle
a from the vertical. In accordance with the law of conservation of energy,
o)2R2
MgR= MgR cos a-{ m 2 , where R is the distance from the end of the
rod to the centre of gravity of the sphere.
Therefore, the angular velocity co can be expressed as

6)=2 sin --a

2- 17 g
-1F

With the given value of a, it will be the smaller, the greater is R.

Hence, the rod will fall faster if it is placed on end B.
188. According to Newton's second law, tre2R -= mg cos a —N, where N is
the force which the deformed rod acts on the sphere with.
The deformation of the rod will disappear when the rod no longer presses
g
on the floor, and N=O. As shown in Problem 187, w=2 ITsin 2 .
Upon inserting this value of co in the equation of motion, we find that
2
cos a= — . Hence, cc=48°10'.
3
For the rod not to slip, the condition N sin a< kN cos a should be ful-
filled (Fig. 352). Therefore, k > tan a. Hence k> 11 5
2
189. If k > — the rod will not slip until N is zero, i.e., until a <
2 ,
2
arc cos —
3.
2
When a > arc cos , the equation tro2R =mg cos a— N will give us
N <0. This means that if the end of the rod had been attached to the ground,
the rod would have been stretched. If the rod is not secured, the sphere
232 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Nan a 4
Fig. 352 Fig. 353
will begin to fall freely from the moment when the angle a reaches the
value ao = arc cos 2 .

At this moment v=coR=

V 2
-gR forms an angle aowith the horizon
3
2
and the height of the sphere above the ground is CD—s. R (Fig. 353). Let
us find the distance sought by using the laws of free falling:

AB= AD-FDB=R
5 17 4 rn IN= 1.12R
27
190. The bead moves along section ADB under the action of the force of
gravity (Fig. 354). For the bead to reach point B after it leaves point A,
the horizontal path which it travels should be 2R sin a. For this purpose the
velocity of the bead at point A should satisfy the condition
2u2 sin a cos a
—2R sin a

(see Problem 162). Hence, u2=

gR
cos a •
At point A the bead will have the velocity u if at point 0 it is given a
velocity v equal, according to the law of conservation of energy, to:

± 2gR (1+ cos 0)= gR (2+2 cos a + cols rx )

191. Assume that no segment has been cut out. Hence at point C
(Fig. 355)
mvz
mg =- (1)
According to the law of conservation of energy,
mv2
/ugh= mg •2R + (2)
MECHANICS 233

5
From equations (1) and (2) we get h= T R. The velocity at point A can be
found from the law of conservation of energy
5 171V 2A
mg R= ---2- +mg R (1+ cos ce) (3)
2
The body thrown at an angle a to the horizon will fly a horizontal dis-
tance of
OA sin 2a
AB— (4)

On the other hand,

AB =2R •sin cc.
-
(5)
It follows from equations (4) and (5) that

v2A — cR
osea
Upon inserting this value into equation (3), we obtain:
5 tngR
mg mgR + mgR cos a
2 R=2 cos a +
1
Therefore, cos a= 3 and, consequently, a1=0, and a2 =60°.
4
It is easy to see that if a > 60°, the body will fall inside the loop; if
a < 60° it will fly out.
192. Let us consider the forces that act on the string thrown over the
left nail (Fig. 356). The vertical components of the forces of tension T acting
on the weights are mg if the string is secured on the nail. According to

Fig. 354 Fig. 355

234 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Newton's third law, the knot (point 0) is acted upon by the same forces T.
Their sum is directed vertically downward and is equal to 2mg.
If only one weight is rotating, the vertical component of the string ten-
sion T' is equal to 2mg (if the weight does not move downward). The ten-
sion of the string itself, however, is T' > 2mg (Fig. 356). Therefore, the
system will not be in equilibrium. The right-hand weight will have a grea-
ter pull.
193. The direction of the acceleration coincides with that of the resultant
force. The acceleration is directed downward when the ball is in its two
extreme upper positions B and C (Fig. 357). The acceleration will be di-
rected upward if the ball is in its extreme bottom position A and horizon-
tally in positions D and L determined by the angle a.
Let us find a. According to Newton's second law, the product of the
mass and the centripetal acceleration is equal to the sum of the projections
of the forces on the direction of the radius of rotation:
mat
— =T — trig cos a

mg
On the other hand, as can be seen from Fig. 357, we have T= .
On
cos a
the basis of the law of conservation of energy:
mv2
2 =-mg1 cos a
1
We can find from these equations that cos a-= 3 , and therefore
3
a = 54°45'.
194. Let us denote the angular velocity of the rod by o at the moment
when it passes through the vertical position. In conformity with the law of
conservation of energy:
(02
— (mid+ m2r1)=g (1 —cos a) (miri+ m2r 2)
2
or
a y tniri ±m2r2
(0=2 sin — g miri-Fm2r2
2
2
 MECHANICS 235

C r% ,,_ ,1\•,,, 6-- --1157

% \ ,. a 11i
,,/ \
r ,/ , ------ -1 -----4_,
zc..--'
,... ' 27 (..___ ---r1i -----F -,,,x
-

/77y I
1

Fig. 357 Fig. 358

whence

= 2ri sin a
2-- miri+In2r2

02 =cor, = 2r2 sin2- g mirii- M2r2

rrigl±nz24

195. The resultant of the forces applied to the ball F =-- mg tan a should
build up a centripetal acceleration a=---a)2r, where r =1 sin a (Fig. 358).
Hence,
mg tan a=mo)2/ sin a
This equation has two solutions:
a1=-
a, = arc cos--
(og1

Both solutions are valid in the second case: a1=0 (here the ball is N a
state of unstable equilibrium) and a2 =60°.
In the first case the only solution is a1=0.
196. Let us resolve the force F acting from the side of the rbd on the
weight 171 into mutually perpendicular components 1' and N (Fig. 369).
Let us project the forces onto a vertical and a horizontal lines and write
Newton's equations for these directions
mo)2/ sin (ID = T sin cp N cos q)
—

mg =T cos p+N sin 7

Let us determine T and N from these equations
T =m (6)2i sine q)+ g cos q))
m —01 cos 7) sin cp
236 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

O'
Fig. 359 Fig. 360

Therefore,
F= N2 = in rg24_ 0/2 sing

197. The forces acting on the bead are shown in Fig. 360: f is the force
of friction, mg the weight and N the force of the normal reaction.
Newton's equations for the projection of the forces on a horizontal and a
vertical directions will have the form
f sin q) N cos q)--=-mo)21 sin IT
f cos q) f N sin q)— mg=0

The upper sign refers to the case shown in Fig. 360 and the lower one to
the case when the force N acts in the opposite direction. We find from these
equations that
f=mco2/sin2q)--F- mg cos q)
N=± (mg sin q)—nzo)2/ sin q) cos (p)
In equilibrium f kN or
k sin cp —cos cp
/ when k> cot cp
sin q) (k cos q)--F sin q)) rt)2
and
k sin cp + cos q)
/ when k tan cp
sin (k cos (p—sin IT) (J)2

198. Figure 361 shows the forces acting on the weights. Here T1and T2
are the tensions of the string. Let us write Newton's equations for the pro-
jections onto a horizontal and a vertical directions.
 MECHANICS 237

For the first weight

T1sin cp—T, sinV=mcon sin cp
T1cos cp — T 2cosi,— mg=0 (1)
For the second weight
mco2 / (sin cp F sin 1)) = T2 sin iV
- (2)
T2 cos V=mg
Upon excluding T1and T2 from the system of equations (1) and (2), we
obtain the equations
a sin cp 2 tan IT — tan Ap
a (sin W+ sin 1p) = tan 1p
(2
where a = — •
From these equations we get 2 tan (p—tan p < tan ipand, therefore, (p <
199. The forces acting on the weights are shown in Fig. 362. Here T1, N1
and T2, N 2 are the components of the forces acting from the side of the rod
on the weights in and M.
The forces AT, and N2 act in opposite directions, since the sum of the
moments of the forces acting on the rod with respect to point 0 is zero be-
cause the rod is weightless: Nib —N 2 (b+a)=0. The equations of motion of
the masses in and M for projections on a horizontal and a vertical directions
have the form
=IA sin IT -=Tisin q)— N1cos p; T1cos cp + NIsin (p =mg
Mco2(b + a) sin cp =T2sin cp ± N2 cos q; T2 cos (p— N2sin cp -= Mg
Upon excluding the unknown quantities T1, T2, N1 and N 2from the system,
we find that
g mb+M(a+b)
(1) cp=0, and (2) cos (1)—
co2mb2+M (a+ b)2

/71.9

Fig. 361
238 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

The first solution is true for

any angular velocities of rotation,
1 as 7 and the second when 0)
mb + M (a + b)
2 2 ginb2+114 (see the
I (a+ b)2
I solution to Problem 195).
■ I
I
200. In the state of equilib-
I rium MO x=kx, where x is the
\tda I
distance from the body to the
axis.
It is thus obvious that with
any value of x the spring imparts
the centripetal acceleration ne-
Fig. 363 cessary for rotation to the body.
For this reason the latter will
move after the impetus with a constant velocity up to stop A or as
long as the law of proportionality between the force acting on the spring and
its deformation is valid.
201. Let us write Newton's second law for a small portion of the chain
having the mass 7R Aa and shown in Fig. 363:

R Aa (2nn)2 R=-- 2T sin Am

2

Act. Aa
Since the angle Aa is small, sin , whence T=- m(n2 .-_- 9.2 kgf.
202. Let us take a small element of the tube with the length R Aa
(Fig. 364). The stretched walls of the tube impart an acceleration a= v1to the
water flowing along this element. According to Newton's third law, the water
will act on the element of the tube with the force
ad 2
A F=p-T- RAa 02

where p is the density of the wa-

ter. The force AF is balanced by
the tension forces of the ring T.
From the condition of equilibrium,
and remembering that Aa is small,
we have
Aa
A F=2T sin — T Aa
2 —
Therefore, the sought force is
pad2
T= —v-.
4
203. Let us divide the rod into
Fig. 364 n sections of equal length and con-
MECHANICS 239

Fig 365

sider an arbitrary section with the number i (Fig. 365). The acceleration of the
various points in this section will be different, since the distances from the
points to the axis of rotation are not the same. If the difference r; +1 —r1 is
small, however, the acceleration of the i-th section may be assumed as equal
i+i -Fri
to (1.)2 r , and this will be the more accurate, the smaller is the
2
length of the section.
The i-th section is acted upon by the elastic force Ti +1from the side of
the deformed section i--I-1 and the force Ti from the side of the section
i-1. Since the mass of the i-th section is T(r1+1 —r1), on the basis of
Newton's second law we can write that
m, „2
Ti—Ti±i vi+,- , 2
or
mw2 (,2
v +1 -4)
2/
Let us write the equations of motion for the sections from k to n, inclusive,
assuming that rn+1=1 and rk=x:
nun2
(12-11)
M(.02 2 2
T
21 (rn—rn-1)

nu.02 2
21 (rk+2,--4-1-1)
Tk+2—Tk+1=---
mop 2
Tk +1 2/ (rk+i—x2)
The first equation in this system takes into account the fact that the
elastic force does not act on the end of the rod, i.e., Tn+1=0. Upon
summing up the equations of the system, we find that the sought tension
mco2
is equal to T„=-7- (12 _ x2).
240 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

The closer the sections of the rod are to the axis of rotation, the more
will they be stretched.
204. In the reading system that is stationary with respect to the axis, the
force of tension of the rod does not perform any work, since this force cons-
tantly remains perpendicular to the velocity of the ball. In the moving system
this force performs work other than zero, and this changes the kinetic energy
of the ball.
205. Section AB of the hoop with a mass m at the highest point has an
m (202
energy of mg 2R During motion the kinetic and potential energies
2
of section AB begin to decrease owing to the work of the forces of the elastic
deformation of the hoop whose resultant produces a centripetal force always
directed towards the centre. The velocity of section AB forms an obtuse angle a
with the force F (Fig. 366). For this reason the work of the force W i =FAS cos a
is negative, and, consequently, the energy of the section with the mass m
diminishes.
After section AB passes through the lowermost position, it is easy to see
that the work of the force F becomes positive and the energy of section AB
will grow.
206. Let us draw a tangent to the inner circumference of the spool (Fig. 367)
from point A, which is the instantaneous axis of rotation (see Problem 173).
If the directions of the thread and the tangent AC coincide, the moment
of the forces that rotate the spool around the instantaneous axis will be zero.
Therefore, if the spool is at rest, it will not rotate around the instantaneous
axis and, consequently, it will not move translationally.
The angle a at which the motion of the spool is reversed can be found from
triangle AOB; namely, sin a If the thread is inclined more than a,
R
the spool will roll to the right, if a is smaller it will move to the left on
condition that it does not slip. If the tension of the thread T satisfies the
condition Tr<fR, where f is the force of friction, the spool will remain in
place. Otherwise, when sin a=--1:— it will begin to rotate counterclockwise
around point 0.
207. Break the hoop into equal small sections each with a mass of Am.
Consider two symmetrical sections (relative to the centre). All the particles of
the hoop simultaneously participate in translational motion with the velocity

Fig. 366 Fig. 367

MECHANICS 241

v and in rotational motion with the

velocity vi =(oR. The resultant veloci-
ty v, of the upper section of the hoop
can be found as the geometrical sum of
the velocities v and v, (Fig. 368):
4=44-v2 2vv1cos a
For a symmetrical section
4= v2 4- — 2vv1cos a
Zfr• The total kinetic energy of both sec-
/ Lions is
AEk =
/ Am4 Ann/ = Amv2 Amco2R2
2 -1- 2
Fig. 368
Since this expression is valid for any
two sections, we can write for the entire hoop
Mv2 MR2(02
Eh _=_—
2 2
If the hoop rolls without slipping, y=coR and, therefore, Ek=Mv2.
2Gv2
208. Ek— + 1).
209. The cylinder made of a denser material will obviously be hollow. At
the same translational velocities without slipping the kinetic energy of rotation
will be greater in the hollow cylinder, since the particles of its mass are
further from the centre and, therefore, have higher velocities.
For this reason the hollow cylinder will roll down an inclined plane with-
out slipping slower than the solid one. At the end of the plane, the total
kinetic energies of both cylinders are the same. This is possible only when
the velocities are different, since when the velocities are the same, the ener-
gies of translational motion are identical, while the energy of rotational motion
of a solid cylinder will always be smaller than that of a hollow one.
210. When the drum moves, the force of friction performs no work, since
the cable and the drum do not slip. Hence, the energy of the system does
not change:
G Gpx
v2+ GR u2-1-(G—px)R

Gv2 H-pR gx
where u is the sought velocity. Therefore, u= px
It is equal
to infinity when G=px because the mass of the drum is neglected.
The momentum is diminished by the action of the force of friction, which
is opposite to the direction of motion.
211. Since the force of friction is constant, motion will be uniformly retarded.
The power developed by the friction force is fv, where v=cor is the instan-
taneous velocity of the point on the pulley which the force f is applied to.
The work during the time t is equal to the mean power multiplied by the
242 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

time t:
f co or 2- or t
The change in the kinetic energy of the pulley is equal to this work:
mr2 2
2(
2 6)5— (02) (coo 0))
ft
Hence, co=coo --.
mr
212. Since the force of friction f is constant, the change in the momentum
of the hoop during the time t is mv=ft. If the hoop rolls without slipping,
the velocity of the point on the hoop which the friction force is applied to
is zero.
Upon equating the work of the friction forces to the difference between
the kinetic energies, we have
meAr coor+0
mv2 = f t
2 2
(see Problem 207).
Upon solving the equations with respect to v, we find:
v=— (Dor
2
213. The equations which show the change in the momentum and the kine-
tic energy of the hoop have the form:
m (vo —v)= ft
MEI° , 00 + 0
Mt)" = c
2 2
where v=cr is the velocity of the centre of the hoop when it rolls without
slipping.
Upon solving these equations with respect to v, we have:
vo
v= 2
vo
Therefore, the sought value is cv=—
2r
214. The equations that show the change in the momentum and the kinetic
energy of the hoop have the form:
m (vo— v)-= ft
moil mco(2,r2 mo morz = f (vo + coor)+(v + cor)
2
+ 2 2 2 2
t
where v is the velocity of the hoop centre at any subsequent moment of time.
Upon solving this system of equations, we find that
ft
v=t10-- t, and co= (00 -
m mr
MECHANICS 243

If 00 < wor, the hoop will stop at the moment of time V--=---T-
niv°when rotat-
ing with the angular velocity a)--=coo --+
2 . Then the hoop begins to move
with slipping in the reverse direction. In a certain time the hoop will stop
slipping and will roll without slipping to the left with a translational velocity
(Dor vo (see Problem 213).
2
mrco o
If vo> (Dor, then after the time -r— elapses the hoop will stop rotating
and will move to the right with a translational velocity v -=vo—rcoo. Next
the hoop will rotate in the reverse direction, and in some time it will roll
without slipping to the right. Its angular velocity will be
00 - /1.00
co =
2r
Practice shows that the loop will also be braked when it does not slip.
We did not get such a result since the specific rolling friction was neglected.
215. Since the hoops do not slip, vo (velocity of the centre of gravity of
the hoops) and v (velocity of the weight) are related by the expression

vo =v R
Rr

Assume that the weight lowers through the distance h. If the system was at
rest at the initial moment, from the law of conservation of energy we have
mv 2
nigh Mvo2
2
(see Problem 207).
This expression can be used to find the velocity of the weight:
o vrm±2m2mgh
( R
R—r )2

Hence, the acceleration of the weight is

mg
a=
m+2M

The weight lowers with the acceleration a under the action of the force of
gravity mg and the tension T of the string.
The sought tension T is

T =m (g a)—
244 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Since the centre of gravity of the hoop moves with an acceleration equal to
a RR under the action of the force T and the force of friction F, Newton's
—r
second law gives us the following equation for the force F

F =T — Ma
RR
or
Mmg (1 ±v
r
M mg ( RR r ) 2 (2 RR r
F= 2
tri
m + 2M ( RR m (1 -v
r )2+2M
r
The friction force of rest cannot exceed the value kMg. For this reason
slipping occurs when
Mmg
( RR
—2r) ( 1+i) > kMg
m+2M (
RR
—r)2
Or
1+17
k<
114 -1-(1—L) 2
2--
m R
216. The centre of gravity of the spool will not be displaced if the ten-
sion of the thread satisfies the equation
T = Mg sin ce
Let us find the acceleration of the weight with a mass m to determine the
tension of the thread T. Let the weight lower through a distance h. Since,
according to the initial condition, the centre of gravity of the spool should
remain at rest, the change in the potential energy is equal to mgh. If v is
the velocity with which the weight having a mass m moves, the velocity of
the points on the spool at the distance R from the axis of rotation is v
r
Hence, the kinetic energy of the system is
mva Mv2 R2
gk =-1- 2 r2
It follows from the law of conservation of energy that
R2 N v2
(111±1/4 ) 7=mgh
Or
2mgh
v= R2
MECHANICS 245

Therefore, the acceleration of the weight is

a- mg

If we know the acceleration of the weight, we can find the tension of the
threa d
R2
M r2
T (g— a)= mg R2
M m
r2
Thus, for sin a we get the expression
sin a— n4 r2
+R2
The centre of gravity of the spool can be at rest only if
M r2
m R2 I
217. If the velocity of the board is v, the velocity of the centre of gra-
vity of each roll will be v/2 (see Problem 173). The kinetic energy of the
system (the board and the two rolls) is
Mv2 2mv2 M-fm
v2
2 4 = 2
By equating the kinetic energy to the work of the force Q over the distance s,
we obtain
M-1-m 2Qs
v2=Qs, and
2 V Md-nt
(Fig. 369). (The forces of friction perform no work since there is no slipping.)
It follows from the expression for the velocity of the board that its acce-
leration is
a=
M +az
To determine the force of friction applied to the board from the side of
a roll, let us write the equation of motion of the board Ma= Q —2F.
Upon inserting the value of the acceleration a in this equation, we get
mQ
F
2 (M ±m)
Since the velocity of the centre of gravity of the roll is half that of the
board, the respective accelerations will be in the same ratio. Therefore, the
246 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 369

equation of motion of the centre of gravity of a roll will have the form:
a
m —=F — f
2
It follows from this equation that f =O.
218. Let us assume, to introduce determinancy, that m1 R > m2r. In this
case the first weight will lower and the second one will rise. If the first
weight lowers through a distance of h, the other one will rise through h
The decrease in the potential energy will be
m2 gh =gh m214

If the absolute velocity of the first weight is v, that of the second weight
will be v—
R
All the points of the first step of the pulley move with the velocity v,
and those of the second step with the velocity v . The kinetic energy of
the system will be
Mi 02+ ms+ Ms r2 2
2 2 PI
It follows from the law of conservation of energy that
m1 +M1 Ti2 m22 ± M2 r2 vs in, gh
2 ' 2 R2
Or
r
_V- 2 (m1 — m2 p--) gh
v=
r2
(M1+ M1) ± (m2+ MO -pi

Therefore, the acceleration of the first weight is

r
m1 -m2 7
r2 g
(ni1+M1)±0n2+
MECHANICS 247

Fig. 370

a
R , where a2 is the acceleration of the second weight,
From the ratio -1-= —
a2 r
we can find that
(mi _ m2 )
g
a2= r2
/ -
( 111+ Mi.)+ (m2+ M2) 7

On the basis of Newton's second law, the tensions of the strings Ti and T2
are equal to:
r2
Mi+m27- R? +
+ —R2 (m2+M2)
T1=-- mig
rz
tni+Mi+(1/24- M2) — R2

(mi+M2 4)
T2 2 m2g
tni+Mi+(m2+M2)

The force F which the system acts on the axis of the pulley with is
F = T1+ T2 + (M1+ M2) g
219. Let the path travelled by the centre of gravity of the cylinder during
he time t be equal to s, and the velocity of the centre of gravity be v at
his moment (see Fig. 370).
Hence, from the law of conservation of energy we have
Mv2=Mgs sin a
g sin a
Thus, the velocity is v= ci and the acceleration a—
2
The velocity of the centre of gravity of the cylinder and the angular ve-
locity of its rotation will be
g sin a g na
v= si17 t
t and co = —-
T
2
248 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

1-9. The Law of Gravitation

220. According to Newton's second law, mig=F, where mi is the inertial
mass—a quantity that characterizes the ability of bodies to acquire an acce-
leration under the influence of a definite force.
o.Mo.
On the other hand, according to the law of gravitation F=y m where
R2 '
y is the gravity constant and m and Mgare the gravitational masses of
the interacting bodies. The gravitational mass determines the force of gravity
and, in this sense, can be referred to as a gravitational charge.
It is not obvious in advance that tni=nzg. If this equation (proportionality
is sufficient) is satisfied, however, the gravity acceleration is the same for all
bodies since, when the gravity force is introduced into Newton's second law,
the masses m1 and mgcan be cancelled, and g will be equal to y R2
Identical accelerations are imparted to all bodies irrespective of their
masses, only by the force of gravity.
221. The gravitational acceleration g=--y -R2(seeProblem 220). Assuming
that g=982 cm/s, we find that y=6.68 X 10-8cm3 g-1 s-2.
222. The bodies inside the spaceship will cease to exert any pressure on
the walls of the cabin if they have the same acceleration as the spaceship.
Only the force of gravity can impart an identical acceleration in this space
to all the bodies irrespective of their mass. Consequently, it is essential that
the engine of the spaceship be shut off and there be no resistance of the
external medium. The spaceship may move in any direction with respect to
that of the force of gravity.
223. The force of gravity imparts the same acceleration to the pendulum
and the block. Gravity does not cause any deformations in the system during
free falling. For this reason the pendulum will so move with respect to the
block as if there is no gravitation (see the solution to Problem 222). The
pendulum will move with a constant angular velocity as long as the block
falls.
224. On section BCA (Fig. 371) the force of gravity performs positive work
(the angle 01is acute) and the velocity of the planet will increase, reaching
its maximum at point A.

Fig. 371
MECHAN ICS 249

On section ADB the force of gravity performs negative work (the angle 02
is obtuse) and the velocity of the planet will decrease and reach its minimum
at point B.
225. For the satellite to move along a closed orbit (a circle with a radi-
us R±h) it should be acted upon by a force directed toward the centre. In
our case this is the force of the Earth's attraction. According to Newton's
second law,
mv2 mM
R-F-h (R+h)2
where M is the mass of the Earth, R=6,370 km is the radius of the Earth,
and vis the gravitational constant.
At the Earth's surface
mM
7 =mg
R2
Therefore,
g R2
7.5 km/s
R± h
226. The resistance of the atmosphere will cause the satellite to gradually
approach the Earth and the radius of its orbit diminishes.
Since this resistance is small in the upper layers, the decrease of the ra-
dius is insignificant during one revolution. Considering the orbit to be appro-
ximately circular, we can write
mv2 mM
=7 IF

-vM
where R is the radius of the orbit. Therefore, v= 117 ' i.e., the velo-
city of the satellite increases with a reduction of R.
This can be illustrated as follows. In view of the atmospheric resistance,
a satellite placed, for example, into a circular orbit (dotted line in Fig. 372)
will actually move along a certain helix (solid line in Fig. 372). For this
reason the projection of the force of gravity F onto the direction of the sa-
tellite velocity v differs from zero. It is the work of the force F (greater
than the atmospheric resistance f) that increases the velocity.
When the satellite moves in the atmosphere, its total mechanical energy
diminishes but, as the Earth is approached, the potential energy drops faster
than the total energy, causing the kinetic energy to grow.
It should be stressed that the high force of resistance in the dense layers
of the atmosphere does not allow us to consider, even approximately, the
motion of the satellite as rotation along a circle, and our conclusion is not
correct.
227. If the container is thrown in the direction opposite to the motion of
satellite A, it will begin to move along a certain ellipse 2 inside the orbit
of the satellite (Fig. 373). The period of revolution of the container will be
slightly less than that of satellite B. Therefore they can meet at the point
of contact between the orbits only after a great number of revolutions.
The container should be thrown in the direction of motion of satellite A.
It will begin to move along ellipse 3. The velocity u should be such that
250 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 373 Fig. 374

during one revolution of the container, satellite B also makes one revolution
and in addition covers the distance AB This is quite possible, since the
period of revolution along ellipse 3 is somewhat greater than along circular
orbit I. The container will meet the satellite at the point where orbits 3
and I coincide.
228. Assuming the Earth's orbit to be approximately circular, the force of
gravity can be determined by the equation F=--m(o2R, where m is the mass
22-c
of the Earth, and (1.)=— is its angular velocity (T=365 days). On the other
T
mM
hand, according to the law of gravitation, F=y , where M is the mass
R2
of the Sun. Hence,
mM =m(0 2R
7 R2
Or
w2 R3
-2X1033 g

229. Since both the Moon and the satellite move in the field of gravity
of the Earth, let us use Kepler's third law ,
Ti (h+H±2R0)3
8R3
(Fig. 374). Therefore,
h=2R (E1) 213—H---2R0 =220 km
T2
230. Since the mass of the ball is greater than the mass of the water in
the same volume, the field of gravity will be greater near the ball than away
 -

MECHANICS 251

—,
a
—
_ /
from it. Therefore, the water near
the ball will be compressed addi-
tionally. The pressure of the water
acting on the bubble from the left
will be smaller than the pressure
R —

that acts from the right. On the

other hand, the force of gravity bet-
Fig. 375 ween the air in the bubble and the
ball is greater than the force of
attraction between the air and the volume of the water shown by dotted
circle a (Fig. 375).
Since the mass of the air in the bubble is very small, the first factor
becomes decisive. The bubble will be repulsed from the ball.
Conversely, the motion of the iron ball will be determined by the fact
that the force of attraction between the air in the bubble and the ball is
much less than that between the ball and the volume of the water shown by
dotted circle b.
To calculate the force, let us reason as follows. A homogeneous medium
(water) contains a sphere almost devoid of mass (the bubble) and a sphere
with an excess mass (the ball). From a formal standpoint, this can be re-
garded as the presence of negative and positive masses.
The force of interaction between the spheres in the water is equal
to the interaction in vacuum of a negative mass equal to the mass of the
water in the bubble and a positive mass equal to the mass of the iron ball
that exceeds the mass of the water in the same volume.
Therefore,
mi ( 712 — m1)
Y R2
Here m1is the mass of the water in a sphere with a radius r, and m2 is the
mass of the iron ball.
231. The field of gravity is smaller near the bubble than in a homogeneous
liquid, and the liquid is compressed less. For this reason one bubble will
move into the volume of liquid near the other one, and the bubbles will be
mutually attracted.
Two bubbles in a homogeneous liquid with negligibly small masses can
be considered from a formal standpoint as negative masses superimposed upon
the positive mass m of the medium in the volume of a bubble:
F=y ( — m)R2( — m)
--=17m2
1
-

Mm
232. If the ball were solid, the force of gravity F1=y , where
4
M=7- aR3p is the mass of the ball without a spherical space. The presence
of this space is equivalent to the appearance of a force of repulsion
nem 4
, where m'=v-crsp, and s is the distance between the centre of
the space and the material particle.
The sought force F is the geometrical sum of the forces F1and F2
(Fig. 376).
252 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 376
According to the cosine rule,

F-=-1/ Fl-FF1-2F1F2cos 3=
_7 4 ro
ILIIMP V /4 -1- (12 d2)2
2R3r3cosp
/202— d2) 5.8X 10-4 gf

233. The sought force of attraction is the geometrical sum of the forces
created by separate elements of the sphere. The small elements al and a2
(Fig. 377) are cut out of the sphere as cones with vertices at point A obtained
when the generatrix BC revolves around axis S1S2. The areas of the elements
(AS1)2co (AS2)2 °) (AS1)2wp
are and , respectively, and their masses are
cos cci cos a2 cos a1
(AS2)2cup
and , where co is the solid angle at which both elements can be
cos al
seen from point A; p is the surface density of the sphere (the mass per unit
of surface); L al = L a2, since S10S2 is an isosceles triangle. The forces of
attraction created by the elements are equal, respectively, to:
m (AS1)2 copmop
(AS1)2 cos a1—Ycos al
and
m (AS2)2 cop=- mop
y
(AS2)2cos a2 17 cos a2
where m is the mass of the body. These forces act in opposite directions and
their resultant is zero.
Reasoning in the same way for the other corresponding elements of the
sphere, we convince ourselves that all of them compensate one another in pairs.
Therefore, the force of attraction acting from the sphere on the body inside
it is zero.
It should be noted that this result is also true for a sphere with a finite
thickness; it can be divided into any arbitrary number of thin spherical
shells, for each of which the assumption proved above will be true.
234. The force of attraction will be equal to the force with which the
body with the mass m is attracted to a sphere with a radius r and a den-
sity p. The outer layers of the Earth do not act on the body, as was proved
in Problem 233.
 MECHANICS 253

Fig. 377

Therefore, the sought force

pr3m
F=7 3r2 3 pmr
4

This force decreases in proportion to r as the centre of the Earth is approached.

1-10. Hydro- and Aerostatics

235. The level of the water will not change because the quantity of water
displaced will remain the same.
236. Equilibrium will not be violated, since according to Pascal's law the
pressure on the bottom of the vessel will be the same everywhere.
237. (1) Since the piece of ice floats, the weight of the water displaced by
it is equal to the weight of the ice itself or the weight of the water it pro-
duces upon melting. For this reason the water formed by the piece of ice
will occupy a volume equal to that of the submerged portion, and the level
of the water will not change.
(2) The volume of the submerged portion of the piece with the stone is
greater than the sum of the volumes of the stone and the water produced by
the melting ice. Therefore, the level of the water in the glass will drop.
(3) The weight of the displaced water is equal to that of the ice (the
weight of the air in the bubble may be neglected). For this reason, as in
case (I), the level of the water will not change.
238. In the first case the weight of the body submerged into the liquid is
G1=(y-71) V and in the second G2 =(y—y2) V, where V is the volume of
the body.
Therefore,
, G271-G172
r C. - G1
239. The ice can be supported by the edge of the shore only in small
ponds. It will always float in the middle of a large lake. The ratio between
the densities of the ice and the water is 0.9. Therefore, nine-tenths of the
254 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

entire thickness of the ice will be in the water. The distance from the sur-
face of the ice to the water is one metre.
240. After the stone is taken out, the match-box becomes lighter by the
weight of the stone, and, consequently, the volume of water the box displaces
decreases by 1/1 =Gly1, where G is the weight of the stone and yithe specific
weight of the water. When dropped into the water, the stone will displace
a volume of water equal to its own volume V2 =G/y2, where y2 is the
specific weight of the material of the stone. Since Y2 > Yl, then VI > V 2.
Therefore, the level of the water in the cup will lower.
241. In both cases the pumps perform identical work, since the same
amount of pumped in water rises to the same level.
242. The inverted L will be stable on the bottom of the empty vessel,
since a perpendicular dropped from the centre of gravity of the figure is
within the limits of the supporting area. As water is poured into the vessel,
the expulsion force acting on the rectangle will grow in magnitude (it is
assumed that the water can flow underneath the figure). When the depth
of the water in the vessel is 0.5a, the sum of the moments of the forces
which tend to turn the body clockwise will be equal to the sum of those
acting in the opposite direction. As the vessel is filled further, the figure
will fall.
243. The length of the tube x can be found from the condition
yx=y, (x —h), which shows the equality of the pressures at the depth of
the lower end of the tube. Here yo is the specific weight of the water.
Hence,
yo h
x= =50 cm
Yo — Y
244. Let us separate a column with .a height of h inside the water
(Fig. 378). The equation of motion of this column has the form: ma=-- mg — pA,
where m=pAh is the mass of the water and p is the pressure at the depth h.
Therefore, p= ph (g— a).
245. In accordance with the solution of Problem 244, the force of expulsion
can be written as follows: F=pV (g—a), where V is the volume of the
submerged portion of the body. The equation of motion of a floating body
with a mass M has the form: Ma=Mg—pV (g —a).

A2

VO
-B
f

Fig. 378 Fig. 379

MECHANICS 255

Hence, V = , as in a stationary vessel, and the body does not rise to

the surface.
246. If the tank were at rest or moved uniformly, the pressure at the
depth h would be equal to p1=pgh.
On the other hand, if the tank moved with an acceleration and the
force of gravity were absent, the pressure at point A would be equal to
p,-.= pal. It is this pressure that would impart, in conformity with Newton's
second law, the required acceleration a to the column of water with a length 1.
In accelerated motion of the tank, both the pressure piand the pressure
p2 appear in the field of gravity. According to Pascal's law, the pressure
in the water is the same in all directions. For this reason the pressures pi
and p2are summated, and the resulting pressure at point A is p=p (gh- al).
247. Using the law of conservation of energy and Archimedes' principle,
we obtain the following equation
4
mgx= (- TER3p—m) gh
3
where p is the density of the water and x is the sought height.
Hence,
3 nR3p_m)

248. If the level of the water in the vessel is the same, the level of the
mercury will also be the same before the piece of wood is dropped.
Dropping of the piece of wood gives the same result as adding of the
amount of water that will be displaced by this piece, i. e., the amount of
water equal to it by weight. Therefore, if the cross sections of the vessels
are the same, the levels of the water and the mercury in both vessels will
coincide.
If the cross sections are different, the water will be higher and the
mercury lower in the vessel with a smaller cross section. This will occur
because the pressure on the surface of the mercury will increase differently
when amounts of water equal in weight and volume are added to the
vessels with various cross sections.
249. After the block is dropped into the broad vessel, the level of the
mercury in both vessels will rise by the amount x and occupy position AB
(Fig. 379).
The required height of the water column in the broad vessel is determined
by the equality of the pressures, for example, at level CD
(y x) pig = hp,g
where piis the density of the mercury and p, that of the water. The value
of y can be found by using the condition that the volume of the mercury
is constant:
(x+ y) Ai=V2
where V 2is the volume of the mercury displaced by the block after the
water is poured in.
256 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

If the water covers the block en-

tirely, then according to Archimedes'
principle,VoPog=1/2101g+ (Vo — I/2) Peg,
where po is the density of iron.
Solving the equations, we obtain
h=Pi (Po — P2) Vo
P2 (Ps — P2) A l
If the water does not cover the
block, Archimedes' principle can be
Fig. 380 written as V°Ng =V 2 pig hAp2g,
where A=1/ 0213is the area of a block
face. In this case the sought height h—
V°00/3 )
p2 (AP:
±

The first solution is true when Al < Ps (Po — P2) v.,2013 and the second one
P2 (Ps — Po)
when A l >Pi (Po — PO v2/3
P2 (P1 -PO)
250. It follows from the equality of the moments of the forces acting on
the board with respect to point C (Fig. 380) that

G1(1— a— L
c ) cos a=G (- —a) cos a
2 2
where Gi = An° and G= AIT. Here A is the cross-sectional area of the
board and yothe specific weight of the water.
Hence,

x = (1— a) ± 1/ (1— a)2 — 1(1-2a)

Since x < 1—a, only one solution is valid:

x (1—a)— V (1 - a)2— yo/ (/ — 2a)

251. The pressure on the "bottom" of the vessel is pgh and the force with
which the hatched portion of the liquid (Fig. 381) presses on the table is
pghn (2Rh tan a—h2 tan2 a). According to Newton's third law, an identical
force acts on the liquid. The condition of equilibrium of the liquid at the
moment when the vessel stops exerting pressure on the table has the form
G 4-Gi =pghn (2Rh tan a—h2tan2 a)
where G1is the weight of the hatched portion of the liquid (the truncated
cone minus the cylinder volume)
pgh
G1 TCR 2 ± (R—h tan a)2 asR (R —h tan a) } —pghn (R—h tan a)2

Therefore,
G
1)— h tan
agh2 tan a (R
3
MECHANICS 257

Fig. 381 Fig. 382

252. A liquid moves in a syphon by the action of the forces of cohesion

between the elements of the liquid. The liquid in the long elbow outweighs
the liquid in the short one, and pumps it over. It could be assumed on this
basis that water can be pumped over a wall of any height with the aid of
a syphon. This is not so, however. At a lifting height of 10 metres the
pressure inside the liquid becomes zero. The air bubbles always present in
water will begin to expand, and the water column will be broken, thus
stopping the action of the syphon.
253. The device will first act as a syphon and the water will flow through
the narrow pipe into the reservoir. Then an air bubble will slip through A
and divide the liquid in the upper part into two portions. After this the
liquid will no longer flow out.
254. The pressure of the water directly under the piston of each pump
is less than atmospheric pressure by pg (H h), where p is the density of
water. Therefore, to keep the piston in equilibrium, it should be pulled
upward with the force F =pg (H+ h) A, where A is the area of the piston.
Hence, a greater force should be applied to the pistons with a greater area.
255. The pressure on the bottom is p=pg (H -Fh) (Fig. 382). On the
+ mg
other hand, since the vessel is a cylinder, p
nR2
The height h can be determined if we equate the forces acting on the piston
pghn (R2—r2)-= G
Hence,
1 ( G 2 )
H= m s---' 10 cm
It R2p g R2r r2
—

256. To prevent flowing out of the water, the vessel should be given such
an acceleration at which the surface of the water takes the position shown
bcA
in Fig. 383. The maximum volume of the water is — and the mass of the
2/
bcA
entire system is M ± — p. The required acceleration can be found from the
2/
condition that the sum of the forces acting on a small element of the water
with a mass Om near the surface is directed horizontally (Fig. 383).
9 -1865
258 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

According to Newton's second law,

Ama=Amg tan a.
Therefore, the sought force is
bc A ) b
F p g
21 c
257. The lower part of a chamber
is filled with denser air. The air leaves
the chambers in the upper part. The
pressure is gradually equalized. The
Fig. 383 machine will continue to function only
as long as the difference in the pres-
sures between the two halves of the
vessel is sufficient to raise the water along the tube to the upper portion.
258. Here the disk is not asymmetrical and the air pressure on the right-
hand side of the disk will be greater than on the left-hand one. The surplus
force of the pressure acting on the right-hand side of the disk is F=(Pi— PO A,
where A is the cross-sectional area of the chamber. The weight of the cham-
bers filled with water cannot exceed G=pgAh. Since h cG1pgG 2 ,then F
The disk will begin to rotate counterclockwise, and the chambers will rise
from the bottom of the vessel to the top filled with air. The disk will rotate
counterclockwise until the reduced difference of the pressure can no longer
lift the water to the height h.
259. The bottom of the cylindrical vessel will fall off in all three cases,
since the pressure exerted on the bottom from the top will always be equal
to 1 kgf. In the vessel narrowing upward the bottom will fall off only when
oil is poured in, since its level here will be higher than in the cylindrical
vessel. In the vessel widening toward the top the bottom will fall off when
the mercury is poured in, because its level will be higher than in the cylin-
drical vessel. This will also occur when the weight is put in. In this case
the weight will be distributed over a smaller area than in the other two cases.
260. The reading of the balance will increase if the mean density of the
body being weighed is less than the density of the weights. The reading will
decrease if the mean density of the body is greater than that of the weights.
The equilibrium of the balance will not be disturbed if the weights and the
body have the same mean density.
261. The man's aim will not be achieved, since, while increasing the expul-
sive force, he will also considerably increase the weight of the tube (the
density of the compressed air in the tube is greater than that of the atmos-
pheric air).
262. The true weight of the body is

G -=Gi+ (17-1) 801.16 gf

The error is equal to

G—G1
100%=0.14%
G
263. When the atmospheric pressure changes, the Archimedean force acting
on the barometers from the side of the air will change owing to the change
MECHAN ICS 259

in the density of the air and in the volume of the barometers when the level
of the mercury changes in their open parts.
If all the conditions in the problem are taken into account, the barometers
have not only the same weight, but also the same volume. For this reason
the change in the expulsion force due to the first reason will be identical for
each of them. The change in the volumes will be different. To change the
difference in the levels by a certain amount in a U-shaped barometer, the
level of the mercury in each elbow should change by only half of this amount.
In a cup barometer the level of the mercury in the cup changes negligibly,
and in the tube practically by the entire change in the difference of the
levels. Here the change of the volume of the mercury in the tube should be
the same as in the cup.
Therefore, the change of the volume in the cup barometer will also become
less, and it will therefore outweigh the U-shaped barometer.
264. The normal atmospheric pressure is approximately equal to 1 kgf/cm2,
This means that an atmospheric column of air with an area of 1 cm2 weighs
1 kgf. If we know the surface of the Earth, we can find the weight of its
atmosphere.
The Earth's surface A=43tR 2, where R=6,370 km is the mean radius of
the Earth.
The weight of the atmosphere G = 4n,R2 X1 kgf/cm2 = 5x1015 ton f.
265. If the man stands on the mattress, his weight will be distributed
over a smaller area (that of his feet) than if he lies down. Therefore, the
state of equilibrium will set in in the first case at a higher air pressure in
the mattress than in the second.
266. Let us first consider the tube inflated with air (Fig. 384a shows a
cross section of the tube). For sections AB and CD of the tube to be in
equilibrium it is obviously necessary that the tension of the expanded walls
of the tube T balance the excess pressure inside the tube p.
Let us now consider the forces that act on sections AB and CD when the
tube is fitted onto a loaded wheel (Fig. 384b). The distribution of the forces

(a)
(6)
Fig. 384 Fig. 385
9*
260 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

acting on AB does not appreciably change in the top of the tube. There
will be a difference in the bottom. Section CD will be acted upon by an
elastic force from the side of the rim equal to the load applied to the wheel
(the weight of the wheel and one-fourth of the weight of the motor vehicle).
This additional force flattens the tube and the angle between the forces T
tensioning the rubber increases. The total force of tension acting on CD
diminishes and the excess pressure of the air in the tube equalizes the force
of tension, and also the weight of the wheel and of part of the motor vehicle.
Thus, the rim does not lower because it is supported by the excess pres-
sure of the air in the tube. In the top of the tube the excess pressure is
equalized by the tension of the tube walls, and in the bottom it equalizes
both the reduced tension of the walls and the force applied to the wheel.
267. The force per unit of length with which the cylindrical portion of
the boiler is stretched in a direction perpendicular to axis 001 is
2R1
=R
21 P P
where 2R1 is the cross-sectional area ABCD of the boiler and p is the pres-
sure inside it (Fig. 385); 2Rlp is the force acting on one half of the cylinder
(see Problem 122).
The maximum force per unit length of the hemispherical heads can be found
from the formula
TER2 pR f1
f2 = 2R P= 2 -T
Consequently, the heads can withstand twice the pressure that the cylin-
drical portion of the boiler does if their walls are equally thick. For the
strength of all the parts of the boiler to be identical, the thickness of the
head walls may be half that of the cylindrical walls, i. e., 0.25 cm.
268. The shape of the boiler should be such that the force applied per
unit length of its cross section is minimum. This force is f=- =PA 1'
where A
is the cross-sectional area of the boiler, 1 the perimeter of the section and p
the pressure of the steam.
The force f will be minimum with the smallest ratio between the cross-
sectional area and the perimeter.
As is known, this ratio will be minimum for a circle. It is also known
that a circle can be obtained by cutting a sphere with any plane. Therefore,
a sphere is the most advantageous shape for the boiler.
269. The ceiling of a stratosphere balloon is determined not by the maxi-
mum altitude which it can ascend to, but by the altitude ensuring a safe
velocity of landing. The envelope of a stratosphere balloon is filled with a
light gas (hydrogen or helium) only partly, since when the balloon ascends,
the gas in the envelope expands and forces out the air, making it possible
to maintain the lifting force approximately constant. At a certain altitude,
the gas will fill the entire envelope. Even after this the lifting force of the
balloon continues to increase at the expense of the gas flowing out from the
bottom hole in the envelope. The weight of the balloon de:reases and it will
reach its ceiling only after a certain amount of gas has leaked out.
For the balloon to descend, some gas should additionally be expelled through
the upper valve in the envelope, so that the lifting force is only slightly
smaller than the weight of the balloon. At a small altitude the velocity of
MECHANICS 261

descent will be too high, since the volume of the gas decreases and less of
it remains in the balloon than during the ascent. The ballast is dropped to
reduce the velocity of descent.

1-11. Hydro- and Aerodynamics

270. Let us denote the distance from the level of the water to the upper
hole by h, the sought distance from the vessel to the point where the streams
intersect by x, and the distance from the level of the water in the vessel to
this point by y (Fig. 386).
The point of intersection will remain at the same place if the level of
the water in the vessel does not change. This will occur if Q=Avi + Ave,
where 01 = -Ii2gh and 02 =--- -1/2g (H ±h) are the outflow velocities of the
streams from the holes.
On the basis of the laws of kinematics,
gt1
X=Viti =02/2 and y=h+ =h+ H 2
2 2
where t i and t2 are the times during which the water falls from the holes
to the point of intersection.
Hence,
x= ( Q2 H2
2Q
Q22 2 1 cm
2gA 2
1 ( Q2 2gA2 \
Q2 ) =130 cm
Y= OgA2 2
271. The velocity of water outflow from a hole is v=)(2gh. The impulse
of the force acting from the side of the vessel on the outflowing water
F At --= Amy, where Am=pAvAt is the mass of the water flowing out during
the time At. Hence, F =p2 A=2pghA. The pressure at the bottom p=-- pgh
and therefore The same force acts on the vessel from the side of
the stream.

Fig. 386
262 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Thus, the water acts on the wall with the hole with a force 2pA smaller
than that acting on the opposite wall, and not with a force smaller by pA
as might be expected. This is due to a reduction in the pressure acting on
the wall with the hole, since the water flows faster at this wall.
The vessel will begin to move if kG < 2pA or
<2pghA
k

272. According to Newton's second law, the equality pA0 =-2pA should
exist. Therefore, if the liquid flows out through the tube, the cross-sectional
area of the stream should be halved
AA
2
This compression of the stream can be explained as follows.
The extreme streamlets of the liquid approaching the tube from above
cannot, in view of inertia, flow around the edge of the tube directly adhering
to its walls, and move towards the centre of the stream. Under the pressure
of the particles nearer to the centre of the stream, the lines of flow straighten
out and a contracted stream of the liquid flows along the tube.
273. By neglecting splashing of the water, we thus assume the impact of
the stream against the wall to be absolutely inelastic. According to Newton's
second law, the change in the momentum of the water during the time At is
a 2
Amy= FAt, where Am=p -Tr vAt is the mass of the water flowing during
the time At through the cross section of the pipe.
Hence,
pad2
-=-
-- v2r"---8 gf
4
274. When the gas flows along the pipe (Fig. 387), its momentum changes
in direction, but not in magnitude.
A mass of pAv passes in a unit of time through cross section / of the
vertical part. This mass brings in the momentum p1=pAvv1where vi is the

Fig. 387
MECHAN ICS 263

vector of the velocity with which the gas flows in the vertical part, nume-
rically equal to the given velocity v.
During the same time the momentum p2 =pAvv2 is carried away through
cross section II. Here v2 is the vector of velocity in the horizontal part,
also numerically equal to v.
The change in the momentum is equal to the impulse of the force F that
acts from the side of the pipe on the gas: F=pAv (v2 —v1). In magnitude
F-=pAv2 11.
According to Newton's third law, the gas acts on the pipe with the same
force. This force is directed oppositely to the pipe bend.
275. The initial velocity of the water with respect to the blade is
v.= -17-2gh—coR. Therefore, a mass of water m=pA (112gh—coR) impinges on
the blade in a unit of time. After the impact, the velocity of the water
with reference to the blade is zero, and for this reason the change in the
momentum of the water in a unit of time is my. According to Newton's
second law, the sought force is
F-=pA (112gh—coRY
276. At the first moment the ship will begin to move to the right, since
the pressure on the starboard side diminishes by 2pA, where p is the pressure
at the depth h of the hole, and A is its area (see Problem 271). As soon as
the stream of water reaches the opposite wall, this wall will be acted upon
by the force F=pAv2, where v is the velocity of the stream with respect to
the ship (see Problem 273). The force F is slightly greater than 2pA, since
v > -1/2gh because the ship moves towards the stream. As a result, the mo-
tion will begin to retard.
277. The velocity of the liquid in the pipe is constant along the entire
cross section because the liquid has a low compressibility and the stream is
continuous. This velocity is v=112gH.
The velocity of the liquid in the vessel is practically zero, since its area
is much greater than the cross-sectional area of the pipe.
Therefore, a pressure jump which we shall denote by pj. —p2 should exist
on the vessel-pipe boundary. The work of the pressure forces causes the velo-
city to change from zero to JI2gH.
On the basis of the law of conservation of energy,
Amv2
= (pi— p2) AM
2
where A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe, Ah is the height of a small
element of the liquid, and Am=pAAh is the mass of this element.
Hence,
pv2
— =P1— P2=Pgll
2

Since the flow velocity is constant, the pressure in the pipe changes accor-
ding to the law
P=Po — Pg (h — x)
as in a liquid at rest. Here Po is the atmospheric pressure and x is the
distance from the upper end of the pipe.
264 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

The change of pressure in height is shown in Fig. 388. The pressure is

laid off along the axis of ordinates, and the distance from the surface of the
liquid in the vessel along the axis of abscissas.
278. The water flowing out of the pipe during a small interval of time At
will carry with it the momentum Ap=pilv2At, where v=11-577 is the ve-
locity of the outflowing stream (see Problem 277). According to Newton's
law, FAt=-2pgHAAt. The same force will act on the vessel with the water
from the side of the outflowing stream. Therefore, the reading of the balance
will decrease by 2pgHA at the initial moment.
279. At the first moment when the stream has not yet reached the pan,
equilibrium will be violated. The pan will swing upwards since the water
flowing out of the vessel no longer exerts pressure on its bottom.
When the stream reaches the pan, equilibrium will be restored. Let us
consider an element of the stream with the mass Am. This element, when
falling onto the pan, imparts to it an impulse Am1r2gh in a vertical di-
rection, where h is the height of the cock above the pan. On the other hand,
after leaving the vessel, this element will cease to exert pressure on its
T 271
bottom and on the pan during the time of falling t=-- 1/ — . This is equi-
g
valent to the appearance of an impulse of force acting on the vessel verti-
valent
cally upward when the element of the liquid is falling. The mean value of
this impulse during the duration of the fall is

A mg j7 221:= A m1i2gh

Thus, each element of the liquid Am is accompanied during its falling by

the appearance of two equal and oppositely directed impulses of force. Since
the stream is continuous, the balance will be in equilibrium.
At the moment when the stream stops flowing, the pan will swing down,
since the last elements of the liquid falling on the pan act on it with
a force that exceeds the weight of the elements, and there will no longer be
a reduction in the pressure on the bottom of the vessel.
280. On the basis of the law of conservation of energy we can write
Mv2
=mgh
2
where M is the mass of the water in the tube stopped by valve V 2 and m
is the mass of the water raised to the height h.
Therefore,
pind2 v2
4 T = PVgh
where V, is the volume of mass m.
The average volume raised in two seconds is
/Tcd2v2
v0= 8gh =13 X10-3m3
One hour of ram operation will raise
V=1.7 x 10-3 X 30 X 60 3m3
MECHANICS 265

a
Fig. 389

281. The pressure of the air streaming over the roof is less than of air at
rest. It is this surplus pressure of the stationary air under the roof that
causes the described phenomena.
282. Since the gas in the stream has a high velocity, the pressure inside
the stream is below atmospheric. The ball will be supported from the bottom
by the thrust of the stream, and on the sides by the static atmospheric
pressure.
283. When air flows between the disks, its velocity diminishes as it
approaches the edges of the disks, and is minimum at the edges. The pressure
in a jet of air is the lower, the higher its velocity. For this reason the
pressure between the disks is lower than atmospheric.
The atmospheric pressure presses the lower disk against the upper one,
and the flow of the air is stopped. After this the static pressure of the air
again moves the disk away, and the process is repeated.
284. The pressure diminishes in a stream of a flowing liquid with an
increase in its velocity. The velocity with which the water flows in the
vessel is much smaller than in the tube and, therefore, the pressure of the
water in the vessel is greater than in the tube. The velocity increases at the
boundary between the vessel and tube, and the pressure drops. For this
reason the ball is pressed against the screen and does not rise.
285. The piston will cover the distance ut during the time t (Fig. 389).
The force F will perform the work W=Fut. The mass of the liquid flowing
out during the time t is pAut. The outflow velocity of the liquid v can be
found from the equation Au=ay. The change in the kinetic energy of the
liquid during the time t is
pAut —4
1 )
This change should be equal to the work performed by the force F:
Fut pAut (11; c)
Upon eliminating u, we find that
2F I
v"=—
Ap 1 _ a2
A2
If a< A, then v= 1/2F
A p.
286. It was assumed in solving Problem 285 that the velocity of any
element of a liquid in the pump is constant. The velocity changes from u
to v when the liquid leaves the pump. This does not occur immediately after
the force begins to act on the piston, however. The process requires some
266 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

time to become stable, i. e., after the particles of the liquid in the cylinder
acquire a constant velocity. When a A this time tends to infinity and,
for this reason, the velocity acquired by the liquid under the action of the
constant force becomes infinitely high.
287. Let us introduce the coordinate system depicted in Fig. 390. Accor-
ding to Torricelli's formula, the outflow velocity of a liquid is V =-17 2gy,
where y is the thickness of the water layer in the upper vessel. Since water
is incompressible, aV = Av, where v is the velocity with which the upper
layer of the water lowers, A is its area, and a is the area of the orifice.
If we assume that the vessel is axially symmetrical, then A-=-31x2, where x
is the horizontal coordinate of the vessel wall.
Therefore,
JVC2 a
— —const
17-2gy v
since in conformity with the initial condition, the water level should lower
with a constant velocity. Hence, the shape of the vessel can be determined
from the equation
y = kx4
where
n 202
k=
2ga2
288. The pressure changes in a horizontal cross section depending on the
distance to the axis r according to the law
PW2 r2
P=Po

where po is the pressure on the axis of the vessel and p the density of the
liquid.
The compressive deformation of the liquid will be maximum near the walls
of the vessel, while the tensile deformation of the revolving rod (Problem 203)
is maximum at the axis.

Fig. 390 Fig. 391

MECHANICS 267

289. The excess pressure at a distance r from the

axis of rotation is p=1) (1) 2r 3(see the solution to Prob-
2
fern 288). On the other hand, this pressure is deter-
mined by the elevation of the liquid level in this sec-
tion above the level on the axis: p=pgh (Fig. 391).
Upon equating these expressions, we have
(02
h=- r2
2g
This is the equation of a parabola, and the surface
of the liquid in the rotating vessel takes the form of
a paraboloid of revolution.
Fig. 392 290. The stirring imparts a certain angular veloci-
ty co to the particles of the water in the glass. The
pressures in the liquid will be distributed in about the same way as in the so-
lution to Problem 288. The excess pressure inside the liquid balances the
pressure due to a higher level of the liquid at the edges of the glass (see
Problem 289).
When stirring is stopped, the velocity of rotation of the liquid near the
bottom will begin to decrease owing to friction, the greater the farther the
elements of the liquid are from the centre.
Now the excess pressure caused by rotation will no longer balance the weight
of the liquid column near the edge of the vessel. This will cause the liquid
to circulate as shown in Fig. 392. This is why the tea leaves will gather in
the middle of the glass.
CHAPTER 2
HEAT.
MOLECULAR PHYSICS

2-1. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids

291. At = 420° C.
292. Reinforced-concrete structures are very strong because the expansion
coefficient of concrete is very close to that of iron and steel.
293. The quantity of heat transferred from one body to another in a unit
of time is proportional to the difference between the temperatures of these
bodies. When the temperatures of the thermometer and the surrounding objects
differ appreciably, the volume of the mercury will change at a fast rate.
If the temperature of the thermometer is nearly the same as that of the sur-
rounding bodies, the volume of the mercury changes slowly.
For this reason it takes longer for the thermometer to take the temperature
of a human body. If the warm thermometer is brought in contact with rela-
tively cool air in the room, the mercury column "drops" so fast due to the
great temperature difference that it can be shaken down in a moment.
294. When the scale cools down from t i to 4=0° C, the value of each
graduation diminishes. Therefore, the height of the mercury column read off
the scale with a temperature of to =0°C will be different and equal H=H 1 X
x(14-at1). The heights of the mercury columns at different temperatures and
identical pressures are inversely proportional to the densities:
Ho _ p I
H1 Po 1 + 74
Hence,
Hi(l± ccti)
Ho = = H1 (1 + at i — WI)
I +Id,
295. The thermometer can be precooled in a refrigerator and shaken. If no
refrigerator is available, put the thermometer into your mouth or in your
arm-pit for a time sufficient for the entire thermometer to reach the body
temperature, then take it out and shake it immediately. The thermometer will
show the temperature of the body.
296. The difference in the lengths of the rulers at a temperature t1 is
40+0(.00-4 (1H-a.24)=f
At a temperature t 2this difference is equal to
to ± aiI2)-- /O (1+ azI2) ---=
The plus sign corresponds to the case when the difference in lengths is
constant (see Fig. 393a). The relation between the lengths and the temperature
shown in Fig. 393b corresponds to the minus sign.
In the first case the system of equations gives
az I= 6.8 cm; 10 (1) I.-- 4.8 cm
to a> =
4.2 — al a2 — al
 HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 269

Lo
(a)

(6) Fig. 393

In the second case

2 + a 2 (t1 t2) 1—
10 (2, -= t1) 208.5 cm; 10 (2) — 2 + (ti t2) 1=206 cm
t o (cc,—

When t=0° C, the iron ruler should be longer than the copper one.
297. A possible way of suspension is depicted in Fig. 394, where I and 2
are rods with a small coefficient of linear expansion al.(e. g., steel rods), and 3
are rods with a high coefficient of expansion a2 (e. g., zinc or brass rods).
The lengths of the rods can be so selected that the length of the pendulum
does not change with the temperature. With this aim in view it is essential
that al (11+ 12)=a213.
298. When the cylinder is heated, its volume increases according to the
same law as that of the glass: v1=vo(1 ± yti), where y is the coefficient of
volume expansion of glass. If the densities of mercury at the temperatures to
and t1are denoted by Po and pi, we can write that' trio---=voPo and mi==viPi,
where

P1=1+yiti
270 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

This system of equations will give the following

• expression for ': _
m, (1 + Yeti)—mu
3X 10-5deg– '
mots
g The coefficient of linear expansion y4=1 =410-5
deg – I.
299. Let the pendulum of an accurate clock
perform N oscillations a day. At the temperatu-
re t1the pendulum of our clock will perform N
oscillations in n-5 seconds (where n = 86,400
is the number of seconds in a day) and at the
temperature t2in n + 10 seconds. The periods of
oscillations will respectively be equal to
n-5 n +10
T 1= and 7.2=
N N
n —5 15
Hence T1— — . On the other
T2 n + 10 — 1 n
hand, bearing in mind that the period of en-
dulum oscillations T =2:t , we obtain

17-11 aatt,
TT'— V r I +a (ti — t 2) 1+

4-
° (t1 — t2)

Upon equating the expressions for the ratio of

the periods, we find that
30
-- 2.3x 10-5deg – '
-
(t2 —ti) n
Fig. 394

2-2. The Law of Conservation of Energy.

Thermal Conductivity
300. According to the law of conservation of energy, the liberated heat is
equal to the loss of kinetic energy
Mut (M +m) v2
= 2 2
where v is the velocity of the cart after the brick has been lowered onto it.
This velocity can be found from the law of conservation of momentum:
Mvo
M +m •
Mmt4, Mmvt,
In mechanical units Q = and in thermal units 0
2 (M + m) =• 2 (M + m)'
where j is the thermal equivalent of work.
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 271

301. On the basis of the law of conservation of energy,

aw2 k (1-102
2 ± 2 +Q
where 1 is the length of the cord at the moment when the washer leaves it.
On the other hand, we can write that
me = in22 + wi+ w2

where W 1=f10is the work of the force of friction acting on the washer (the
washer travels a path of /0relative to the cord), and W2=1(1-10) is the work
of the force of friction acting on the cord. Therefore,
k (1-10)2
Q=Wi.+W2 2
Using Hooke's Law
f = k (1— lo)
we find that
Q = flo +•ck-
The work W1is used entirely to liberate heat. Only half of the work W2 = ns
,
however, is converted into heat, the other half producing the potential energy
k (1 — / o)2
2
302. The electric current performs the work W-=P-r. At the expense of
this work the refrigerator will lose the heat Q 2=qH +qct, where c is the
heat capacity of water and H is the heat of fusion of ice. According to the
law of conservation of energy, the amount of heat liberated in the room will be
Q1=W+ (22=PT qct gH
since in the final run the energy of the electric current is converted into heat.
303. The temperature in the room will rise. The quantity of heat liberated
in a unit of time will be equal to the power consumed by the refrigerator,
since in the final run the energy of the electric current is converted into heat,
and the heat removed from the refrigerator is returned again into the room.
304. It is more advantageous to use a refrigerator that removes heat from
the outside air and liberates it in the room. The heat liberated in the room
in a unit of time is P--1-Q 2, where P is the power consumed by the refrige-
rator and Q2 is the heat removed from the outside air in a unit of time (see
Problem 302).
It is only the high cost and complicated equipment that prevent the use
of such thermal pumps for heating at present.
305. When salt is dissolved, its crystal lattice is destroyed. The process
requires a certain amount of energy that can be obtained from the solvent.
In the second case, part of the intermolecular bonds of the crystal lattice
have already been destroyed in crushing the crystal. For this reason, less
energy is required to dissolve the powder and the`water will be higher in
temperature in the second vessel. The effect, however, will be extremely
negligible.
272 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

306. The quantity of heat removed from the water being cooled is it/2c (t2 — 0),
where 0 is the final temperature. The cold water receives the heat triic (0 —t1).
The heat imparted to the calorimeter is q (0 — t1). On the basis of the law
of conservation of energy,
'nip (0 -11)+q(0 —ti)=m2c (t2-0)
whence
0 (mill + mst2) 4°
(rni ±m2) c+ q
307. The power spent to heat the water in the calorimeter Is
pVct.1
ri T

where p is the density of the water, c is its specific heat, and J=4.18 J/ca 1
is the mechanical equivalent of heat. The sought value is
Q P—PlipVctJ 5
per cent
P PT
a.
308. Q= — (T1 — T o)At = 9,331 kcal
309. The quantity of heat Q passing through the first panel a second is
T2 T1
Q di A, where A is the area of a panel. Since the process is statio-
To d
-2 T2 A.
nary, the same amount of heat passes through the second panel: Q =7 2
T2 — T1 '1— .1 TO —7.2 A that
We find from the condition 2t1 di d2
X2diTo Al(12Ti
A'2d1+ X1d2
310. Upon inserting the temperature T2 into the expression for Q (see Pro-
blem 309) when di =d2-=d, we find that
22,1%2 T o —T1A
Q= 2d
Therefore, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the wall is
=
2■,2
311. The quantity of heat passing a second through the cross-sectional areas
of the blocks with coefficients of thermal conductivity Xi and a2isequal,
respectively, to
Q1=— X1(Ti —T 0) A and Q 2 = --(T i —T o) A
d
The quantity of heat passing through two blocks whose entire cross-sectio-
nal area is 2A is
(2=Q+ Q2= x1+ 2x27.1 T°2A
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 273

Hence, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the wall is equal to

2
312. The coefficients of thermal conductivity of walls I and II are equal to

2 X and Xi/ = 221X2

2 ,/ = 2"1+'

(see the solutions to Problems 310 and 311). It follows from the obvious ine-
quality (2,i —A.2)2 > 0 that
Oq+k2)2 >
Hence,
ki +t,2 > k2X.1% 2 I. e.,
> III
2 l+k2
313. The quantity of heat supplied by the heater into the water through
the pan bottom is
Q= d (T —T1) A= mr

where T1is the boiling point of the water and r is the specific heat of va-
porization.
Therefore,
mrd
T

2-3. Properties of Gases

314. The removable cap acts as a pump and under it a rarefied space is
formed that sucks out the ink. The orifice serves to maintain a constant pres-
sure under the cap.
315. Assuming that the temperature remains constant, let us app ly Boyle's
law to the volume of air above the mercury:
(poi —p,) (1-748 mm)=-(Poz — /92) (1-736 mm)
whence 1=764 mm.
316. In a position of equilibrium f —G—F =0, where f is the force of
expulsion equal to yh1A (here y is the specific weight of the water, and h1
the height of the air column in the tube after submergence). In our case the
force of expulsion is built up by the difference of pressure on the soldered
end of the tube from below and from above: f = —(po+vh) A, where pi
is the air pressure in the tube after submergence. According to Boyle's law,
It follows from this system of equations that
A r
E= - ji (po vh)2 + 4poy/ — (po yh)] —G=8.65 gi
2
274 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

P
R7

47 Fig. 395

317. First, the pressure p of the air will decrease approximately isother-
mally owing to the drop of the level of the water in the vessel. This will
continue until the total pressure at the level of the lower end of the tube
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure po; i. e., pd-pgh=p0, where h is
the height of the water column in the vessel above the level of the lower
end of the tube. From this moment on air bubbles will begin to pass into the
vessel. The pressure at the level of the lower end of the tube will remain
equal to the atmospheric pressure, while the air pressure p=po —pgh will
grow linearly with a drop in the water level. The water will flow out from
the vessel at a constant velocity.
The relation between p and Q is shown in Fig. 395. The negligible fluctu-
ations of pressure when separate bubbles pass in are not shown in Fig. 395.
318. When the air is being pumped out of the vessel, the pressure in the
poV . After the
vessel after one double stroke will become equal to pi—
V -Fvo
i V Ni 2
second double stroke ALI/ =p2 (V -Ho) and, consequently, p2=p0
VH— VO ) '
etc.
After n double strokes the pressure in the vessel will be
/ V a
P‘ =Po 1/ + Vo
When air is being delivered into the vessel, after n double strokes the
pressure will be
_L ponvo=p0 ( V y _1 nvo }
P= P ' V V -Fuo -1— V
Here p > pc, at any n, since during delivery the pump during each double
stroke sucks in air with a pressure p0, and during evacuation vo of the air is
pumped out at pressures below po.
319. Applying Boyle's law to the two volumes of gas in the closed tube,
we obtain
L-111 L— 1
p - =-- pi (—T- — Al) A
L— 1 L-1
p —I— A= p2 (-- d - AI) A
131=P2-Fill
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 275

Here p is the pressure in the tube placed horizontally, Pi and p2 are the
pressures in the lower and upper ends of the tube placed vertically when its
ends are closed, y is the specific weight of the mercury, A is the cross-sectio-
nal area of the tube.
Hence, the initial pressure in the tube is
__
P=. 1 10 _Al)
1 2 0/ /o f
L1
Here, for the sake of brevity we have designated — by I.
2
If one end of the horizontal tube is opened, the pressure of the gas in the
tube will become equal to the atmospheric pressure.
According to Boyle's law, pl0 A=y1 li A (here H is the atmospheric pres-
sure), and, therefore,
= 110 Al
1 2H ( Al — 20
The mercury column will shift through the distance
[2ii ( lo
6'11=4-11=-2T/ 7— Al A/ / 0 LI
For the mercury not to flow out of the tube, the following condition is required
H\ 2
AJ — V (7.) +1+
When the upper end of the vertical tube is opened
pl0 A =1? (II + 1)12A
Hence,
no 12H ( A
A/2=--/o-12=(H + 1) L A/ /0 f
The mercury will not flow out of the tube if
/0 (1-1+/)}2 +1+ (H+1)
l 1
When the lower end is opened
pl0 A--=1? (H —1)13 A
whence
110 [21/( 10 Al 2]
Al3 =
13 =2 (H-1) L 1 Al 10 )
The following condition should be satisfied to prevent the mercury column
from being forced out of the tube
10 , 4(H 1)2 2 (H —1)
I/ +1+ 1
276 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

320. Since for one gramme-molecule of any gas at p= 1 atm and T=237° K
pV
we have VP- =22.4 litres, then for one mole C= —Y. = 0.082 lit • atm/mole• deg.
This constant is usually denoted by R and called the universal gas constant.
The values of R in the various systems of units are:
R=0.848 kgf-m/mole • deg = 8.3 X 107erg/mole • deg =1.986 cal/mole • deg
321. At a fixed pressure and temperature the volume occupied by the gas
is proportional to its mass. A volume of VI, corresponds to one gramme-mo,
lecule and a volume of V to an arbitrary mass m. Obviously, V p.=1, , where ji
is the molecular weight expressed in grammes.
Upon inserting this expression into the equation of state for one gramme-
molecule, we have
PV= RT
P,
322. If the attraction between the molecules suddenly disappeared, the
pressure should increase. To prove this, let us mentally single out two layers
1 and II inside a fluid (Fig. 396). The molecules penetrating from layer I
into layer II owing to thermal motion collide with the molecules in layer
II, and as a result this layer is acted upon by the pressure forces pi that
depend on the temperature. The forces of attraction act on layer II from the
side of the molecules in layer I in the opposite direction. The resultant pres-
sure of layer 1 on layer II p=pi —pi, where pi is the pressure caused by
the internal forces of attraction. When pi disappears, the pressure grows.
323. If the forces of attraction between
Pt the molecules disappeared the water would
be converted into an ideal gas. The pressure
cP can be found from the equation of state of
an ideal gas:
m RT
p= V 1,370 atm
IA

Fig. 396 Fig. 397

HEAT MOLECULAR PHYSICS 277

324. Let us separate a cylindrical volume of the gas in direct contact

with the wall (Fig. 397). The forces acting on the side surface of the cylin-
der are mutually balanced. Since the volume is in equilibrium, the pressure
on the gas from the side of the wall should always be equal to the pressure
on the other base of the cylinder from the side of the gas. We can conclude,
on the basis of Newton's third law, that the pressure of the gas on the wall
is equal to the pressure inside the vessel.
325. The pressure in the gas depends on the forces of interaction between
the molecules (see Problem 322). The forces of mutual interaction of the
molecules and of the molecules with the wall are different, however. Hence
the pressures inside the gas and at the walls of the vessel (see Problem 324)
can be identical only if the concentrations are different.
326. Since the volume is constant
P2 = T 2
T
or P2— Pi
— T 2 -T1T1 =- 0.004
Pi PI
Hence,
T — T2 T1—250°K
-
0.004
327. From Archimedes' law, rng+G=-7V, where y is the specific weight
of water and V is the volume of the sphere. The equation of state gives

(oo + yh) V =--

fn RT
Upon deleting V from these equations, we find that

m= Gµ(Po + =-
_—_- 0.666 g
yRT —11g (po±yh)
and equilibrium will be unstable.
328. When the tube is horizontal, the device cannot be used as a thermo-
meter, since the pressures exerted on the drop from the right and from the
left will be balanced at any temperature.
If the tube is placed vertically, the pressure of the gas in the lower ball
will be higher than in the upper one by a constant magnitude. If the volume
is the same, the pressure will grow with a rise in the temperature the faster,
the higher is the initial pressure. To maintain a constant difference of the
pressures in the balls, the drop will begin to move upward, and in this case
the device can be employed as a thermometer.
329. Since the masses of the gas are the same in both ends and the piston
is in equilibrium,
V 2=T
V1 T1
Hence,
V2
T 2 =—T i -= 330°K

Applying Boyle's law to the volume of the gas whose temperature does not
change, we obtain
=P°V° =-- 1.05 atm
278
•
•
ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

330. When the external conditions are the same, equal volumes of various
gases contain an equal number of molecules (Avogadro's law). Therefore,
Vi : V2 :V3:1/4 = NI : N 2: N3 : N4, where Vi is the volume of a gas and Ni the
number of molecules of this gas.
The mass of a certain amount of a gas is proportional to the number of
its molecules and the molecular weight of the gas:
mi. :M2: ins: = N1111: N2112: N3113• N4114
On the other hand, denoting the relative volume of this gas in per cent
V
by n —i 100%, we have
V
111 . V2 V3 .V4 _Ni. N2. A13 . N4
1/ . 17 . 1/ 'V N'N'N•N

If the composition of air in per cent is described by n;=—

m t 100% (com-
position by weight), we can obtain from the previous ratios that
n • „, . „• . m2 .1123 . m4 N1111. N2112 . N3R3 . N4114
=1/111.1 :n2112: n3113: n4114
t71 172 171 NNNN
Hence,
ni n;--En;±
n
n41-1,4
Remembering that n; + n; + n; + n'd 100 per cent, we obtain
nitti100%
ni-
+ n2112 -1-n3123+ n4I14
Therefore,
n1=75.52%; n2 =23.15%; n3 =1.28%; n; = 0.05%
331. For each gas, the equation of state can be written as follows:

RT
1-11
• = m2 RT
112
m3
p3V = RT
113
RT
114
Hence,
tn
(1014 -P2+133+ P4)V=H n RT
RI 112
113 114
m
On the other hand, for a mixture of gases pV = — RT, where m _=_- +
± m2-1- m3 -1- - tn4and IA is the sought molecular weight.
m3-1-m4
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 279

palm
7

025

7 2 3 4 Kat Fig. 398

According to Dalton's law, p=p1 --1-132±p3 ±p4 • Therefore,

tri1 ± n12+ tn3 + In4 = , + n3,± n4 , — 28 966

, +n2
mi m2 mz m4 ni n z nz n4
114 I-1,2 Ps I-1,1 [Li 1L5 113 124
Mi
where ni-=— 100% is the composition of the air in per cent by weight.
m
The result obtained in the previous problem allows us to find p. from the
known composition of the air by volume
1-1,04±1-1,2/22+113n3-1-1L4n4_ 28.966
/21+ n2 + n3 n 4
332. On the basis of Clapeyron's equation,
nzRT pRT
µ= = _72 g/mole
pV p
The sought formula is C5F-112 (one of the pentane isomers).
333. When the gas is compressed in a heat-impermeable envelope, the
work performed by the external force is spent to increase the internal energy
of the gas, and its temperature increases. The pressure in the gas will in-
crease both owing to a reduction in its volume and an increase in its tempe-
rature. In isothermal compression the pressure rises only owing to a reduc-
tion in the volume.
Therefore, the pressure will increase more in the first case than in the
second.
334. A diagram of p versus V is shown in Fig. 398. The greatest work
equal to the hatched area in Fig. 398 is performed during the isothermal
process (1-2).
The temperature does not change on section 1-2, and is halved on sec-
tion 2-3. After this the temperature rises, and T4 =7.1when V4 =-1 lit.
335. Line 1-2 is an isobaric line (Fig. 399). The gas is heated at a con-
stant pressure, absorbing heat.
280 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Line 2-3 is an isochoric line. The

gas is cooled at a constant volume,
the pressure drops and heat is libera-
ted.
Line 3-1 is an isothermal line. The
volume of the gas diminishes at a
constant temperature. The pressure ri-
ses. The gas is not heated, although it
is subjected to the work of external
forces. Hence, the gas rejects heat on
this section.
336. The amount of heat liberated
per hour upon combustion of the meth-
ane is
Fig. 399 Q I oil
RT1—°P

where u=16 g/mole is the mass of one mole of the gas and T=1+273° =
= 284° K is its temperature. The amount of heat received by the water in
one hour is
ziD2
vpc (t2 —t1) 3,600

where p 1 g/cm3is the density of the water and c = 1 cal/deg • g is the

specific heat.
According to the condition,
Q2
Q =1= 0.6

Upon solving these simultaneous equations, we find that

92P1/2111
= 93°C
t2 =ti 900:-ED2opcRT

337. In the initial state p1V=m RT 1, where uiis the molecular weight

of the ozone. In the final state, p2V= - RT2 , where 1.12 is the molecular
112
weight of the oxygen. The heat balance equation gives
m ==cvm (7,2-7,1)
111. 112
Upon solving these simultaneous equations, we find that

Pl cvT1 112
338. In view of the linear dependence of pressure on volume we can write:
p=aV +b.
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 281

.1176:2"

Fig. 400

The constants a and b can be found from the condition of the problems
0.5 atm/lit
- v1 — v 2
b — P2111 —MY 2
— 20 atm
171—V2
Upon inserting the expression for p into the equation of state of an ideal
gas pV=— RT =const T, we find that
aV 2 bV =const T (1)
The relation between T and V (see Fig. 400) is a parabola. The curve
reaches its maximum at Vmax = — -272 = 20 lit when the roots of quadratic
equation (1) coincide. Here
b= 10 atm
Pmax=alimax-+b=-T
Therefore,
_Pmaxl max11— 490°K
T max— mR
339. The energy of a unit volume of gas u1=CTp, where p is the density of the
pV
air. According to the equation of state of an ideal gas, T = n B (B is a constant).
,

Since p= v- , then pT=-IT

I3 .
Therefore, tzi=y p is determined only by the
pressure. The energy of all the air in the room is also determined only by
the pressure. The pressure in the room is equal to the atmospheric pressure
282 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

hA

T Fig. 401

and does not change when the air is heated. For this reason the energy of
the air in the room also does not change. As the air is heated, some of it
flows outside through cracks, and this ensures a constancy of energy despite
the heating. The energy would increase with heating only in a hermetically
closed room.
340. On the basis of the equation of state, the sought mass of the air
will be
RV T2-Ti
Am— 1.3 kg
TiT2
341. Let the tube first be near the bottom in a state of stable equilibrium.
Upon heating, the air pressure in the tube and, correspondingly, the force of
expulsion increase. At a certain temperature T 1the tube begins to rise to the
surface. Since the pressure of the water gradually decreases upwards from the
bottom, the volume of the air in the tube and, therefore, the force of expul-
sion continue to increase. The tube will quickly reach the surface of the
water. Upon a further increase in the temperature, the tube will be at the
surface. If the temperature lowers, the tube will not sink at T 1, because it
has a great reserve of buoyancy caused by an appreciable increase in the
force of expulsion as the tube rises. It is only when T 2 < T1 that the tube
begins to sink. Here the force of expulsion will drop because, as submergen-
ce continues, the air in the tube will occupy a smaller volume. The tube
will reach the bottom very quickly.
The relation between the depth of submergence h of the tube and the
temperature T is shown in Fig. 401.
The tube will always be at the bottom when T < T 2and at the surface
when T > T 1. If T 2 <T < T1, the tube will be either at the bottom or at
the surface, depending on the previous temperatures.
342. The gas expands at a certain constant pressure p built up by the
piston. The work W =p (V 2 —V1), where V1and V 2are the initial and final
volumes of the gas. By using the equation of state, let us express the pro-
duct pV through the temperature T. Then,
W = 17 R ( T 2— T 1) 33.9 kgf-m
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 283

343. The heat imparted to the gas is used to heat it and perform mecha-
nical work. According to the law of conservation of energy,

Q= C v (T 2 — 7' + 11R (T2— 7' =t-L1 (7.2 — T 1) (Cy+ R)--=- ' 354.6 cal
I-t

2-4. Properties of Liquids

344. It is more difficult to compress a litre of air, since more work has
to be done in this case.
Water has a small compressibility, and a small reduction in volume is
required to increase the pressure inside it to three atmospheres.
345. A maximum thermometer can be made as follows. A small unwettable
freely moving body is placed inside the tube of a horizontal thermometer
(Fig. 402). The position of the body will show the maximum temperature,
since the body will move along the tube when the liquid expands and will
remain in place when the liquid in the tube is compressed.
To make a minimum thermometer, a wettable body should be placed
inside the liquid in the tube.
346. When an elastic rubber film is stretched, the force of tension depends
on the amount of deformation of the film. The force of surface tension is
determined only by the properties of the liquid and does not change with
an increase of its surface.
347. The surface tension of pure petrol is less than that of petrol in
which grease is dissolved. For this reason the petrol applied to the edges
will contract the spot towards the centre. If the spot itself is wetted, it will
spread over the fabric.
348. Capillaries of the type shown in Fig. 403 form in a compact surface
layer of soil. They converge towards the top, and the water in them rises to
the surface, from which it is intensively evaporated. Harrowing destroys this
structure of the capillaries and the moisture is retained in the soil longer.
349. Leather contains a great number of capillaries. A drop of a wetting
liquid inside a capillary having a constant cross section will be in equilib-
rium. When the liquid is heated, the surface tension diminishes and the
liquid is drawn towards the cold part of the capillary. The grease will be
drawn into the leather if it is heated outside.
350. The grease melts, and capillary forces carry it to the surface of the
cold fabric placed under the clothing (see Problem 349).
351. The end of the piece of wood in the shade is colder, and the capil-
lary forces move the water in this direction.
352. The hydrostatic pressure should be balanced by the capillary pres-
sure: pgh=.- — . Hence, h = 30 cm.
d
353. The following forces act vertically on section abcd of the film: weight,
surface tension Fab applied to line ab and surface tension Fad applied to cd.

.1- 111111111111110
1./.7 Fig. 402
284 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Equilibrium is possible only if Fab

is greater than Fcd by an amount
equal to the weight of the section
of the film being considered.
The difference between the forces
of surface tension can be explai-
ned by the difference in the concent-
ration of the soap in the surface
layers of the film.
354. The force of expulsion ba-
lances the weight of the cube mg
and the force of surface tension 4acc,
Fig. 403 i.e., a2xpg=mg+4aa, where x is
the sought distance. Therefore,
mg+ 4aa
x- 2.3 cm
a2 pg
The forces of surface tension introduce a correction of about 0.1 cm.
2a
355. The water rises to a height h= . The potential energy of the wa-
wr
ter column is
mgh —
2
Pg
4acta
The forces of surface tension perform the work W =2nroch=— . One half
Pg
of this work goes to increase the potential energy, and the other half to
evolve heat. Hence,
Q
Pg
356. The pressure inside the liquid at a point that is at a height h above
a certain level is less than the pressure at this level by pgh. The pressure
is zero at the level of the liquid in the vessel. Therefore, the pressure at
the height h is negative (the liquid is stretched) and is equal to p= —pgh.
357. The forces of attraction acting on a molecule in the surface layer
from all the other molecules produce a resultant directed downward. The
closest neighbours, however, exert a force of repulsion on the molecule which
is therefore in equilibrium.
Owing to the forces of attraction and repulsion, the density of the liquid
is smaller in the surface layer than inside. Indeed, molecule I (Fig. 404) is
acted upon by the force of repulsion from molecule 2 and the forces of
attraction from all the other molecules (3, 4, . . .). Molecule 2 is acted upon
by the forces of repulsion from 3 and 1 and the forces of attraction from the
molecules in the deep layers. As a result, distance 1-2 should be greater
than 2-3, etc.
This course of reasoning is quite approximate (thermal motion, etc., is
disregarded), but nevertheless it gives a qualitatively correct result.
An increase in the surface of the liquid causes new sections of the rare-
fied surface layer to appear. Here work should be performed against the for-
ces of attraction between the molecules. It is this work that constitutes the
surface energy.
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 285

358. The required pressure should exceed the atmospheric pressure by an

amount that can balance the hydrostatic pressure of the water column and
the capillary pressure in the air bubble with a radius r.
2a
The excess pressure is p+pgh+— =4,840 dyne/cm2.
r
2a
359. Since in this case p gh < — , the water rises to the top end of the
tube. The meniscus will be a part of a spherical segment (Fig. 405). The
radius of curvature of the segment is determined from the condition that the
forces of surface tension balance the weight of the water column:
23-ira cos T=Ttr2hpg.
Hence, cos p =
rhpg. It is obvious from Fig. 405 that the radius of cur-
2a
2a
vature of the segment R =--
cos cp
=hgp =0.74 mm.
360. When the tube is opened, a convex meniscus of the same shape as
on the top is formed at its lower end. For this reason the length of the
water column remaining in the tube will be 2h if l h, and l+h if 1.<h.
361. (1) The forces of surface tension can retain a water column with a
height not over h in this capillary tube. Therefore, the water will flow out
of the tube.
(2) The water does not flow out.
The meniscus is convex, and will
be a hemisphere for an absolutely
wetting liquid.
(3) The water does not flow out.
The meniscus is convex and is less
curved than in the second case.
(4) The water does not flow out.
The meniscus is flat.

0
0

_ —
F ig. 404 Fig. 405
286 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

(b) Fig. 406

(5) The water does not flow out. The meniscus is concave.
362. The pressure p inside the soap-bubble with a radius R exceeds the
atmospheric pressure by the amount of the double capillary pressure, since
4a
the bubble film is double: p=p0+ —
R •

The pressure inside the bubble with a radius R together with the pressure
of the section of the film between the bubbles should balance the pressure
4a. 4a 4a
inside the smaller bubble. Therefore, — , where Rx is the ra-
R

Rr
dius of curvature of section AB. Hence, R x - R —r •
At any point of contact the forces of surface tension balance each other
and are mutually equal. This is possible only when the angles between them
are equal to 1200.
363. According to the law of conservation of energy, the cross will not
rotate. The components of the forces of surface tension are balanced by the
forces of hydrostatic pressure, since the hydrostatic pressure of the water
higher than the level in the vessel is negative (see Problem 356).
364. If the bodies are wetted by water, its surface will take the form shown
in Fig. 406a. Between the matches, above level MN, the water is tensioned
by the capillary forces, and the pressure inside the water is less than the
atmospheric pressure. The matches will be attracted toward each other, since
they are subjected to the atmospheric pressure on their sides.
For unwetted matches, the form of the surface is shown in Fig. 406b. The
pressure between the matches is equal to the atmospheric pressure and is
greater than the latter on the sides below level MN.
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 287

1••■■
••=1;ww.
B
I
AC --

(a)

=M

Fig. 407
(b)
In the last case two various forms of the surface correspond to the wetting
angles when the matches approach each other (Fig. 407). One of them, howe-
ver, cannot be obtained in practice (Fig. 407a). The pressure at level KL
should be the same everywhere. In particular, the pressure of columns AB
and CD of different height should be the same. But this is impossible, since
the position of the column can be so selected that their surfaces are identical
in form. In this case the additional pressure of the surface forces will be the
same, and the hydrostatic pressure different. As a result, when the matches
approach each other, the surface of the water between them will tend to
assume a horizontal form (Fig. 4076). In this case, as can be seen from the
figure, the pressure between the matches at level MN is equal to the atmos-
pheric pressure. The pressure exerted from the left on the first match is also
equal to the atmospheric pressure below level MN. The pressure acting
on the second match from the right is less than the atmospheric pressure
above level MN. As a result, the matches will be repulsed.

2-5. Mutual Conversion of Liquids and Solids

365. Water will freeze at zero only in the presence of centres of crystalli-
zation. Any insoluble particles can serve as such centres. When the mass
of the water is great, it will always contain at least one such centre. This
will be enough for all the water to freeze. If the mass of the water is divi-
ded into very fine drops, centres of crystallization will be present only in a
comparatively small number of the drops, and only they will freeze.
288 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

366. The water and the ice receive about the same amount of heat in a
unit of time, since the difference between the temperatures of the water and
the air in the room is approximately the same as that for the ice and the
air. In 15 minutes the water receives 200 calories. Therefore, the ice receives
8,000 calories in ten hours. Hence, H=80 cal/g.
367. v=2,464 m/s.
368. The heat balance equations have the form
Q1= miciAt C At
At At
Q2 /72111+ tnic2 —+CAt
2 2
where m1 and c1are the mass and heat capacity of the ice, C Is the heat
capacity of the calorimeter, c2 is the heat capacity of the water, and
=2`C.
Hence,
Q1 ( 2cc, H n _ Q2
CiAt 2 )
C 150 cal/deg
c2 At At H -.-

ci 2 2 ci
369. The amount of heat that can be liberated by the water when it is
cooled to 0°C is 4,000 cal. Heating of the ice to 0°C requires 12,000 cal.
Therefore, the ice can be heated only by the heat liberated when the water
freezes. One hundred grammes of water should be frozen to produce the
lacking 8,000 calories.
As a result, the calorimeter will contain a mixture of 500 g of water and
500 g of ice at a temperature of 0°C.
370. The final temperature of the contents in the vessel is 0=0°C. The
heat balance equation has the form
mici — 0) = m2c2 — t2)i-(m2-1113) H
where tn, is the sought mass of the vessel and c2 is the heat capacity of
the ice. Therefore,
mace(8 — t2) + (m2 — m3) H —200 g
mi= (ti — 0)
371. (1) The sought mass of the ice m can be found from the equation
mH = Mc (-0. Hence, m=100 g.
(2) The heat balance equation can be written in this case as MH =Mc (—t).
Hence, t = —80° C.
372. The melting point of the ice compressed to 1,200 atm will drop by
At =8.8° C. The ice will melt until it cools to —8.8°C. The amount of heat
Q =mi ll is absorbed, where m1is the mass of the melted ice and H is the
specific heat of fusion. From the heat balance equation tniH=mcAt, where
c is the heat capacity of the ice.
Hence,
crrtAt
5.6 g
inl= H
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 289

2-6. Elasticity and Strength

A
373. F= AE (R—r)=60 kgf.
374. When the rod with fastened ends is heated by t degrees, it develops
an elastic force F equal, according to Hooke's law, to
AE Al
F= — AEat
where E is the modulus of elasticity of steel and a is its coefficient of ther-
mal expansion.
If one of the rod ends is gradually released, the length of the rod will
increase by Al =lat. The force will decrease linearly from F to zero and its
average magnitude will be F/2.
1
The sought work W =L Al — AEla2t2.
2 =2
Mg
375. The tension of the wire T =2 It follows from Hooke's law
sin a
A/
that T= EA.
21
1 —cos a Mg
Since A/ =2 ( en
/), th T— . At small an-
cos a cos a
a a2
gles, sin a a, and cos a= 1 —2 sine —
2 1— Bearing this in mind, we
2
obtain
V
Mg
a = AE
376. The rod heated by At would extend by A/ = /octAt in a free state,
where /0 is the initial length of the rod. To fit the heated rod between the
walls, it should be compressed by Al. In conformity with Hooke's law,
IF
Al=
EA
Therefore, F = E AaAt =110 kgf.
377. When the rods are heated in a free state, their total length will
increase by Al = A/1± A/2 =(a111+a212) t.
Compression by the same amount Al will reduce the lengths of the rods
by Ali and A1'2 , where Ai; A/;=A/. This requires the force
E1A E 2 AAI;
F— — 1
12
Upon solving this system of equations, we find that
F =_ c(1.11-1-a2/2 At
I- I2
E, E2
The rods will act upon each other with this force.
10-1865
290 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

378. It is obvious from cons iderations of symmetry that the wires will
elongate equally. Let us denote this elongation by Al. On the basis of
41
Hooke's law, the tension of a steel wire F5= AE s and of a copper one
AI
Fe = AE,
•
It follows that the ratio between the tensions is equal to the ratio between
he respective Young's moduli
Fc E c 1
Fs E s 2
In equilibrium 2Fc + Fs=mg-
mg
Therefore, Fc=74---=25 kgf and Fs =2Fc =50 kgf.
379. On the basis -of Hooke's law,
Al Al
AcEc and AiEt

It follows that ---L

F =2.
F
Thus, two-thirds of the load are resisted by the concrete and one-third by
the iron.
Fl
380. The compressive force F shortens the tube by and the tensile
AcE,
Fl
force F extends the bolt by AsEs .
Fl Fl
The sum is equal to the motion of the nut along the bolt:
AsEs + AcE,
Fl Fl
+ =h
AsE, 11,,Ec
Hence,
h ASES ACEC
F=
As Es + A,E,
381. Since the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of copper a, is grea-
ter than that of steel as, the increase in temperature will lead to compression
of the copper plate and tension of the steel ones. In view of symmetry, the
relative elongations of all the three plates are the same. Denoting the comp-
ressive force acting on the copper plate from the sides of the steel plates
by F, we shall have for the relative elongation of the copper plate: Al
T
F
act— AE, •
Either steel plate is subjected to the tensile force F/2 from the side of
the copper one. Upon equating the relative elongation of the plates, we
obtain:
ac
t— AE;=a51+2AEs
 HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 291

On upper nut

8 Fig. 408

Hence
E (oc —ccs)t
2AEcs
F=_
2E,±E,
mv2
382. When the ring rotates, the tension T..=- 27–rappears In It (see Prob-
lem 201). For a thin ring m=2nrAp, where A is the cross section of the
ring. Therefore, --x =pv2.

Hence, the maximum velocity v= m/s.

383. Initially, an elastic force F, acts on each nut from the side of the
extended bolt.
The load G <F, cannot increase the length of the part of the bolt bet-
ween the nuts and change its tension. For this reason the force acting on the
upper nut from the side of the block will not change as long as G<F0.
The lower nut is acted upon by the force Fofrom the side of the top part
of the bolt and by the force G from the bottom part. Since the nut is in
equilibrium, the force exerted on it from the block is F=F0 —G. Thus the
action of the load G < F, consists only in reducing the pressure of the lower
nut on the block.
When G > Fo, the length of the bolt will increase and the force acting
on the lower nut from the side of the block will disappear. The upper nut
will be acted on by the force G.
The relation between the forces acting on the nuts and the weight of the
load G is shown in Fig. 408.

2-7. Properties of Vapours

384. The calorimeter will contain 142 g of water and 108 g of vapour at
a temperature 100° C.
385. By itself, water vapour or steam is invisible. We can observe only
a small cloud of the finest drops appearing after condensation. When the gas
burner is switched off, the streams of heated air that previously enveloped
10*
292 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

the kettle disappear, and the steam coming out of the kettle is cooled and
condenses.
386. On the basis of the equation of state of an ideal gas p= =
V RT
If the pressure is expressed in mm Hg and the volume in m3, then R =
760 x 0.0224 mm Hg • m3
273 deg • mole
273
Therefore, p =1.06 p — . At temperatures near room temperature, p=p g/m3.
387. It seems at first sight that the equation of state of an ideal gas can-
not give values of the density or specific volume of saturated vapours close
to the actual ones. But this is not so. If we calculate the density of a ya-
m tip
pour by the formula p= = — and compare the values obtained with
V RT
those in Table 2 (p. 85), we shall observe good agreement.
This is explained as follows. The pressure of an ideal gas grows in direct
proportion to the temperature at a constant volume of the gas and, there-
fore, at a constant density. The relation between the pressure of saturated
vapours and the temperature depicted in Fig. 146 corresponds to a constant
volume of a saturated vapour and the liquid which it is in equilibrium
with. As the temperature increases, the density of the vapour grows, since
the liquid partially transforms into a vapour. An appreciable increase in the
mass of the vapour corresponds to a small change in the volume it occupies.
The pressure-density ratio becomes approximately proportional to the tempe-
rature, as with an ideal gas.
The Clapeyron-Mendeleyev equation mainly gives a correct relationship
between p, V and T for water vapour up to the values of these parameters
that correspond to the beginning of condensation. This equation, however,
cannot describe the process of transition of a vapour into a liquid and indi-
cate the values of p, V and T at which this transition begins.
388. At 30° C the pressure of saturated vapours p = 31.82 mm Hg. Accor-
ding to the equation of state of an ideal gas,
m n ,„ ,
V= T hut) lit
ILL P
389. When the temperature gradually increases, the pressure of the water
vapours in the room may be considered constant.
The vapour pressure p= corresponds to a humidity of tvo = 10 per
100
cent, where p0 -= 12.79 mm Hg is the pressure of the saturated vapours
at 15° C. At a temperature of 25° C the pressure of the saturated vapours is
p, =23.76 mm Hg. For this reason the sought relative humidity is

— —P— 1000/0 = woPo =5.4o/0

390. According to the conditions of the problem, the relative humidity

outside and in the room is close to 100 per cent. The pressure of saturated
water vapours outside, however, is much smaller than in the room, because
the temperature of the air in the room is higher and much time is required
to equalize the pressures owing to penetration of the vapours outside through
HEAT. MOLECULAR PHYSICS 293

slits. Therefore, if the window is opened, the vapours will quickly flow out
from the room and the washing will be dried faster.
391. (1) The water levels will become the same as in communicating
vessels. The water vapours in the left-hand vessel will partly condense, and
some water will evaporate in the right-hand vessel.
(2) The levels will become the same because the vapours will flow from one
vessel into the other.
At a given temperature the pressure of saturated vapours is identical in
both vessels at the surface of the water and will decrease at the same rate
with height. For this reason the pressure of the vapours in the vessels at the
same level is different. This causes the vapour to flow over and condense in
the vessel with the lower water level.
392. When t 2 =30° C, the pressure of the vapours is equal to the pressure
p20 of saturated vapours (p20=31.8 mm Hg) only if the air pressure is 10 at.
Upon isothermal reduction of the air pressure to one-tenth, the volume of
the air will increase ten times. Hence, at atmospheric pressure and a tempe-
rature of 3'0° C, the pressure of the water vapour is p= 3.18 mm Hg. It fol-
lows from the Clapeyron equation that at a temperature of t1= 10° C, the
vapour pressure p,=p 7' 2where T1=283°K and T2 =303° K.
The sought relative humidity is
w =LI 1000/ = -P— L 10001o =
— 32 60/ o
Po ° Po T2
where po = 9.2 mm Hg is the pressure of saturated vapours at 4=10° C.
393. The pressure p= 6.5 mm Hg is the pressure of saturated water va-
pours at t = 5° C. A sharp drop of the pressure shows that all the water has
been converted into vapour. The volume of the vapour pumped out until the
water is evaporated completely is V=3,600 litres.
On the basis of the Clapeyron-Mendeleyev equation of state, the sought
mass of the water is
pV
23.4 g
RT =
394. An amount of heat Qi=-tnc At =3,000 cal is required to heat the
water to 100°C. Therefore, Q 2-=Q— Q1=2,760 cal will be spent for vapour
formation. The amount of the water converted into vapour is m1 =
= Q2 =
5. 1 g.
In conformity with the equation of state of an ideal gas, this vapour will
occupy a volume of V= P
— T . Upon neglecting the reduction of the vo-
P, P
lume occupied by the water, we can find the height which the piston is rai-
sed to: h-=
sed =--17 cm.
A
CHAPTER 3
ELECTRICITY
AND MAGNETISM

3-1. Electrostatics
2
395. = 918 kgf.
2
The force is very great. It is impossible to impart a charge of one coulomb
to a small body since the electrostatic forces of repulsion are so high that
the charge cannot be retained on the body.
396. The balls will be arranged at the corners of an equilateral triangle
with a side — / . The force acting from any two balls on the third is
2
4Q2
F=
12 y3
The ball will be in equilibrium if tan a=— (where a=30°). Hence,
mg
Q =- J= 100 CGSQ.
2
397. Since the threads do not deflect from the vertical, the coulombian
force of repulsion is balanced by the force of attraction between the balls
in conformity with the law of gravitation.
Therefore, in a vacuum
Q2 p2V2
r2 =7 r 2
and in kerosene (taking into account the results of Problem 230)
(p po)2 V2
Q2
8Tr2 =7 r2
where V is the volume of the balls.
Hence,
p Po VEr 2.74 g/cm3
11er—I
398. The conditions of equilibrium of the suspended ball give the follow-
ing equations for the two cases being considered:
T1sin ccI --QQsX --=0
2a2 2
QQ, QQ, ,,,,
T 1cos cc, — x
2a2 2
— a2 g=0
—

QQs 17—Q 0
T2 sin cc2 --
2a2 >( 2
QQ, QQs -11-2 _ aig=0
T2 cos CG2 —
a2
2a2 — 2
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 295

49,9s
07
72.

Qs • OQ's QS
Ca ZaZ
`N` ay
• /
a2 • / I
/\ 1
171g / \\ I
I/ \
goc---- a' —D.A.)
17 47
Fig. 409 Fig. 410

where T, and T2 are the tensions of the thread, a1and a2 the angles of
deflection of the thread, + Q and — Q the charges of the fixed balls, +Qs
the charge of the suspended ball, and mg is the weight of the suspended
ball (Fig. 409).
Upon excluding the unknowns from the above simultaneous equations, we
get
cot a1 —cot a, = cot a1 —cot 2a1=2 —1)
whence,
cot a, = 2 (2 / 1) ± 1735 — 16 "1/–

Thus, a, = 7°56' and a, = 15°52' when mg > QQs ( 1 _ 1/--

Qs )
, and
\ 4
a, = 82°04' and a2 =164°08' when QQ li
mg < ---, (1—M) ,
399. In uniform motion the drop is acted upon by the force of gravity G,
the expulsive force of the air (Archimedean force) F, the force of the electro-
static field eE and the force of friction against the air kv-=- k — . All the for-
t
ces are balanced. Therefore,

G—F—eE+k -=0
ti
G—F+eE—k,--=.0

G—F—k T =0

where e is the charge of the drop. E the intensity of the electric field, and s
the distance covered by the drop.
296 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Upon solving the equations, we get

t_ 2 6 .4
ti --t2
400. It can, if we use the phenome-
non of electrostatic induction. Bring a
1E2 conductor on an insulated support up
r2
to the charged body and connect the
q
4-
QZ
conductor to the earth for a short time.
The conductor will retain a charge op-
Fig. 411 posite in sign to the given one, while
the like charge will pass into the
earth.
The charge can be removed from the conductor by introducing the latter
into a metallic space. The operation may be repeated many times with a
charge of any magnitude.
Electrostatic machines operate on a similar principle.
401. The energy is produced by the mechanical work that has to be per-
formed in moving the conductor from the oppositely charged body to the
body that accumulates the charge.
402. They can, if the charge of one ball is much greater than that of the
other. The forces of attraction caused by the induced charges may exceed the
forces of repulsion.
403. Since Q q, the interaction between the separate elements of the ring
can be neglected. Let us take a small element of the ring with a length RAa
(Fig. 410). From the side of the charge Q it is acted upon by the force
QAq qa
— where Aq-=— . The tension forces of the ring T balance AF.
R2 '
From the condition of equilibrium, and remembering that Au is small, we
have
AF =2T sin (–T
Aa ) =TAa

Q
The sought force is the tension T=
23-c R2
404. Let us consider the case of opposite charges Q1> 0 and Q2 < 0. The
intensities created by the charges Q1 and Q2 are equal, respectively, to
Q1 and E2=--7 Q2 . A glance at Fig. 411 shows that
r2
E 2= El+ 4-2E1E2 cos
From triangle ABC
4—d2
cos q)—
2ri r2
Hence,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 297

Fig. 412 Fig. 413

If the charges are like

E =1/QT.+Q 4- QQ2
3 3 ( r2 — d2)
rl r1 rir2 1
405. Each charge creates at point D a field intensity of E1 =7. The
total intensity will be the sum of three vectors (Fig. 412). The sum of the
horizontal components of these vectors will be zero, since they are equal in
magnitude and form angles of 120° with each other. The vectors form angles
of 90° —a with the vertical, where a is the angle between the edge of the
tetrahedron and the altitude h of triangle ABC.
Q sin a. It
The vertical components are identical, each being equal to —
0
2
follows from triangle ADE that sin a= V . Therefore, the sought
intensity of the field is

E=VZ

406. The intensity of the field E at an arbitrary point A on the axis of

the ring can be found as the geometrical sum of the intensities produced by
separate small elements of the charged ring (Fig. 413).
Upon summation of the vectors of intensity at point A, account should
be taken only of the components directed along the axis of the ring. Owing
to symmetry, the components of the intensity vectors perpendicular to the
axis will be zero.
Therefore, the intensity of the field at point A is
Qr
E= cos a=
R2+ r2 (R2+ ryi 2
298 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

407. The intensity of the field at an arbitrary point A on the axis of the
ring is
Q
E= R2+ r2 cos a= —
R2 sin2 a cos a (1)

(see Problem 406).

Obviously, E reaches its maximum at the same values of a as the
E2R4
expression 2 Q2 . But
2E2R4
Q2 =2 sin4a cost a =2 cost a 1— cos2a) (1 — cos2 a) (2)

is the product of three positive factors

a=2 costa (3)
b=1—cost a (4)
c=1— costa (5)
whose sum is constant (a+b+c=2), and b=c.
The product abc=ab2will be maximum if the factors are equal, i.e.,
2
a=b=c=— (6)
3
and, therefore,
8
abc=ab2= — (7)
27
Let us prove this. If
2
a=- +2d
3
where d is a certain number that, as follows from Eq. (3), can be within
1 2 (8)
< a <7
then, on the basis of Eq. (4)
2

The product
ab2= (-2 +2d) (-
2—d )2=—
8 +2d2 (d-1)
3 3 27
is maximum, as follows from Eq. (8), when d=0. Hence,
2
and cos a= 11-3
3
The maximum intensity of the field will be observed at points at a di-
stance of r= R from the centre of the ring. This intensity is equal to
2
E max =
2- r5
9 R2
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 299

408.
211 2n
EB=7 (Qi — Q2), Ec=7,-
4(C21-1-Q2)
23-c
EA= — —A(Q1+Q2)

The intensity is positive if it is directed from the left to the right.

409. The charges induced on the surfaces of the other plate are +--Q f-

and — Q. Only in this case will the electric field inside the plate be zero,
2
as it should be when the charges are in equilibrium.
410. The molecule will be attracted to the charged cylinder. The force of
attraction is
F-=2q4 ( 1 1 — 27121
r+1 r(r+1)
In this expression we can neglect the quantity 1 (1 10-8cm) as compared
with r (r cannot be smaller than the cylinder radius).
We finally obtain
2q Q1
F=
r2
411. At the initial moment the forces acting on both molecules are iden-
tical. When the molecules approach the cylinder, the force Flacting on the
molecule with a constant electric moment grows in proportion to 1/r2:
2qQ1
F1 — r2

(see Problem 410). The force F2 that acts on the "elastic" molecule grows
faster, in proportion to 1/0, owing to the continuous increase in the electric
4,2n2
moment of this molecule (F2 —=-).
kr 3
The masses of the molecules are the same, and for this reason the acce-
leration of the second molecule when it approaches the cylinder grows faster
than that of the first one and it will reach the surface of the cylinder
quicker.
412. Since the thickness of the plate is small it may be assumed that
the charge is uniformly distributed on both surfaces, each having an area ab.
Thus, the surface density of the charge o- =— Q The field inside the metal
201 .
is zero, and the intensity outside the metal is
Q 22-EQ
E= 411 =
2ab ab

413. The negative charges induced on the surface of a conductor are so

distributed that the field inside the conductor resulting from a positive point
charge and induced negative charges is zero. (The induced positive charges
300 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 415

will move to the remote edges of the plate and their field may be neglected.)
This distribution of the induced charges does not depend on the thickness
of the plate.
Let us place a charge —Q on the left of the plate and at the same
distance d. Obviously, the induced positive charges will be distributed on
the left side of the plate in the same manner as the negative charges on
the right side. The charge —Q placed on the left of the plate will not
cause a change in the electric field at the right of the plate. Thus, at the
right of the plate, the electric field induced by the charge +Q and the
induced negative charges coincides with the field produced by the charges
+Q and — Q and the charges induced on the surfaces of the plate (Fig. 414).
If the thickness of the plate is small as compared with d, the plate
may be regarded as infinitely thin and hence the field created by the induced
charges outside the plate is zero.
It has been shown that the field on the right of the plate produced by
the charge +Q and the induced negative charges is equal to the field
caused by the point charges +Q and —Q.
Since the intensity of the field caused by the induced negative charges
at the point where the charge +Q is equals the intensity of the field caused
by the point charge —Q at a distance of 2d from + Q, the sought force
of attraction will be F=- 0
rd2 •
414. Since a and b are much greater than c and d, it can be assumed
that the plate is infinitely large. Remembering that the intensity of a field
caused by several charges is equal to the sum of the intensities produced by
each of these charges, and using the results of the solutions of Problems
412 and 413, we can obtain the sought force:
21tQQ, Qt
F=
ab 4d2

The plus sign corresponds to the force of repulsion and the minus sign to
the force of attraction.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 301

The positively charged plate will attract the positive point charge if
(2? 2aQQ,
4d2 > ab
or
Q1 8nQ
d2 > ab
415. The maximum charge that can be imparted to the sphere is deter-
mined by the equation
E0= Rz
The potential will be V=-77 =-E0 R--=30,000RV if the radius of the sphere
is in centimetres.
416. If the charged body is placed into the centre of the sphere, an
additional charge —q uniformly distributed over the surface will obviously
appear on the external surface of the sphere, and a charge q on its
internal surface. The potential VR at a distance of R from the centre of the
sphere will be
Q—9
VR__
When the body moves inside the sphere, the outside field will not change.
Therefore, the potential will be VR at any position of the charged body in
the sphere.
417. The housing and the rod connected by the conductor will have equal
potentials. For this reason the leaves will not deflect.
After the conductor is removed and the rod is earthed, both leaves will
deflect. This is the result of a potential difference appearing between the
rod and the housing, since the work of the electrostatic field is zero when
the charge moves along a closed path ABCDEFA shown by the dotted line
in Fig. 415. The work on section AC is zero, and the work on section AB
is equal to that on BC taken with the reverse sign. The potential difference
between the earth and the housing is equal to that between the housing
and the rod.
418. When the housing of the electrometer is given, for instance, a positive
charge, electrostatic induction will charge the ball of the electrometer rod
positively and the end of the rod negatively. A potential difference will
appear between the housing and the rod, and for this reason both leaves
will deflect. The potentials of the housing and the rod are positive with
respect to the earth, the potential of the housing being higher (that of the
earth may be considered as zero).
When the rod is connected to the earth, the potential difference between
the rod and the housing will increase, as can be proved by the method
used in Problem 417. Therefore, the angle of deflection of the leaves will
be greater.
419. The electrometer measures the potential difference between the given
body and the earth. Since the surface of the wire is equipotential, the leaves
will deflect in the first case through the same angle with the ball in any
position (if the capacitance of the wire is negligibly small).
302 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

In the second case the deflection of the leaves is determined by the

potential of the ball with respect to the earth at the moment when the ball
is brought in contact with the electrometer. This potential depends on the
charge of the ball, its dimensions and the arrangement of the surrounding
objects. With a constant arrangement of the objects, the potential changes
only when the charge of the ball changes. When the ball touches the bucket,
the former acquires the potential of the latter, but the charge of the ball
will depend on the section of the surface being touched. If the internal
surface of the bucket is touched, the charge of the ball will be zero, and
if the external surface is touched, the charge will obviously be other
than zero.
As the charge is transferred by the ball, its potential continuously changes,
since its position with respect to the surrounding objects also changes. As
a result, this method can be used to measure the distribution of the charge
on the surface of the metal, but not its potential.
420. The answer follows from the solution of Problem 419.
In the second case the potential of the ball and the readings of the
electrometer are determined by the magnitude of the charge carried by the
ball from the surface of the wire being investigated. Upon contact with the
wire, the potential of the ball is the same irrespective of the point of contact.
The capacitance of the ball, however, depends on the shape of the section
of the surface (particularly, on its curvature) which the ball is brought in
contact with. Correspondingly, the charge transferred to the ball is also
determined by the curvature of the section of contact.
421. The potential of all the points of the sphere is the same. To solve
the problem it is sufficient to find the potential of only one point. It is
easiest to find the potential of the centre of the sphere. It is equal to the
potential created at the centre of the sphere by a point charge U=12- - plus
the potential created by the charges appearing at the surface of the sphere
owing to electrostatic induction. The latter potential, however, is equal to
zero, since the total charge on the sphere is zero and all the elements of
the charge are at equal distances from the centre.
Therefore, the potential of the sphere U=.--d-
422. The energy of the charged sphere is equal to the work that can be
performed by the charges on the sphere if they leave it and move away
over an infinitely great distance.
Let the charges flow off the sphere gradually. Then, as it moves to
infinity, the first charge + q1 (q1 <Q) will perform work equal to mpi,
where =— Q is the initial potential of the sphere. The following
C R
charges will perform less work, because the sphere gradually loses its charge
and its potential decreases. The work of the last charge gran ,----0, since the
potential of an uncharged sphere is zero. The average potential of the sphere
is Cp=^—p . Upon multiplying it by the initial charge, we obtain the energy
of a charged sphere:
Q'
We== (29) = 2—R-
(This energy in known as the intrinsic energy.)
ELECTRICITY AND MAiNETISM 303

The same result can be obtained if we use a diagram showing the change
in the potential of the sphere as the charge decreases. The diagram will
have the form of a straight line passing at an angle to the axis of the
charges, and the work will be numerically equal to the area limited by the
diagram and the axes.
Q2 RU2
423. The energy of the charged sphere We =-- =--- , where R is the
2R 2
radius of the sphere and U its potential (see Problem 422).
Upon a discharge this energy will be liberated as heat. Expressing the
energy in calories, we obtain We =0.13 cal.
424. The potential difference between the balls should bee. Therefore,
Qi
r1
— —
Q2
r2
=e, where Q1and Q2are the charges of the balls. According to
the law of conservation of charge, Q1+ Q2= 0.
Hence,
Q — Q 2 =r fr±rr:

According to Coulomb's law,

F= e rM
2 a-- 0 0044 dyne
R2 (r +r2)2
425. Let the initial charges of the balls be q1and q2. Then the work
Ii? = T, where 1 is the distance between the balls. After the balls are

connected, their charges become identical: q= 91 + 92 and the work

2
W = (n
71 I 72)2
is obvious that W2 > W1. Besides, the heat Q is libe-
4/
rated in the conductor.
According to the law of conservation of energy, however, the total amount
of energy in the balls should be the same in both cases. Since the work W1
and, correspondingly, W2, is the potential energy of the second ball in the
field of the first one in the first and second cases, then
W1+Wei=W2+Q+We2
2
q2
where Wei =- — +— is the intrinsic energy of the balls before connection
2r 2r
,2
and W„=2 + is the intrinsic energy of the balls after the charges are
2 r ' 2r
redistributed (see Problem 422).
The energy liberated as heat is

Q =wel W e2+ W 1 W 2 — (q1 —4 q2)2 (1

r 1 )
1
426. Assume that the radius of the envelope increases by 6, which may
be an infinitely small quantity. The expanding force will perform the work
W-=41tR2f6, where f is the force per unit of area. This work is done at the
expense of a reduction in the electrostatic energy. First the electrostatic
304 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

2 Q2
energy is -b-z, and after expansion
2(R+6) •
The change in the energy
Q2 Q2 Q2 6
2R 2 (R+6) — 2R (R +6)
is equal to the work W, i. e.,

4rER2/6=
2R R+8)
(

Taking into account the fact that 6 can be

infinitely small, we obtain the following expres-
sion for the force:
Fig. 416 t_ Q2 4=2na2
T— 8nR

Here, a= is the density of the electricity, i.e., the charge per unit
4aR2
of area.
The sought force can also be found directly. Let us consider a small area
a on the sphere (Fig. 416).
Let us find the intensity E, of the electric field created on the area being
considered by all the charges except the ones on the area itself. To intro-
duce definiteness, let us consider the case when the sphere carries a positive
charge.
Let us denote by E2 the intensity of the electric field created by the
charges on the area itself. Since the resulting intensity is zero inside the
sphere, then E1=E2.
The resulting intensity on the sphere Ei+E2=— Q ' and, therefore,
R2
R
2E1 = ----4rca. Hence, E1=2na.
To find the force that acts from all the charges outside the area on the
charges on the area, the intensity E1should be multiplied by the magnitude
of the electric charge of the area cr a:
F --=Eicra=2ncr2a
The force per unit of envelope area will be f=2rta2.
427. For the charge q to be in equilibrium, the charges Q should be
—

at equal distances a from it (Fig. 417). The sum of the forces acting on the
charge —Q is also zero:
Q2 Qg—0
4a2 a2

Hence, q=.--4- . The distance a may have any value. Equilibrium is un

stable since when the charge —Q is shifted along 001to the left over a
distance x, the force of attraction
Q2
Fq 4 (a+ x)2
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 305

acting from the side of the charge q is less than the force of repulsion
Q2
F —
Q (2a+ x)2
and the charge —Q moves still farther from the position of equilibrium.
When the charge —Q is shifted along 001over a distance x towards the
charge q, then Fq > FQ for x < a, and the system does not return to the
position of equilibrium.
As can easily be seen, equilibrium is also violated by arbitrary motion
of the charge q.
The potential energy of the charge —Q in the field of the other two
charges is

C
We1=--(2 y a+ y
Q2 3y—a
4 y (a +y)
where y is the distance between the charge q and one of the charges —Q.
When 0<y < oo, the relation between W ei and y is shown by curve ABC
for one charge and curve DEF for the other (Fig. 417).
When the charges —Q are stationary, the energy of the charge q is
-QQ ) Q2 a
W e2=q (a—z — a+z J = 2 a2 +z2
where z is the displacement of the charge q from the position of equilibrium.
When z changes from 0 to a, the energy changes according to curve MNP
(Fig. 417).
It is interesting to note that the maxima of all the three potential curves
correspond to the position of the charges in equilibrium. It is for this reason
that equilibrium is not stable.
428. The work performed by the field of induced negative charges when
the charge +q moves is equal to the work done by the field of the charge
—q (see Problem 413). The work performed during the motion of both +q
n2
and —q is Hence, the sought kinetic energy of the charge, equal to
2d
the work of motion of only one charge, will be

Fig. 417
306 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

+ + +

•8

0 ' C"
Fig. 418 Fig. 419

429. Let us first prove that the intensity of the electric field at all points
in the plane of section 00' is directed perpendicular to this plane.
Let us take an arbitrary point in the plane of the section and two small
areas arranged arbitrarily but symmetrically on the cylinder with respect to
section 00'. It is easy to see that the resulting intensity of the field induced
by the charges on these areas will be directed along the axis of the cylin-
der (Fig. 418). Since another element arranged symmetrically with respect
to the plane of the section can be found for each element, it follows that
the intensity produced by all the elements will be parallel to the axis of
the cylinder.
Let us now prove that the intensity will be the same at all points equi-
distant from the axis of the cylinder.
Let A and B be two such points (Fig. 419). The intensity of the field
inside the cylinder will not change if, apart from the available charge, each
square centimetre of the cylinder surface receives the same additional nega-
tive charge so that the density of the charges at point C is zero. This is
obvious from the fact that the field inside an infinite uniformly charged
cylinder is zero.
In this case the densities of the charges will be distributed on the cylin-
der surface as shown in Fig. 152. Therefore, the intensities at points A and
B are the same.
It now remains to prove that the intensities of the fields at points at
different distances from the axis of the cylinder are identical.
For this purpose let us consider circuit BKLD (Fig. 420). With an electro-
static field the work in a closed circuit is known to be zero. The work is
zero on sections KL and DB because the intensity of the field is perpendi-
cular to the path. The work on section BK is —EBI and on section LD it
is E D/ (as proved above, EB =EK , and ED---=E L ).
Hence, —E B /4-E D /=0, i. e., E B
It has thus been proved that the intensity of the electric field at all
points inside the cylinder will be the same everywhere and directed along
the axis of the cylinder. It should be noted that such an arrangement of the
charge on the surface of a conductor appears when direct current passes
through it.
430. The concept of capacitance can be used because the ratio between
the charge imparted to a conductor and the increment of the potential indu-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 307

ced by this charge does not depend

on the magnitude of the charge. In
the same way, the ratio between
= the quantity of liquid poured into
A a vessel and the increase of the
level in it should be a constant
quantity. This will be true for any
27 L vessel with a constant cross section.
431. It is impossible to calcu-
0' late accurately the capacitance of
a human body because it is extre-
Fig. 420 mely complicated in form. But the
capacitance can be estimated in the
order of its magnitude.
Let us find the capacitance of the body if it is shaped as a sphere. It
should be expected that this assumption will give the approximate va-
lue of the capacitance. Since the mean specific weight of a human body
y = 1 gf/cm3, the radius of a sphere whose weight is equal to that of a body
can be found from the equation
4
rcR37=60,000 gf
3

Hence, bearing in mind that the capacitance of the sphere is equal to its
radius, we find that

C= 3 73x6x
4rt
104 '"=" 25 cm

Measurements give a close value: C ==. 30 cm.

432. The electrometer will show the e. m. f. of the galvanic cell irrespec-
tive of the capacitance.
433. (1) U----4Ead=8.4X 104 V.
(2) A voltage of U,,---Ead=2.1x 104V can be supplied to each "air" ca-
pacitor.
AU t
The charge on the capacitor will be Q =C11/1= 41cd . Upon series con-
nection, the charge of all the capacitors is the same. Therefore, the voltage
Q
on the capacitor with glass will be U2= . The entire battery may
C2 Ur e
thus receive not more than U=3U1 +U2= 6.6x 104 V.
If the voltage exceeds 6.6x 104V, all four capacitors will be punctured.
The capacitor with the glass dielectric will be punctured last.
434. When a charge moves in a closed circuit, the work of the forces of
an electrostatic field is zero. Therefore

The charges on the capacitors are the same, since the sum of the charges
present on the upper and the lower conductors is zero. Hence, Q=ClU i
C2 U2.
308 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

U +I- +II-
I Fig. 421

Therefore,
U
1 CI
C
C2 (el + 17.5 kV
CI
2 = C C2 (el +1
7.5 kV

435. Let the potential difference across the battery terminals be U and
the charge of the battery Q. To find the capacitance of the battery means
to find the capacitance of a capacitor which would have the same charge
Q on its plates as the battery at the voltage U. Hence,

C0-u
-
where
Q=q1±q2 1 q 4=_q 4 ±q5+q6
--

(Fig. 421) and U= U 4=qe- . In a closed circuit the work of the forces of
an electrostatic field is zero. Therefore,

ql q2 -
q3 = 0 (12 - q4 q5 0
C C
and

gC11
C —°
Besides, the conductor that connects the second, third and fifth capacitors
is electrically neutral. Hence,
go+ go —go=0
Upon solving these equations, we obtain

91= 92=95=96= 2
4 and 93 =0
,

Therefore, Co =2C.
436. Let the battery of capacitors
be charged. Points 1, 2 and 3 will
have the same potential and they can
be connected to one another. Points
Fig. 422 4, 5 and 6 can also be interconnec-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 309

ted (Fig. 155). The result will be the equivalent diagram shown in
Fig. 422.
The capacitance of the separate sections is 3C, 6C and 3C. The total
capacitance can be found from the formula
1=_ 2 ..1_ 1
Co 3C + 6C
Hence, Co =1.2C.
437. When the spark gaps are punctured, the parallel connection of the
capacitors automatically changes to series connection; the voltage between
the corresponding plates of the capacitors grows, since the capacitance of the
system drops.
Indeed, the high resistance of conductors AB and CD makes it possible
to neglect the currents flowing through them during the time of discharge
and consider them as insulators through which the capacitors are not discharged.
An equivalent diagram after the first spark gap is punctured is shown in
Fig. 423.
Upon puncturing of the first gap, the potential difference across the second
gap will be equal to the sum of the voltages across the first and the second
capacitors, i. e., it will double. This will cause puncturing of the second gap.
When the n-th gap is punctured, the voltage in it will reach V=nVo.
The resistances of conductors AB and CD should be high enough so as
not to allow the capacitors to be discharged through them when the gaps
are punctured with the plates connected in series.
438. Yes, it will. Each plate has a definite, usually small, capacitance
with respect to the earth (the force lines are distorted near the edges of the
plates and reach the earth).
An equivalent diagram is shown in Fig. 424. The capacitance of the plates
with respect to the earth is shown in the form of small capacitances C1and
Co.
When the left-hand plate is short-circuited, part of the charge present in
It is neutralized. This will also occur if the right-hand plate is short-circuited.
The capacitor will continue to be discharged the slower, the higher is the
capacitance of the capacitor as compared with that of the plates relative to
earth.
439. The initial state of the system is illustrated by an equivalent dia-
gram (Fig. 425a). The full charge of the capacitor is Q±q. The force lines
of the charge + Q terminate on the
other plate of the capacitor. The +
force lines of the charges +q and
—q terminate or start on the earth.
Since C -. C1=--Co, then Q q. + _
+ — _

I IS c
++

7
Fig. 423
NI ,T Ti-,7
Fig. 424
310 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

U
-41 +0-,99

C
2q'
::U=0 72,11

(0) Fig. 425

When the capacitor C2 is short-circuited, the charge —q is neutralized.

The potential difference between the plates of the capacitor C should remain
approximately equal to U, since q < Q. The work required to move the charge
along the circuit ABCDA is zero. Therefore, the voltage across the capaci-
tor C1should become equal to U and the charges on it to +2q and
—2q. The charges on the plates of the capacitor C will be +Q —q and
—Q +q, respectively (Fig. 4256).
When the capacitor C is disconnected from the earth, the distribution of
the charges and, hence, of the potentials will not change.
If the capacitor C1is shorted, the charges will be redistributed as shown
in Fig. 425c. It is only in this case that the required potentials relative to
the earth will be obtained: zero on the left plate and U on the right
one. When the plates are earthed alternately, the potential difference between
the plates will gradually drop because the charge decreases.
440. No, they will not. When the plates are alternately earthed the same
processes will take place as in the absence of the battery (see Problem 439).
The only difference is that the potential difference between the plates is
always kept constant.
441. The total energy of the two capacitors before connection is
1
Weo==- 2 (CM ±C2UZ)
and after connection
1 Q2 1 (CIPI C2U2r
We_ 2 Ci +C2 2 C, +C2
It is easy to see that Weo > We. The difference in the energies is
C,C2
We0 — We= (U2 + U:-2U,U2) > 0
Ci+ C2
When U1, -- U2, we have Weo —We.- 0, and when C1=C2 and U2 =0, then
We0 == 2We•
The electrostatic energy diminishes because when the capacitors are con-
nected by conductors, the charges flow from one capacitor to the other. Heat
is liberated in the connecting conductors. The quantity of heat evolved will
not depend on the resistance of the conductors. When the resistance is low,
the conductors will allow greater currents to flow through them, and vice
versa.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 311

442. Since the dielectric is polarized, the intensity will increase at points A
and C and decrease at point B.
23-a2
443. E= =50.2 CGSE.
er A
444. The capacitances and, therefore, the charges of the balls immersed in
kerosene increase e,. times:
and q2=6,.q 2
The force of interaction of the charges in the dielectric, on the contrary,
diminishes Er times.
Hence,
F= " — erc iq =842411 =0.0088 dyne
8,R2 R2 R2(ri --1-r2)2
The force of interaction increases e,. times, while if the balls were discon-
nected from the battery it would decrease er times.
445. As a result of motion of the plates, the charge on the capacitor will
be increased by
AQ=Q2 — Q1=V
7t (7;
1 —T
1 )
w =6AQ (cli2
The battery will perform the work
di
The electrostatic energy of the capacitor will be increased by

AW e =IV e2 —Wel r---c22_t91

2 —682aA T
(c1 —T
1 )

The mechanical work W 1was performed when the plates were moved closer
to each other. On the basis of the law of conservation of energy, W= W I + AWe.
Therefore,
S2 A (1 1
W i =W—AW
e 8n d2 d 1)
At the expense of the work of the battery, the electrostatic energy of the
capacitor increased and the mechanical work W1was done.
446. Let us consider for the sake of simplicity a dielectric in the form of
a homogeneous very elongated parallelepiped (Fig. 426).
Let us resolve the field Ea in which the piece of dielectric (for example,
a rod) is placed into components directed along the rod and perpendicular
to it. These components will cause bound charges to appear on surfaces AB,
CD, BC and AD. The field of the bound charges between surfaces AD, BC,
and AB, DC weakens the components of the field E0 inside the dielectric,
the component perpendicular to the rod being weakened more since the bound
charges on surfaces AD and BC are close to each other and their field is
similar to the homogeneous field of a plane capacitor, while the charges on
the surfaces of the small area are moved far apart. For this reason the full
field inside the dielectric will not coincide in direction with the field Eo.
The dipoles appearing will therefore be oriented not along B0, but along a
certain direction OP forming the angle p with E.(This refers to both ordi-
nary and dipole molecules.) From an electrical standpoint, a polarized dielect-
ric can be regarded as a large dipole forming the angle p with the field Ea .
312 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

C Fig. 426

The dielectric will rotate in this field until it occupies a position along the
field. The field of the bound charges is an internal force and cannot cause
rotation of the dielectric.
447. (a) The capacitance of the capacitor will be equal to that of capaci-
tors connected in parallel, one of which is filled with a dielectric, and the
other not, i. e.,
8,Ali A (l—ll)A
C
4ndl 43-01 = 41(d 1+ (Er —1) 111 }
(b) The electric field between the plates of the capacitor will not change,
and, consequently, the capacitance will not change if the upper surface of
the dielectric is coated with an infinitely thin layer of a conductor. Therefore,
the sought capacitance will be equal to the capacitance of two capacitors
connected in series:
CoC E A
where Co— A__ and C
Co -FC1 ' 4n (d di) 1 43-idi •
C— erA
Hence, 43-( {di-1- sr (d—di)}
448. To simplify reasoning, assume that two parallel metallic plates car-
rying the charges Q and —Q are placed into a liquid dielectric. The in-
E=
tensity of the electric field between the plates is E=— . The intensity of
E
the field induced by each plate will be
2nQ
El = E 2
ErA
Let us find the force acting, for example, from the side of the first plate
on the second. For this purpose the intensity of the field induced by the
first plate should be multiplied by the charge on the second one. Thus,
231(2 2
F
Er A
Let us assume that the first plate is fixed and the second can slowly move
(we disregard the change in the mechanical energy of the dielectric). The
work that the electric field can perform in moving the plates up to direct
contact is equal to the product of the force F (constant) by the distance d,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 313

, 231Q2d
W
er A
This work is done at the expense
of a reduction in the electric ener-
gy of the capacitor. Thus, the elect-
rostatic energy will be equal to
2aQ2d Q2 r w
We
= e = 2C ° e=Q2
where U is the potential difference.
The above formula is true for any
dielectric.
449. The intensity of the field
inside the space consists of E and
Fig. 427 the intensity induced by the charges
that appear on the surfaces of the
space owing to polarization of the dielectric (Fig. 427). In the first case the
influence of the polarizing charges is negligibly small, and E1=E. In the
second case the action of the charges exerted on the surfaces of the space is
fully compensated by the action of the charges on the surfaces of the dielect-
ric adjoining the metal plates of the capacitor. For this reason the sought
intensity is equal to that which would be induced if the dielectric were re-
moved altogether, i. e.,
E2=erE
450. If the dielectric is drawn into the capacitor over the distance x, the
energy of the capacitor will be
w Q 2 AU2 1
e1— 2C = 8td
1 + (et— 1) -zr

x A
since C---= 1 ± (et—1) —} and 0 U (see Problem 447).
44d / - = 4J-cd
If x is increased by 6, the energy will be reduced and become equal to
AU 2 1
Wee— 8ad x+ 6
I + (sr — 1) /
The difference between the energies
(et—1) T
AU 2
W W e2 gad { +(sr X (5 x
1 + (Er— I ) T

will be equal to the work of the sought force F over the path S. Generally
speaking, the magnitude of the force will change over this path, but if a
314 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

sufficiently small value of 6 is taken we can write

Wei — Wez =-F6
It follows therefore that
AU 2 c,.-1
F= 83-Ed1
1 ±(8r —1) T
x
if 6 is neglected in the denominator.
It should be noted that if when calculating the energy we assumed that
the field inside the capacitor was homogeneous and neglected the boundary
effects, it is necessary to take into account the heterogeneity of the field near
the edges to explain the action of the force acting on the dielectric from the
physical viewpoint.
451. When the dielectric is drawn over the distance x into the capacitor,
the energy of the latter will be
1 1 A
Wei=
T U2C =7 U2 ,
tor.ci (8r — 1) +}
If x increases by 6, the energy of the capacitor will increase by
U 2A , „ 6
We2 — Wei= td 1.8r

When the dielectric moves over the distance 6, the charge on the plates
of the capacitor will increase by
UA 6
Q2— Q1— 4n d "

The work performed by the battery in moving such a quantity of electri-

city will be equal to
2A „6
W=(‘22— Q1) v,= 4Jic/ ker— "T
Some of this work is spent to increase the electrostatic energy of the capa-
citor and some to pull in the dielectric. Let us denote, as in the previous
problem, the force with which the dielectric is drawn into the capacitor by F.
Then, on the basis of the law of conservation of energy, we have: W = Wez-
- Wei ±FO, i.e.,
U 2A „ 6 U2A „6,
8 — 1) — = — 1) r
4TEd ( 8d
n r I
Therefore,
U 2A
F =-(s -1)
8ndl r
As can be seen, in this case the force is constant and does not depend on x.
452. Apart from the weight directed downward, the kerosene is acted upon
by electrostatic forces directed upward. All the forces are applied to all the
elements of the liquid volume. As a result, the hydrostatic pressure in the
kerosene will decrease as if its specific weight were reduced. For this reason,
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 315

the lifting force acting on the balls in the left-hand part will be the same
as in the right-hand one despite the fact that the left-hand part contains
more balls.
453. The intensity of the field in the dielectric will be
U Q 431Q -431
E = d Cd — Er A er

where Go = .

This intensity is created by the free charges on the plates of the capacitor,
and by the bound charges induced owing to polarization of the dielectric.
The bound charges are on the surface of the dielectric. Let us denote the
density of these charges by of (Fig. 428). The intensity of the field created
by the free charges is E0 =-43na0, and that of the field created by the bound
charges is E1=4na1.
43-too
Thus the resulting intensity E =--E0 —Ei=431(cro— ai) =--
Er
This equation can be used to find al=Sr ao.
8,. 1
To determine the force acting, for example, on the upper surface of the
dielectric, it is necessary to calculate the intensity of the field on this surface
created by all the charges except for the charges on the surface itself. This
intensity will be equal to
Ei
E0 -- -----431130-2510).=251Go gr + 1
2 er
The force acting on the upper surface of the dielectric will be directed upwards
and be equal to
F =_.2nao Er +1 sr-1 0.0A
Er sr
An identical force will act on the lower surface of the dielectric.
Thus, the dielectric will be stretched and a unit of area of the dielectric
will be acted upon by a force equal to

f 2ac r 02 4—1

454. Since the action of the field causes complete orientation of the mole-
cules, the ends of the "dumb-bells" with negative electric charges will be in

6,
Go
Fig. 429
316 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

a layer with a thickness 1 near the positively charged plate, and the ends
of the "dumb-bells" with a positive electric charge near the negatively char-
ged plate (Fig. 429).
The quantity of negative and positive charges is the same at a distance
greater than 1 from the plates inside the dielectric.
The intensity of the field inside the dielectric produced by the charges in
layers A and B is E.,-.=4acr1=43-cQ1n and the total intensity is E=E0
E1=E0 -4aQIn.
It should be noted, however, that the orienting action of the field will
always be hampered by the disorienting thermal motion, which is not taken
into account in the calculations.
455. Let us denote the sought full intensity of the field in the dielectric
by E. The distance 1 over which the charges moved apart in each molecule
can be found from the expression kl=qE. As in solving Problem 454, we
obtain
El=4acci =4aQ/n= 4ri kn E

and
2n
E=E0 —E1=E0-4m E

The permittivity e, can be determined from the ratio E=

Hence, Sr-= 1+41c n.

456. When the charges +Q and —Q move apart in the molecule over
2
the distance 1, the work is performed (see Problem 137).
The energy stored in the dielectric is

Wet=k N

where N=ALn=Vn is the number of molecules in the volume V of the die-

lectric located between the plates of the capacitor. Thus,
2 ,
Wei=n — v

QE Q 2E 2
Since 1-==- T ,then Wei-=n
2k " •
nQ2
By expressing -7— through e„, i.e., er-1_nQ2 we obtain for Wei
4xc k
8 1
Wei = 8n E2V

The total energy of the capacitor is

Q 2 8r F v
We = 2C 8a -2.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 317

This energy W e can be represented as the sum of purely electrostatic

energy
E2
W
and the energy stored in the dielectric
Er -
Wet= 83.t E2V

3-2. Direct Current

457. When a direct current flows along a conductor, the electric field inside
it is constant and directed along it. If the charge moves in a closed circuit abcd
(Fig. 430) the work of the electric field is zero. Let us assume the sections
ad and be to be infinitely small so that the work done on them may be
neglected. Therefore, the work along ab is equal to that along dc. For this
reason the tangential component of the field near the surface of the conductor
should be equal to the field inside it.
458. The arrangement of the force lines is shown in Fig. 431. The increase
in the slope of the line near the bend can be explained by the fact that the
tangential component of the field at the surface of the conductor with an
invariable cross section is constant (see Problem 457), while the normal com-
ponent decreases towards the curvature since the potential difference between
the corresponding sections lying on the opposite sides of the arc diminishes.
459. By applying Ohm's law to section AB of the circuit, we have

=+ 1
V r R
Hence,
V 1 V (1 _ V
, V I R/
1R
V
since m =0.008 1; finally r=20.16 Q.
460. A reduction in the sensitivity n times means that the galvanometer
carries a current which is n times smaller than the current in the rest of

Fig. 430 Fig. 431

318 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

the circuit before the branching off. Therefore, the current / 2 through the
shunt is n —1 of the current / in the rest of the circuit. Hence,
r 1 1
R 12 — n -1
Therefore, r =
R 204 S2.
n 1
VV
461. The error sought is —V V , where Vo is the voltage across the
o
resistance R before the voltmeter is switched on and V the voltage after it
is switched on.
According to Ohm's law, Vo = /R and V=1 R R° , where Ro is the re-
R +R0
sistance of the voltmeter. Hence,
RIR°
Ro
is determined only by the ratio between the resistances of the section of the
circuit and the voltmeter. When Ro R, the error may be neglected.
V
462. Before the ammeter is connected, /0= and after It is connected
V
I— where Rois the resistance of the ammeter. The error is
R±Ro'
/0 --/ 1
8=
/0 R
R0
When Ro <R the error may be neglected.
463. In series connection, the resistance of the circuit is
R= Ro1+ R02+ chRoit alRort
On the other hand we can write R =Ro(1 + a't), where R0=Roi Ro2 and
a' is the sought temperature coefficient. Therefore,
_--Rnai. Roza2
R01+ RO2
In parallel connection
R = RoiRoz (1 + ccit) (1+ ct21) o
(I c t)
Rol(i±a11)+Ro2 (1+ a2t) = R 0
-

where
R„,=, RoiR02
R01+ RO2
Omitting the terms proportional to the products of the temperature coeffl-
cierffs as being small, we obtain
a,,=
RO2CC1 R 01%
Ro2
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 319

Fig. 432 Fig. 433

464. Points A and C have the same potentials because they are connected
by a wire whose resistance can be neglected. The potentials of points B and
D are also identical. For this reason the ends of resistors A, C and, corres-
pondingly, B, D can be assumed as connected together. Thus, resistors AB,
CB and CD are connected in parallel. The equivalent diagram is shown in
Fig. 432.
The total resistance is R/3.
465. Owing to symmetry, it is obvious that the current in conductor 1-7
is equal to that in 7-4, the current 2-7 is equal to 7-3, and the current
6-7 to 7-5 (see Fig. 165). For this reason the distribution of the currents
and, hence, the resistance of the hexagon will not change if conductors 2-7,
7-3, 6-7 and 5-7 are disconnected from the centre (Fig. 433). It is easy
to calculate the resistance of this circuit, which is equivalent to the initial
one. The resistance of the upper and lower parts is 8R/3.
The total resistance R., can be found from the relation
11 6
— ==2R +8R
R,
4
Hence, R X =T R.
466. Owing to symmetry, it Is obvious that the potentials of the cube
vertices 2, 3 and 6 are the same, as are those of vertices 4, 5 and 7 (see
Fig. 166).
Therefore, vertices 2, 3, 6 and 4, 5, 7 can be connected by conductors
without resistance, i.e., by bus-bars. This will not change the resistance of
the cube. The bus-bars will thus be connected by six conductors 2-7, 2-4,
3-5, 3-4, 6-7 and 6-5. The resistance of the circuit (Fig. 434) is equal
to the sought resistance of the cube:
R ,
Rx= —
3 1- ' -r - =6 R
467. The resistance of section CD is equal to RCD= 17R7-
2r
0.-40 52, and

that of the entire circuit is RAB=-R

-1-4- R
-CD==1010R:.DThe current /=R 1.2 A.
AB
voltage drop across section CD is Ui =48 V.
320 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

468. The resistance between points A and B is

1 (ra + rb) rc
RAB — 2
1 ra + rb+2r,
ra + rb r,
where
a b lia2 + b2
ra = P rb=P -Ti —P A

The resistance between points C and D can be found if we consider the

currents flowing in the branches of the circuit (see Fig. 435). It is obvious
from considerations of symmetry that the currents in conductors DB and AC,
and also in AD and BC, are mutually equal, the current in AD being equal
to i, i 2, since the sum of the currents at junction A is equal to zero.
On section DAC
01+ r a + ii rb=17 - DC
and on section DABC
2 (i,±i2)ra+ i2rc = UDC
Hence,
r a-F re
tl
2ra rb -I-rare + rbr UDC
rb — r a
i 2 = 2ra
rb+ rar c + rbrc UDC

The sought resistance is

2r arb+ ra (ra+ rb)
RCD-= U CD
—•
U CD
•=
21'2
1+1 r a + rb+2r,

469. If no current flows through the galvanometer, the potentials of points

C and D are the same and the current passing through the resistance Rx
is equal to the current flowing through the resistance R0, while the current
12 along slide wire AB is the same in all the cross sections.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 321

R R C

R
Fig. 436 Fig. 437

According to Ohm's law,

/1R, = 1211 and /1Ro = / 2/2 4.

where p is the resistivity and A is the cross section of the slide wire.

Therefore, R
T,h ' =
Eke /2
470. Such a resistance r should be connected between points C and D that
the resistance of the last cell (Fig. 436) is also r. In this case the last cell
can be replaced by the resistance r, then the same can be done with the next
to last cell, etc. Now the total resistance of the circuit will not depend on
the number of cells and will be equal to r.
The following equation can be written for r:
(2R+ r) R
3R + r =r
Hence, r = R (113-1) = 0.73R.
471. The last cell is a voltage divider that reduces the potential of the n-th
point k times as compared with the (n —1)th point. Hence, Un=
Un 1 D tin RI
= -
R 3 =— , or —=K — (see Fig. 437).
Ri+ R3 k R3
Ui_ 1
The relation U1= be true for any cell. For this reason the
resistance of the last cell, of the last two, of the last three, etc., cells should
also be R3 (see Problem 470). Therefore,
1 1 1
R3 R2 RI + R3

R2 = R3 (R1+ R3)= R3 k
R1
and finally
R1: R2: R3 =(k —1)2 : k:(le —1)
472. Devices whose action is based, for example, on the deflection of a
current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field cannot be used. The angle
11-1865
322 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

through which the pointer is deflected in such a device is proportional to the

current flowing through it. Determination of the potential difference with the
aid of this kind of devices is based on Ohm's law: the current flowing through
a voltmeter is proportional to the potential difference applied to it. To verify
Ohm's law, an electrostatic voltmeter and an ordinary ammeter are required.
473. Let us denote the charges on the first and second capacitors at the
moment of time t by q1and q2. The latter are related by the expressions

qi + q2=Q and q2
— C2
Since
A A
C1 — and C2=
4a (do vt) 41t (do—vt)
then
q1 do —vt
q2 do+vt
and it therefore follows that
do—vt do-Fvt
and g' 2 —'4 2d,
ql— 2d,
The reduction in the charge on the first capacitor is equal to the increase
of the charge on the second capacitor. The current intensity is
Aqi Aq2 Qv
I=
At = =
The current will flow from the positively charged plate of the first capacitor
to the positively charged plate of the second capacitor.
474. The forces of attraction acting between the plates of the capacitors
are equal, respectively, to
9, qi TE Q 2 (do —V02
F1=-- A 11= 2 A do
for the first capacitor and to
F Q 2 (do + vt)2
2= 2 A dg
for the second capacitor (see Problem 473).
Since the plates of the first capacitor move apart, the forces of the electro-
static field perform the negative work W 1. These forces perform the positive
work W2 in the second capacitor. The work AW done by the field when each
plate moves over a small distance Ax is
231Q 2 x
AW=AW i +AW2 =--(F2 —Fi)Ax,---- Ax
A d,
where x=vt.
Thus the work performed on a small section is proportional to the displa-
cement x, as when a spring is stretched. Therefore, the total work can be found
with the aid of the method employed in solving Problem 137:
j-,(22a2
W
Adg
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 323

The work W can also be calculated

by another method. Since the resistance
of the connecting wires is zero, the
quantity of heat liberated is also zero.
For this reason the change in the elect-
rostatic energies of the two capacitors
will be equal to the work of the elect-
rostatic field.
At the moment of time t, the ener-
gies of the first and the second capaci-
tors will be
2
91 a Q2
W e = 2C = 2 — (c10 -01)2(do ± vt)
– Ad:
and
2
Fig. 438 q2 21 Q2 + V02 (do — 00
Wee=
We2 = 2C2 Ad20
The total energy

We = Wel ± W e2 = Ado (dO — a2)

3-EQ2
Therefore, the energy will drop by a2 during the time t. This
Ado
change wi 11 be equal to the work W of the electrostatic field.
475. Rubbing of the clothes against the chair produces electrification, and
the body of the experimenter and the chair form a sort of capacitor. When
the experimenter stands up, the capacitance of this capacitor sharply decreases,
and therefore the potential difference sharply increases between the chair
(i. e., "earth") and the experimenter's body. The body should obviously be
well insulated from the earth (rubber soles).
When the experimenter touches the table, the potential difference between
his hand and the earth levels out. An electric current is generated, a negli-
gible part of which is branched off into the galvanometer. To deflect the
pointer, the resistance between one end of the galvanometer coil and the
earth should be lower than that between the other end and the earth.
The path of the current is shown schematically in Fig. 438. Here W is the
winding of the galvanometer, K is the key and R shows a very high but
finite resistance between one of the winding ends and the earth.
The pointer of the galvanometer deflects despite the tremendous resistance
of the circuit owing to the great potential difference appearing when the
capacitance is reduced.
476. There is obviously a definite asymmetry between the conductors which
the ends of the galvanometer winding are connected to. This occurs when the
resistance of the insulation between one end of the coil and the earth is less
than between the earth and the other end. It should also be taken into
account that the resistance between the conductors coming from the coil is
not infinite, despite good insulation.
The path of the current is illustrated in Fig. 439. W is the winding of the
galvanometer, C1and C2 are the conductors leading from the ends of the
11*
324 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 439

winding, E is the earth and R1, R2 and R3 show schematically very high
but finite resistances appearing because the insulation is not ideal; R3 *
R1+ R2. The dash line shows the path of the current if a negatively
charged body is brought up to C2. If the body is brought up to C1, the current
path is shown by dots. In both cases the current will flow through the win-
ding of the galvanometer in the same direction.
This problem illustrates the presence of conductivity in all bodies, which
is especially important in working with sensitive devices.
477. Point A in Fig. 440 shows the potential of the positive (copper) elec-
trode and point D that of the negative (zinc) electrode. In the ZnSO4 solu-
tion, the zinc electrode is charged negatively as a result of evolution of
positive ions of Zn, while the copper electrode in the CuSO4 solution is
charged positively since it receives positive ions of Cu. The potential of the
electrolyte is depicted by the line BC. Lines AB=e1and CD=e2show
the jumps of the potential on the electrode-electrolyte boundaries. The e.m.f.
equal to the potential difference at the ends of the opened cell is
e=ei+e2
478. When the circuit is closed, a voltage drop * occurs both on the
internal resistance of the element r and on the external resistance R of the
circuit. The magnitude of the jumps of the potential (and of the e.m.f.) does

.5 sz
B
Fig. 440 Fig. 441

* Here and below the term "voltage drop" denotes the product it, while
"voltage" is equivalent to "potential difference".
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 325

A+
(b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 442

not change. The corresponding distribution of the potential is shown in

Fig. 441. The voltage drop on the internal resistance of the element occurs
along CB and on the resistance R along AFD. The section CB' shows the
voltage drop on the internal resistance r equal to Ir and the section AL the
voltage drop on the resistance R.
Since the line depicting the potential ABCDFA is closed, the sum of the
voltage drops should be equal to the sum of the potential jumps:
e1+e2=1R+Ir
Hence, /= e
479. The potential is distributed as shown in Fig. 442a, 6, c and d.
(a) ,_e1+632 ;
ri +r, BA-V B V A-ei Iri — (e2 /r2)—eifr:+— re22.,,0
(b) /= ; V BA=, 0
ri

The potentials of the conductors connecting the elements are the same, but
the current is not zero.

(c)/=e1—e2
ri d-r2 '
vBA=_-e,
•
e,r2+632r1.
ri ±r2
(d) 1=0; V BA=63,=e2
There is a potential difference between the conductors, but no current flows
through them.
480. In sections BA and DC the chemical forces that cause reactions bet-
ween the electrodes and the electrolyte perform positive work (see Fig. 441).
This work is equal to the sum of the potential jumps on these sections, i. e.,
326 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

to the e. m. f., because in a state of equilibrium the chemical forces that act
in the layer of the electrolyte adjacent to the electrode are equal to the
electrostatic forces.
Since the forces of non-electrostatic origin do not act in the other sections
of the circuit, the work performed by these forces is also equal to the e.m.f.
of the battery when a single positive charge moves along the closed circuit.
(The work of electrostatic forces in a closed circuit is zero.)
481. An energy of W e =106,000-56,000=-50,000 calories =2X1012 ergs
is liberated per mole of the substances reacting in the cell. Owing to this
energy, the electric current performs the work w-ee, where e is the e.m.f.
of the cell and Q is the quantity of transferred electricity. Since the copper
and the zinc are bivalent, the charges of their ions are equal in magnitude
to the doubled charge of an electron. One mole of the substance contains
6.02 X 1023atoms. Therefore, Q = 2 X 4.8 X 10 –1° X 6.02 X 1023CGSQ.
Hence, e=_Q We
3.5X 10-3CGSQ =1.05 V.
482. The ratio between the intensities of the currents flowing through the
r2
cells is since the e.m.f.s of the cells are the same. According to
Ir
Faraday's 2 law,1the masses of the dissolved zinc are proportional to the
currents:

rn -=1
4- = 1.625
M2 I 2 7./
483. As it passes into solution in the form of an ion Zn+ +, each atom
of the zinc gives off to the external circuit two electrons carrying a charge
of q=2e=—3.2X10-19C. At the same time the copper ions Cu+ + are depo-
-

sited on the copper plate as neutral atoms, owing to which the concentration
of the CuSO4solution decreases. To maintain the concentration constant, it is
necessary to continually dissolve crystals of CuSO4 .5H20 in an amount that
will compensate for the passing of the ions Cu+ + and SO4--out of the so-
lution.
According to the initial conditions, a charge of Q =2,880 C passed through
the cell. This corresponds to a transfer into the solution of n = Q =9X 1023
atoms of zinc, i. e., about 0.98 g of the zinc. Correspondingly, the same
amount of copper atoms (about 0.95 g) will pass out of the solution and 3.73 g
of crystals of blue vitriol will have to be dissolved to restore the concentration
of the CuSO4 solution.
484. When the zinc is dissolved, the positive ions Zn+ + pass into solution
and the liberated electrons flow along the wire onto the graphite layer and
neutralize the positive ions of copper in the CuSO4solution. Therefore, the
graphite will be covered by a layer of copper.
This phenomenon can be used in galvanoplasty.
485. The change in the e.m.f. of the battery depends on the ratio between
the dimensions of the electrodes and those of the vessel. If the two middle
plates are almost equal in size to the section of the vessel, the e.m.f. of the
battery will change insignificantly. If they are small, the e.m.f. will be
almost halved.
486. The zinc rod forms a short-circuited galvanic cell with each half of
the carbon rod. The resistance of half of the carbon rod, the resistance of the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 327

zinc rod and the zinc-carbon contact are

the external resistance of the cell (see the
equivalent diagram in Fig. 443).
When the zinc rod is vertical, the cur-
rents rents and i 2in both halves of the car-
bon rod are identical and the voltmeter will
show zero. If the rod is inclined, the inter-
1; -.IF-. IR
nal resistance of one of the cells will dec-
rease and of the other increase. The cur-
rents it and i2 will be different and a
Rcarbon potential difference will arise between the
ends of the carbon rod that will be registe-
red by the voltmeter.
487. Since r eR, there will be practi-
cally no field inside the sphere and no
Fig. 443 current on its internal surface. Therefore,
the mass of the deposited copper is
m— A 4riR2 It
= 1.86 g

where A/n is the electrochemical equivalent of copper (A is the atomic weight

and n the valency) and F is Faraday's number.
488. The matter is that the electrodes are polarized during electrolysis and
each bath acquires an e.m.f. directed against the current flowing from the
capacitor. For this reason the capacitor cannot be discharged completely. The
more baths we have, the greater will the total e.m.f. of polarization be, and
the greater the charge remaining on the capacitor. The energy of the detona-
ting gas will always be smaller than that of the charged capacitor.
489. In the electrolysis of water, the electrodes are polarized and an e.m.f.
of polarization appears that is directed against the e.m.f. of the battery.
For this reason electrolysis will occur only if the e.m.f. of the battery is
greater than ep.
When a charge Q flows through the electrolyte, the battery performs work
against the e.m.f. of polarization: W=epQ. This work decomposes the water
and detonating gas is formed. On the basis of the law of conservation of
energy, the chemical energy of the detonating gas W e liberated during the
flow of the charge Q is equal to epQ.
In accordance with Faraday's law, the evolution of one gramme of hydrogen
n
on the cathode is accompanied by the flow of electricity Q =m — AF= 96,500 C.

Therefore, e _
P Q We 1.5 V.
The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than 1.5 V.
490. A definite concentration of ions is the result of dynamic equilibrium:
the number of ions produced by electrolytic dissociation is equal to the re-
duction in the number of ions due to the reverse process—recombination
(when they collide, ions of opposite signs may form a neutral molecule).
Near the electrodes the concentration of the ions drops, and this equilibrium
is violated. The number of ions that appear owing to dissociation is greater
than the number of recombined ions. It is this process that supplies the elec-
trolyte with ions. The process takes place near the electrodes. Dynamic equi-
librium inside the electrolyte is not violated.
328 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

491. During a second the cathode receives

n + v + A positive ions (A is the area of the
cathode). At the same time n_v_A negative
ions leave it. When the negative ions move
away, the dynamic equilibrium between the
neutral molecules of the electrolyte and the
Fig. 444 ions into which they are dissociated is viola-
ted (see Problem 490). There again appear
n_v_A negative ions and the same number of positive ions. The positive
ions are also liberated at the cathode and, as a result, the number of posi-
tive ions liberated at the cathode per second will be equal to the full current.
492. When the temperature changes by At, the current changes by Al.
aAt
On the basis of Ohm's law, Al = (a=50 X 10-6V/deg). The minimum
R+ r
change in the current registered by the galvanometer is A/ =10-9A. Hence, the
minimum change in the temperature that can be registered will be

At =
(R + r)._5 X 10-4deg

493. The maximum theoretically possible efficiency of the thermoelectric

battery is
eq T1—T2
Q — T1
where Q is the quantity of heat absorbed in a unit of time by the hot joints,
q the charge flowing in the circuit in a unit of time, and T1and T 2the ab-
solute temperatures of the joints. According to Faraday's law, the mass of
A q
copper liberated at the cathode per second is m=-- — — . Upon inserting the
n F
value of q from the first equation, we have
, 1.7X 10-4 g
tn =_ AQ T i T,
nFe T i
494. If the current flows in the direction shown in Fig. 444 (the storage
battery is being discharged), then V=e —IR. If the current flows in the
opposite direction (the battery is being charged), V=-e+IR (see the answer
to Problem 479c).
495. If the voltmeter is connected, then, according to Ohm's law, V--=64 —
er
where r is the internal resistance of the cell.
R I-F r '
For the second circuit,
I— e
R+ R2 +r
and therefore
IV (R1—R—R2)_
2.1 V
R11 —V
496. The internal resistance of the galvanic cell is small and that of the
electrostatic machine very great. It is the resistance of insulators (tens and
hundreds of millions of ohms).
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 329

497. At the first moment after the key K is closed, a potential difference
will appear between the plates of the capacitors C1and C2. The current will
flow in the circuit until the capacitor C1is charged. After this the potential
difference across the capacitor C1becomes equal to the e.m.f. of the battery,
and the potential difference between the plates of the second capacitor will
be zero.
498. For two cells
/= (6'2
+ r2 +R

where e and r are the e.m.f. and the internal resistances of the cells, and R
is the external resistance.
For one cell (the first one, for example)
/1 _ ei
r1+ R
According to the initial condition, I < i.e.,
rel.+ e2 < e,
r 1+r2±R ri d-R
Therefore, it is necessary that
e2 (9).
r2
499. From Ohm's law

11 (2r-r
i -1-p+R)=e

( 2r (1 — R
I t 2r T-
:+p+ =e
2r (I--+R
L
13p=63
where 1 is the distance from the battery to the breakdown and p is the internal
resistance of the battery.
From these simultaneous equations we find that

e 1/-(e_e_)
R=7-1 -7-2 T,
(-6-3-6--F
1, 1,
2r)=-- (4 ± 3)Q
The value R = 1 52 should be discarded, since in this case the point of break-
down will be at a distance of 5.9 km from the battery. Actually, when R=1
I=L Le—li Lp—I / LR 5.9 km
2r /1
The sought resistance is R =7 O.
500. On section Ae2B we have V A — VB =632-lir 2, where /1 —
ei+ e 2
ri + r2+ I?
and r1and r2are the internal resistances of the cells. According to the initial
330 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

condition, the potential of point A is lower than that

of point B. Therefore, ul =VB—VA > O.
For the other circuit
6)2
±
u2 =- 17B- 1/A ( 12r2)
where
Jo ._.__ —6)2
ri +r2+R
Upon solving this system of equations, we find that

u2 = 2eie2+,41 cei.-6)2) =+ 1.86 V

ei+e2
Si
501. In this case the potential of point A, when the
+ key is closed, is higher than that of point B, since when
the key is open V B > VA. For this reason 6)2 —11r 2=.-ui.
The other equations have the same form as in the so-
Fig. 445 lution of Problem 500.
Therefore,
u2= 2eie2 — ui (el — 1.57 V
ei+e2
502. Assuming arbitrarily that the currents are directed as shown in Fig. 445,
Ohm's law may be used to write the equalities
U AB= ei_11r1
U AB= (6)2_12r2
U AB= I 3R
Since no point in the circuit accumulates a charge
11+12=13
Upon solving these simultaneous equations, we can find the currents /1,12 and /3:
5 A , 1 „ 3 A
11 = 4 a12= -4- nd tl
2
The positive values of the currents obtained show that the directions of the
currents selected initially are correct.
503. When / 2 =0, we have /1=/3, and -I/AB = 6)2. Hence, as before
U AB= ei -/iri, and
R e2r1 =152
—

631 — e2
If the current / 2 is directed against 6)2, the simultaneous equations will take
the form
1 AB= el—lir,
uAB=e2+ 11r2
U AB= I 3R3
11=12+13
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 331

Hence,

631- e2-e2-ri
1,_. rir 2
ri±r2+ R

Our condition will be fulfilled if / 2> 0. Therefore the following inequali-

ties should exist
e1-(92-e2 R> 0

or
R> „63 =
01-62- 152

504. There are two methods of connecting the storage battery cells. Either
the batteries are connected in series in the separate groups, and the groups
themselves in parallel, or vice versa.
Denoting the total number of cells by N and the number of cells in a se-
parate group by n, we shall have in the first case:
/ — neo 6).
rn2 R rn
R± -171-

since the e. m. f. of one group is ne0, the resistance of the group is rn and
the number of groups connected in parallel is N In. The current /1reaches
R r
its maximum if rT n is minimum. The minimum of an expression of the

type ax-j- 7can be found as follows The relationship

ax (1)

is shown graphically by the curve in Fig. 446 which has its minimum at
point x0 , at which the roots of quadratic equation (1) coincide. For this
reason,
b
zo --= 1/ —
a
Therefore,
1 RN =__.4
n=
and
1, =
"x 2
6). V A1 2 A
Rr 0
332 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

710v
Fig. 446 Fig. 447

In the second case

N
Neo
12= rN rN
n2
nR+

_ irN
The current reaches its maximum when Hence,
n= V 17=6.
j_ =e. N =II max
"X 2 Pr
Thus, it is impossible to get a current exceeding 20 A.
505. What is to be done is shown in Fig. 447.
506. The temperature in the calorimeter remains equal to 0° C. Therefore,

RR
= mH and t =0rnHP
0.24 — t=---
24u2 = 5 min.
507. At a room temperature of to = 20° C (i.e., at the moment the lamp
is switched on) a lamp consumes a power of Po = -! (R0 is the resistance
of the filament at the temperature to). When 1=2,500° C, the consumed po-
V2
wer is P= where R=Ro {l+ (t —t0)}. Therefore, the sought power is
R
P0=P -I-a (t —t0)} --='• 600 watts
508. The power consumed by the device at the first moment is very much
higher than the rated one (see Problem 507) since the resistance of the cold
heating coil is small. Correspondingly, there will be a large drop of voltage
in the conductors leading from the mains to the room. As the coil gets
heated, the consumed power drops and approaches the nominal rating.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 333

509. The permissible drop of voltage on the feeding wires is AU= /R0 =7 V,
where I is the maximum current. Hence, the maximum power is
,, AU U
-= =1,680 watts
Ro
510. Since in all cases the kettle is connected to the same electric mains,
it is more convenient to find the quantity of heat evolved from the formula
2 U2
Q=0.24 (1- t. Hence, R=0.24 t. Since U and Q are the same in all ca-
2
ses, the latter equation can be rewritten as R=at, where a=0.24
Denoting the resistances of the windings by R1 and R2, we have R I =
and RS-=a,t2. In parallel connection of the windings
R, R2 cetit2
Ra = —at a
Ri + R2 a (ti t2)
and in series connection
(ti ±t2)=atb
Therefore,
to ilt2 and tb=/1 + t,
t, t2 '
511. (1) to= 57 minutes, (2) tb=3 minutes 30 seconds (see the solution to
Problem 510).
512. When a direct current flows through a conductor, the potential diffe-
rence does not change. When a capacitor is discharged, the potential diffe-
rence changes from U to zero.
513. When the losses of heat in high-voltage wires are calculated by the
U2
formula Q=0.24 — t, the value of U is the potential difference at the ends
of the line (voltage drop in the wires), but not the voltage in the secondary
winding of the step-up transformer. This potential difference is small (as
distinct from the voltage in the winding of the transformer) and decreases
with a reduction of the current flowing in the line.
514. In conformity with the initial conditions, k=-1r100, where e is the

e. m. f. of the battery, and / = TTis the current in the circuit. Remembering

that e --F. Ir, we obtain
2'112
r=- 52
P (100—k)
515. The power liberated in the external resistance R is P=IU. In our
e_u
case U-=e—Ir and, therefore, / .

Thus,
P- ?U—U2
334 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

whence

U=43- ± V — Pr
2 4
Ul =---9 V or U2 =1 V.
The ambiguity of the result is
due to the fact that the same po-
wer can be liberated on various
external resistances R, each R having
its own current:
when U1=9 V, we have /1=1 A
P
and R, =—
/2 =-u

when U2 =1 V, we have /2 =9A

Fig. 448 and R2=— -= 1/9 f:2
/22
of,DU— U2
516. The useful power (see Problem 515) is equal to P= - r For
simplicity let us denote eu-
U2 by x. It is necessary to determine the
value of U at which x will reach its maximum.
Graphically, x versus U is depicted in Fig. 448. The curve has the form
of a parabola, two values of U corresponding to each value of x. At the gi-
ven x we have a quadratic equation with respect to U. The maximum of x
is reached when the two roots of the equation coincide. Therefore, when x is
maximum the discriminant of the equation should be equal to zero:
82
Xmax --=-4- •
Hence,
U---- e2 and P.ax 2=25 watts
4r
Here
P x 4r2
/='- and R— ,„
2r /2 4r632 —r'
i.e., the external resistance is the same as the internal one.
517. By definition, the efficiency 11is the ratio of the useful power to the
entire power produced by a battery:
IU U
=--rw
where U
rP
—-,1? is the potential difference in the external resistance R.
R+r
Therefore,
R
r-FR
In problem 515, 711 =90 per cent and 112 =10 per cent.
In problem 516, ri=50 per cent.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 335

77
1

7
Z.

R
R=r (a)

(b) Fig. 449

1 when R co , but in this case the useful power P— e3R evol-

(R
ved tends (the same as the total power) to zero (Fig. 449).
518. rll— = 0.6, where r is the internal resistance of the source of
R r
current (see Problem 517).
Hence,
6R
12= 6R r —CL9
In per cent 112 =90%.
519. According to Ohm's law, U /r. Hence, /=
U_e
The useful power spent to charge the battery is
pi=e1- Uee2
The amount of heat liberated per unit of time is
(U —
P2= 12r .=
- r
)

The total consumption of power is

336 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

520. The useful power is

S
P1 = e(U-e)
r
(see Problem 519). The heat evolved
per unit of time is
(u _ e)2
P2=
Fig. 450 Ordinarily, U—e<e when a sto-
rage battery is charged. For this reason
P1 > P2. Therefore, only a small part of the power of the charging station
is spent to evolve heat.
521. During one second all the electrons contained in the volume Avl will
pass through section S of the conductor (Fig. 450).
Therefore, the intensity of the current is I.= Avine (e is the charge of an
electron).
Hence, v= —
Ane 10-4cm/s.
522. Electrons in a metal may be considered free. Redistribution of the
electrons inside the block will end when the resulting electric field is capable
of imparting an acceleration a to the electrons. In this way the sought inten-
sity of the field can be found from the relation ma=eE (m and e are the
mass and the charge of an electron).
Therefore, E=— a.
e
The front surface of the block perpendicular to the direction of motion will
be charged positively, and the rear one negatively.
The density of the charges is
1m
4n 4n e
— a
523. Free electrons rotate together with a cylinder. Therefore, an electron
that is at a distance r from the axis has an acceleration of a=co2r. This

from the centre of the cylinder and equal to E= m

charge and the mass of an electron.
er.
acceleration can be produced only by an electric field directed along a radius
Here e and m are the

1
The potential difference U=-
2
—e
010, since the average force acting on
a single charge when it moves from the axis of the cylinder to its surface is
1
equal to —
2
—e
3-3. Electric Current in Gases and a Vacuum
524. During a glow discharge the electrons are knocked out from the cath-
ode by the positive ions. These ions are produced when electrons collide
with atoms of the gas. In the region of the cathode dark space there are
practically no collisions. For this reason the anode should be placed beyond
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 337

the region of the potential drop of the cathode. Otherwise, there will be no
discharge.
525. For a discharge to occur in the tube, the anode should be placed
beyond the region of the cathode drop (see Problem 524). But in this case
the electrons approaching the anode upon collision with the molecules of the
gas lose energy and will not generate X-rays when they impinge on the
anode. Two electrodes are therefore necessary. The anode is located in the
region of the glow and serves to maintain the discharge. The anticathode in
the region of the cathode drop is bombarded by the electrons that did not
lose their energy.
Tubes with a heater cathode have one electrode that acts as an anode and
an anticathode.
526. The electrons striking the anticathode flow along the wire onto the
anode. If the wire is removed, the anticathode will be gradually charged
negatively and retard the electrons. In a certain time after it is switched
on the X-ray tube will stop functioning. •
527. Before the discharge, the voltage on the counter is equal to the
e.m.f. of the source e. At the moment of discharge a current flows through
the circuit and the voltage between the housing and the wire becomes equal
to U=e—IR. The resistance R is very high, and the voltage drop IR is
so great that the discharge stops.
528. According to Ohm's law, the sought voltage drop U=/R, where I
is the current in the circuit.
The current is the same in all the cross sections inside the capacitor.
The positive plate owes its current only to the negative ions, and the ne-
gative plate to the positive ions. Some positive and negative ions pass
through an arbitrary cross section inside the capacitor.
I -=enAd, where e is the charge of an electron and A is the area of the
plates.
For a plane capacitor Ad=4nCd2.
Therefore, U enx4nCd2 R = 1.4X 10-11V.
529. If the negative carbon is cooled, the arc will be extinguished, since
the arc burns owing to strong thermionic emission from the cathode that
ceases upon cooling. Cooling of the positive carbon will not affect functioning
of the arc.
530. When the contacts of the controller open, an electric arc may appear,
since the current in the iron becomes very high and the distance between
the contacts is small. With an alternating current the arc is unstable and
extinguishes at once. A direct current produces a stable arc that at least
will burn the contacts and put the iron out of commission.
531. 1 eV (one electron-volt)-----1.6x10-12 erg.
532. No, it does not. The tangents to the trajectory show the direction of
the velocity of the particle and the tangents to the force line show the di-
rection of the force acting on the particle and, therefore, the direction of
acceleration.
The trajectory of the particle will coincide with a force line only in a
field with straight force lines if the initial velocity of the particle is directed
along a force line.
533. As the charge approaches the plate, electrostatic induction causes the
charges on the plate of the same sign as the flying one to pass into the
earth, while the charges of the opposite sign accumulate on the surface of
the plate. A current pulse passes through the galvanometer (Fig. 451). No
current flows through the galvanometer when the charge moves above the
338 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 451

plate. An opposite current is generated when the charge moves away from
the plate.
534. Positive induced charges will appear on the neck of the tube and
accelerate the electron. The kinetic energy of the electron will increase owing
to the drop in the potential energy of the electron-tube system.
535. The total energy of an electron is equal to the sum of its kinetic and
potential energies.
As the electron approaches the ring, its potential energy diminishes in the
field of the ring, and as a result the kinetic energy increases. After passing
through the ring, the electron moves away from it. The potential energy of
the electron increases and the velocity gradually drops to zero.
536. The work done to move the charge — Q is proportional to the po-
tential difference between point 0 and remote point A on the axis (see
Fig. 186). At infinity the potential is taken equal to zero. If the distance
OA R, the potential of point A can also be assumed to be zero. The po-
tential at point 0 can be found by summing up the potentials produced by
the separate small elements of the ring: U 0 -=--V =
R R
nivz Q 2
On the basis of the law of conservation of energy —=-- we find that
2 R
2Q2
0= mR

537. As usual, the potential in infinity is considered to be zero. The

potentials of the plates are thus respectively equal to and -T ,

where U= . The potentials at the points of the initial location of the

electron are respectively: 0, +71-, and — T . The initial full energies of

the electron are

Inv1 trtz4 eU Inv.2 eU

(1) , (2) and (3) --t=
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 339

The final velocities 01, 02 and 03are determined

from the law of conservation of energy:
mv:_ my?
hence vi =v0
(1)
2—2'

mvg eU _mg
(2) vz =
2 4 2 ' m
2 eQ
mvg eU mvg niv°+
V3
(3) —2 +4=
= 2 ;
Fig. 452 In the first case the final velocity is equal to the
initial one, in the second case it is lower than the
initial velocity and in the third case higher.
In all three cases the velocity first grows (during motion in the capacitor)
and then decreases.
538. Electrons with energies ranging from 80 eV to 74 eV reach the anode,
since a voltage drop of 6 V exists along the filament.
The energy of the electrons at the anode is determined only by the poten-
tial difference passed by them and does not depend on the potential of the
grid. The latter changes the distribution of the velocities of the electrons at
intermediate points of the path and affects the number of electrons reaching
the anode.
539. On the basis of Ohm's law,
e=/a Ra d-U, (Fig. 452)
The intensity of the current
I a= AU a + BUg
Hence,
_
la_ e (ARa +1)-11(ARa +1)2+ 4eBRa —5mA
D -I-
a
As 2BRg
The second root of the quadratic equation has no physical meaning, since it
corresponds to U a < 0.
540. The simultaneous equations determining the currents i, and i., have
the form:
i=i1+12
=.11111 a+ BiUg
i2== A 2 L I a + B2Ug
U a=e—iR
Hence,
a — (A, + A 2) R-1+11(AiR A2R ir+4e(Bi+B2)R 60 V
U
2 (Bi +B2) R
340 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

192

084

ass
0 Fig. 453

The negative value of U, is discarded because it does not correspond to

the sense of the problem. The sought currents are:
i,=_ te+(111 82 — A,B,) RU a ]=22.2 mA
(8id-82)R [B
1
i2=(131+82)R[B,e+o,Bi—A,BoRU„—B,U,]=37.8 mA
541 With the potential of the grid e2=_ 6 V, the current flowing
U,
through the valve is / 2 =---F and with e,=- 3 V it is
Therefore, an increase in the potential of the grid by V raises
the anode current of the valve by
1
/1 — / 2 =-T(U/, U 2)=3.5 mA

Since the grid characteristic of the valve in the region being considered
is assumed to be linear, the additional increase in the potential of the grid
relative to the cathode by 3 V (from-3 V to zero with the short-circuited
grid and cathode) will increase the anode current by another 3.5 mA.
The voltage drop across the resistance R will now increase additionally
by U1 —U2 =35 V, and become equal to L/2 =-U 1-HUI —UO=130 V, while
the potential difference between the anode and the cathode of the valve will
be equal to e 0=120
V.
542. The first diode begins to conduct current only when Ua > 0, e.,
when V > el , the second at V > e2 and the third at V > e3 For this .

reason, the diagram showing the full current versus the voltage will have the
form of a broken line (Fig. 453):
1=0 at V
1=k (V-63,) at ei‹v
I _eo±k (v _e2) at 6)2 ‹v‹ea
1=k(V—e0+k(v_e2)±k(v_e3) at
Such circuits are sometimes used in radio installations to obtain a given
functional dependence of the current on the voltage.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 341

543. In Fig. 454, A and

B are control grids, MN is
the screen and OC the trajec-
tory of an electron. The ori-
gin of the coordinate system
is at point 0.
An electron travelling bet-
ween the grids moves in the
direction of the y-axis with
a uniform acceleration of
eU
a =— where U is the po-
md '
tential difference between A
and B. The electron covers
the distance 1 along the x-
Fig. 454
axis in the time 4=1–, when
v,
vxis the horizontal component of the velocity of the electron determined
from the condition

"14 eU
2 — °
During the time 1, the electron is deflected in the direction of the y-axis
eU 12
by y1 = r, — The electron moves outside the grids with a constant
2dM0x
L
velocity during the time 12= —. The velocity along the y-axis is v =at,.
vx
The deflection outside the grids is
eU1L
Y2=vyt2=
dmv,!,
The total deflection is
eUl ( 1_1_ eU1L U1L
Y=Yi -f-Y2 = dmv2
dmv!=2Uod
and the sensitivity is
y IL
9_U 2U od

3-4. Magnetic Field of a Current. Action of a Magnetic

Field on a Current and Moving Charges
544. If the current is expressed in amperes, the coefficient k is numeri-
cally equal to 0.1. Since 1 A=-3x 109 cgs electrostatic units (CGS') the
1
sought value of the coefficient will be k-3x 1019 if the current is measu-
red in these units. The dimension of the coefficient can be found directly
342 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

from the formula for the intensity H:

[H][li
Ekl-= [I]
[F]
Bearing in mind that [H]=[E] and [E]=.-w=.-g •cm -v, .s -i, [l]=cm,
and Vi=g'12•cmV2•s- 2 , we obtain [k]=s/cm.
1
If a new constant c is introduced instead of k, so that k=- , then c will be
equal to the velocity of light in a vacuum.
545. The intensity of the field induced by the first winding is
0.4a/i
H =400 Oe
1 23TR
The second winding induces the intensity
-0.4n/N2
H2 =200 Oe
2nR
Since the fields H1and H2 are directed oppositely, the sought field will be
H=- H i—H2 =200 Oe.
546. The conductor BC does not induce a field at point M lying on the
continuation of BC. According to the rule given in the note, the magnetic
field produced by any elements of conductor BC should be perpendicular to
line BM. For this reason the presence of a field other than zero at point M
would disagree with the symmetry of the problem, because all the directions
perpendicular to BM have equal rights.
Since the intensity of the field is proportional to the current, then 1/1•=k1
without conductor BD. The fields from the conductors AB and BD are sum-
mated. Therefore after conductor BD is connected
kl
H2 =kl

3
whence
Hi
H2 2
547. At an arbitrary point on line AB any small element of current of
conductor ACB induces a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the
drawing (see Problem 546). The element of conductor ADB symmetrical to
it induces the same field, but directed oppositely. For this reason the field
from any two elements arranged symmetrically will he zero. Hence, the field
at the arbitrary point on AB induced by the entire conductor is zero, since
the straight sections of the conductor also do not induce a field on AB.
548. In the main, the field of the solenoid will be concentrated inside
the toroidal winding and will not act on the magnetic pointer. A single-
layer winding, however, can simultaneously be regarded as one turn of a
large radius that induces a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the
torus.
The magnetic pointer will be positioned along the axis of the torus. The
direction of its poles can be determined by the right-hand screw rule.
549. The current flowing along the pipe can be regarded as the sum of a
great number of identical straight currents uniformly distributed over the
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 343

Fig. 455 Fig. 456

surface of the pipe. The intensity of the magnetic field at any point of
space can be represented as the sum of the intensities of the fields induced
by these currents.
Figure 455 shows a cross section of the pipe along which the current
flows. Let us compare the intensities of the magnetic fields H1and H, crea-
ted at point A by the straight currents II and I, passing through the small
aR aR z
arcs S1 and S2. The lengths of the arcs are S1 — and S 2 -
cos cp, cos cp, '
where R1 and R2 are the distances to point A. But as can be seen from
S, R,
the drawing, q>1= (p2. Hence, D . The current in the pipe is distribu-
=—
.,2
/ S, I, /2
ted uniformly, and therefore --1=— whence -- — .
/2 S2 R1 -R2
The intensities of the magnetic fields created at point A by the currents
/1and I, are equal, namely,

H1=k -1—
RI R
=k-=H2
-1
2
and directed oppositely.
Since a corresponding element that compensates completely for the mag-
netic field of the first element at point A can be selected for each element
of the pipe cross section, the resulting magnetic field of the current flowing
in the pipe will be zero at any point inside the pipe.
550. The conductor with the space is equivalent to a solid conductor
which carries a current with a density j, while through the volume that
corresponds to the space there also flows a current of the same density in
the opposite direction. The total current in this volume will be equal to zero,
and this shows that a space exists in the solid conductor.
344 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 457 Fig. 458

The field created by the current with a density jat an arbitrary point
of space A is equal to H1-----k•22tiR (Fig. 456). Here R is the distance from
the axis of the conductor to point A. (It is assumed that the current flows
toward us.)
At the same point, the current flowing through the volume corresponding
to the space, but in the reverse direction, induces a field of 112=k•27tjr.
Figure 456 shows that the total intensity of the field is

H=1/- H-2H 1H 2 cos a

Obviously,
Red-r 2 —d2
cos a-
2Rr
Therefore, the intensity H=k•21tjd is the same for all the points of the
space.
551. Triangle AOC is similar to triangle BAD (Fig. 456) since they have
one equal angle, and the sides confining these angles are proportional.
Therefore, L AOC= L BAD. But R I H1, and therefore H
The intensity of the magnetic field at any point of the space is perpen-
dicular to the line that connects the centres of the conductor and the space.
The distribution of the lines is shown in Fig. 457.
1
552. k=- where c is the velocity of light in a vacuum.
c ,
553. No, it will not. Forces of attraction exist between the separate ele-
ments of the current. As a result, the density of the current increases some-
what toward the axis of the conductor. The effect is negligible.
554. When lightning strikes, a very high current flows for an instant
through the pipe and the separate elements of the current are mutually
attracted with a high force. It is this force that converts the pipe into
a rod.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 345

555. The currents in the adjacent turns are parallel and flow in the same
direction. For this reason the turns will be mutually attracted. At the same
time the currents in opposite sections of the turns flow in different direc-
tions. Therefore, opposite sections are repulsed.
The turns of the winding will tend to increase in diameter, and the dis-
tance between them along the axis of the solenoid will be reduced.
HnAl
556. a—
k
557. The action of the magnetic field will cause the ring to so turn that
the force lines of the field are perpendicular to the plane of the ring and
form a right-hand screw with the direction of the current. The tension of
the ring will be maximum. Upon employing the method used to solve Prob-
lem 403, we obtain
F=k1R11=--5 dynes
558. The element of the ring Al is acted upon by the force AF=kIHAI
(Fig. 458). Let us resolve it into the components AF1and Af. The compo-
nent AF1lies in the plane of the ring and Af =AF sin a is normal to the
plane of the ring. The resultant of the forces AF1that act on the separate
elements of the ring is zero. These forces only stretch the ring. The full
force f acting on the ring is equal to the sum of the forces Af:
sin a•Ali=kIH• 21tR sin 273 dynes

559. The forces acting on BC and AD are perpendicular to the motion of

these sides and, therefore, perform no work.
The forces acting on AB and CD are constant, form a right angle with
the direction of the field and are numerically equal to f=kHla (Fig. 459).
The sought work will be equal to the double product of the force and the
motion of side AB or CD in the direction of the force. When the circuit is
turned through 180°, this motion is b.
Therefore, W----2kHlab.
560. Assuming that all the electrons move with a velocity o, the inten-
sity of the current can be expressed as follows (see Problem 521):
I=nAev
Upon inserting the value of I into the formula for F, we get
F=kHnAlev sin a
Since a piece of the conductor contains N=Aln electrons, the force acting
on one electron is fr.---kHev sin a.
The force f is known as the Lorentz force.
The direction of the Lorentz force is determined by the left-hand rule
(the magnetic field intersects the palm, four fingers are directed opposite to
the motion of the electrons, or along the motion of a positively charged
particle, and the thumb shows the direction of the Lorentz force).
581. The Lorentz force is always perpendicular to the velocity of a par-
ticle and therefore performs no work. The kinetic energy and, hence, the
absolute velocity of the particle remain constant.
562. The electron is acted upon by the force f=-kevH. If H Is measured
1
in oersteds and the charge in cgs electrostatic units, then k= z (see Prob-
346 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 459 Fig. 460

lem 560). This force is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the ve-
locity v. For this reason the acceleration of the electron is also constant in
magnitude and constantly remains perpendicular to the velocity. The velocity
changes only in direction.
With a constant acceleration perpendicular to the velocity, the motion at
a velocity constant in magnitude is uniform motion along a circle.
mv2
On the basis of Newton's second law, —=--oH. Therefore, the electron
R c
will move along a circle with a radius
R= eHeH
563. Let us resolve the velocity of the electron into the components v„
parallel to H and v1 perpendicular to H (Fig. 460). The component v„ does
not change in magnitude or direction since the Lorentz force does not act on
a particle whose velocity is directed along the field. The component ay chan-
ges in direction in the same way as in Problem 562.
Thus, rotation along a circle in a plane perpendicular to H is superposed
on the uniform translational motion along H. This produces motion along a
helical line with a constant pitch h=v„T, where T is the duration of one
mco sin a
revolution of the electron along a circle with a radius R =
eH
23cR 2nmc 2nmc
Since T— , then h=— v cos a
vj_ eH
564. The action of the Lorentz force (see Problem 560) will cause the
electrons to move towards the edge of the band. For this reason one edge of
the band will receive a negative charge and the other a positive one. An
additional electric field will be generated inside the band with an intensity E
directed perpendicular to the current. The electrons will continue to move
until the Lorentz force is equalized by the force acting on the electron from
the side of the electric field E: eE-=kevH. Hence, E=kvH.
The potential difference )A—(pB=Ea-=kvHa or, since I =nevA, then
I
TA—ITB=kna— .
ne A
565. cp A - 'TB= 2307.
566. The Lorentz force (see Problem 560) acts on both the free electrons
and the positive ions at the points of a crystal lattice, since both move in a
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
347
a

+ + + + + + + + Fig. 461

magnetic field. In accordance with the left-hand rule, the force f that acts
on the free electrons will be directed as shown in Fig. 461. The electrons are
displaced with respect to the lattice, and one side of the parallelepiped is
charged negatively and the other positively. An electric field is produced in
the block, and when the intensity of this field satisfies the ratio eE=kevH,
the electrons will no longer move with respect to the lattice.
The sought intensity
The density of the charges a can be found from the equation 4na=E.
1
Therefore, a= — kvH.
4n
567. For no electrostatic field to appear, the electrons should not move
with respect to the crystal lattice when the cylinder revolves. This motion
will be absent if the Lorentz force acting on the electrons is equal to mw2r,
i.e., tro2r =--kevH.
Since v=cor, then
H="11
The field should be arranged in the direction of the forward motion of a
screw rotating in the same direction as the cylinder.

3-5. Electromagnetic Induction. Alternating Current

568. The direction of the intensity of the electric field is shown in Fig. 462.
569. When the circuit moves, the magnetic flux passing through area ABCD
diminishes. Therefore, in accordance with Lenz's law, the induced current
will flow clockwise.
570. As the iron rod flies through the coil, the magnetic flux passing
through it changes. This induces an e.m.f. of induction in the circuit. Ac-

Fig. 462 Fig. 463

348 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

cording to Lenz's law, the total current in the coil decreases when the rod
enters it, and increases when the rod leaves it.
A diagram of the change in the current is shown in Fig. 463.
571. The magnetic flux changes at a constant rate, and therefore the e. m. f.
of induction in the second coil will also be constant. If the coil is connected
to a closed circuit, it will carry a direct current, which will set in not at
once, but depending on the coefficient of self-induction of the second coil and
its resistance.
572. Yes, it will. The e.m.f. of induction is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux, while the magnitude of the magnetic flux in
the iron core does not change directly with the current. The relationship will
be more complicated.
573. According to Faraday's law,
psi-10- 8 - =-- 10-8 kA
At

The e.m.f. of induction is numerically equal to the work performed by

the electric field when a single positive charge moves in the turn, i.e.,
el -2nrE. Hence E_ 2nr
Thus, we finally obtain:
E= 10-8 knr2 kr
10-8 -T
2nr —

It should be noted that this electric field is induced not by the electric
charges, but by a magnetic field varying with time. Let us recall that when
an electric charge moves in a closed circuit in an electrostatic field the work
is always equal to zero. By an electrostatic field is meant an electric field
induced by electric charges.
ba
574. Let us divide the ring into n= — small rings each with a width 6.
6
Let us consider a ring with a height h whose internal radius is x and external
radius is x+6. If 6 is small as compared with x, the resistance of such a
ring can be expressed by the formula
2nx
R=1) oh
The e. m. f. of induction acting in this ring (if 6.<x) is equal to
6)---.10-8_
A(D-10-8nx2k
At
The intensity of the current flowing in such a ring is
8 nx2k6 h k hx
41= —10- —10-8
R p2ax 2p
The current flowing through the entire ring can be found from the follo-
wing sum:
khO
1=10-8 — ia+(a+6)+(a+26)±...-1-1a-F(n-1)On
2p
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 349

The expression in the braces is an arithmetical progression. Therefore,

2a +6 — a — 6
/ 10-8 (b a)
2p
This result will be the more accurate, the smaller is S. Assuming (!) as ten-
ding to zero, we obtain
kh
/=10-8 (b2—a2)
4p
575. On the basis of the law of electromagnetic induction and Ohm's law,
we have for the quantity of electricity that passed through the galvanometer:
AO
AQ= /At =10-8
R
Or
8
Q =-0– (0-00)

Since the initial magnetic flux cD0 =-HAn and the final flux (I)=0, the quan-
10-8
tity of electricity in coulombs will be Q =— HAn if R is measured in
R
ohms and H in oersteds.
576. The e. m. f. of induction ei r-- 10-8 ka2 acts in circuit ABCD, and
a2
10-8 k in circuit BEFC.
The simplest equivalent circuit with galvanic cells used as the e. m. f. of
induction will for our circuit have the form shown in Fig. 464.
On the basis of Ohm's law,
I 3ar 113ar = 12 2ar—e2
Since the charge is retained, 11=12+13. All three currents can easily be
found from the given system of equations:
field-2e, 41+ 42 41- 3e2
/ , 2= , and /3=
i- 22 ar 22 ar 11 ar
Taking into account the expressions fore, and e2, we have:
10-8 ka 7 , 10-8ka 3 10-8 ka 1
11= X 1 2= X , and l3= X
r 22 ' r 11 r 22

577. The third way is the worst, since eddy currents circulate in the win-
ding turns without meeting an insulated layer.
The first way makes it possible to get rid of most eddy currents, but not
all of them, since one layer of the autotransformer winding actually has many
turns around the core and one turn along it (see Problem 548).
The best is the second way, which is used in practice.
578. The potential difference between any points of the ring should be
equal to zero. Otherwise, there will be a contradiction in applying Ohm's
law to the short and long sections of the ring. Besides, this is obvious from
considerations of symmetry.
350 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

If there is no potential diffe-

rence, the electrostatic field in-
side the ring is zero. The current
is produced by the e.m.f. of in-
duction uniformly distributed
along the ring:
ei ei
r R
where ei and ei are the e.m.f. s
of induction on the short and
long sections of the ring, and r
Fig. 464 and R are the respective resis-
tances of the sections.
Despite the absence of a potential difference between points A and B, the
electrometer will register a potential difference between the rod and the
housing.
The matter is that the current in conductors AC and BD is zero. Therefore,
the applied electric field of inductive origin is equalized at each point of these
conductors by the intensity of the electrostatic field generated by the redis-
tribution of the charges in the conductors under the effect of the e. m. f. of induc-
tion. The work of the electrostatic forces in moving along closed circuit ACDBA
is zero. There is no electrostatic field on section AB. When a charge moves
along AC and BD, the work of the electrostatic forces is equal to the e. m. f.
of induction in these conductors and has an opposite sign.
Hence, for the work of the electrostatic forces along a closed circuit to be
equal to zero, the potential difference between points C and D should be
equal to the e. m. f. of induction in conductors AC and DB and should coin-
cide with it in sign. Since the e. m. f. of induction in closed circuit ACDBA
is zero (the magnetic field does not pass through this circuit), the e. m. f. of
induction on section AB is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the
e. m. f. in conductors AC and BD, if we neglect the work of the applied for-
ces of induction on the section between the rod and the housing of the elec-
trometer, as compared with the work in conductors AC and BD.
For this reason the electrometer will show a potential difference approxi-
mately equal to the e. m. f. on the section AB.
579. As distinct from Problem 578, the potential difference UA-UB is not
zero.
Let us write Ohm's law for all three sections of the conductor, denoting
the currents in ADB, AKB and ACB by 11, 12 and /3, and the respective
e. m. f. s of induction by ei, e2 and e3:
ei+U A-U B , 1
,
2=
e2+1I 8-U A
, and /3 —
e3+U A-UB
R1 R2 R3

Since the charge is retained, / 2 =4+13. Summation of the first two equa-
tions gives
11R1+12R2=e1+e2=e
Upon subtracting the first equation from the third, we get
13R3-11R1—
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 351

But the e. m. f. of induction in circuit ACBDA is zero, since the circuit is

not pierced by a magnetic field. Therefore,
e1=e3 and 13R3-11R1 = 0
The system of equations gives the following value for the sought current:

13 -
eR,
R 1R2 -1-R 1R3 -i-R2R3
580. When the resistance R3 is other than zero, we can find from the
equations of Problem 579 that:
eR3
= R1R2d-R2R3+R1R8
(Ri+R3)
'2 R1R2H-R2R3+R1R3
eR,
R1R2-FR,R3+R1R3
When R3=0
1,== 0, =.1 - „ 13

R2
In the general case

UA UR (R1 +R2) (R1R2 R2R3+ RiR3)

When R3=0
UA-UB--
= eRi
Rl+ R2
Here UA-UB=--- el (since /1=0 on section ADB), where
of induction on section ADB.
elis the e. m. f.
581. An alternating current should be passed through the electromagnet.
The current should increase comparatively slowly, since at this moment the
metal object will be repulsed weakly in view of the current induced in it,
and diminish very rapidly, since in accordance with Lenz's law there will
appear a high force of attraction proportional to the rate of current change.
A possible relation between the current and time is shown in Fig. 465.
In principle, a force of attraction also appears when the direct current in
the electromagnet is switched off.
582. In both cases equilibrium will set in if the moment of the forces
acting from the magnetic field on the current induced in the ring is equal to
zero, or if there is no induced current. This will occur only if the plane of

24 Fig. 465
352 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

the ring is arranged along the force lines of the field (the induced current is
zero) or when the plane of the ring is strictly perpendicular to the force lines
(the moment of the forces is zero).
According to Lenz's law, the first position of the ring will be stable in an
increasing magnetic field, and the second unstable.
In a decreasing magnetic field, on the contrary, equilibrium will be stable
when the angle between the plane of the ring and the force lines is a right
one, and unstable when the plane of the ring is parallel to the force lines.
583. Let the velocity of the conductor be v at a certain moment of time.
The e. m. f. (in volts) at the same moment of time will thus be e=10-8 Hlv,
1
and the current I= — x 10-8Hlv. The action of the magnetic field on the
conductor carrying a current will induce a force f that prevents free dropping
of the conductor:
f =10-9 11212v

Hence, at the moment of time being considered, the acceleration can be de-
termined from the relationship
9H212v
ma=mg—f=mg— 10 –

It is easy to see that as the velocity increases, the acceleration a will di-
minish and become zero at the moment of equality of the forces f =mg. From
this moment on, the conductor will move with a constant velocity vk equal to
mgRX109
vk= H212

584. The e. m. f. of induction appearing in the conductor (measured in volts)

is 6' = 10-8Hlv.
The charge on the plates of the capacitor can be found from the relation-
ship
Q 6)C = 10 –8H1vC
The current flowing in the circuit is
AQ Av
/=— =- 10– 8 HIC — =10 –8HICa
At At
where a is the sought acceleration.
The interaction of this current with the magnetic field will produce a force F1
acting on the moving conductor. On the basis of Lenz's law, this force will
be directed oppositely to the force F.
The force F1=k1H1=10-9 H 2 pac, if C is measured in farads. The sought
acceleration can be found from the equation ma=F —F1.
Hence,
F
m+ 10 -8H212C
is a constant quantity.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 353

Fig. 466

The work of the force F over the path S is spent to increase the kinetic
energy of the conductor and the electrostatic energy of the capacitor.
585. Let the magnet be initially positioned as shown in Fig. 466. Its
north end is at a distance R1from the current and its south end at a dis-
tance R 2, the length of the magnet being 1=R2 —R1. Let us now move the
magnet in the plane / around the wire, keeping the distances R1and R2
unchanged until after one revolution the magnet occupies its initial poSition.
Since during this motion the total change in the magnetic flux through the
area restricted by the straight wire and the conductors that short-circuit the
current at a great distance from the magnet is zero, the quantity of induced
electricity that has flown through the circuit is also zero. On the basis of
the law of conservation of energy, the work of the forces of the magnetic
field should also be equal to zero:
2rc Ri 21f R2H2m 0
where m is the magnetic charge of the pole, and H 1 and H 2are the inten-
sities of the magnetic field at the distances R1 and R2from the wire.
Hi
Hence, = 2 which is possible only when H is proportional to R-- .
112

586. Since according to the initial condition, the intensity of the magnetic
field is directly proportional to time, i. e., H=0.4 If T kt, then the e. m. f.
of self-induction is equal to
Ai2
ei=10-9 x0.4 —kA (A-=-3cr2)
1
and directed against the current. The voltage across the solenoid terminals
should be
N2
U=-4a10-9 A—k±kRt
1

In this case I = U— e( —kt.

587. When R=0, the e. m. f. of self-induction ei remains constant, since
the voltage across the solenoid terminals is u=e1-63. It follows from the
solution of Problem 586 that when ei is constant, the current changes in
12-1865
354 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

proportion to time, i.e., 1=kt, where

I U
k— Therefore,
43" x 10—l9AN2
109 1e
t. If the resistance is finite
431 AN2
and not zero, the current will increase
according to the same law until the
voltage drop /R across the resistance R
becomes negligibly small as compared
with ei.
588. The work of the battery du-
ring the time T is w=eQ, where Q is
the quantity of electricity that passes
through the solenoid during the time T.
The current in the solenoid grows di-
Fig. 467 1091 et
rectly with time: 1= AN2(see the
4n
solution to Problem 587). Therefore, Q will be equal to the product of the
mean intensity of the current
knit+l final
(here 1i nit=0)
2
and the time T or numerically equal to the area of the hatched triangle (see
Fig. 467):
4AN 2109
(2- 831 ' 12

Hence, the work in ergs will be

I 2 T2
1016 erg
8 nA N2
This work goes to increase the energy of the magnetic field. Thus, we can
write that W =We, where W eis the energy of the magnetic field. Bearing in
mind that H=0.43" — 1 and inserting the expression for the current, this
/ ,
energy can be written as

we— I/2 /1/

(W e is in ergs, H in oersteds and I in centimetres).

589. Since the resistance of the ring is zero, its total electromotive force
should also be zero. This will occur only if the change of the full magnetic
flux piercing the ring is zero. For this reason the change in the external mag-
netic flux CD 0 is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the change of
the magnetic flux generated by the induced current: A00 = LAI Remembering
that the flux (1)6 grows from 0 to 3"r2 H, and the induced current changes in
this case from 0 to I, we obtain nr 2 H0 =LI.
3-(/-1/0
2
Hence I —
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 355

590. The magnetic flux through the ring cannot change (see Problem 589).
Therefore, cD=nr2H. First this flux was produced by the external magnetic
field, and after it was switched off, by the current induced in the ring.
591. The e. m. f. of induction e1=-10-8 A if et is in volts and CD in
t
oersteds per cm2. The magnetic flux through N turns of the coil (1)=NAtt,H,
where H=0.431 7 I (the current is in amperes).

On the other hand, ei.---L t is in volts, L in henries and / in

Ott if e
amperes.
4TEN211,. A
Hence, L= 10-9 henries.
592. cD = AT1d4R,H2, where N1is the number of turns of the first winding
and H 2is the magnetic field created in the core of the second winding.
4nN2/
Approximately, 1/2 = , where 1 is the perimeter of the core.
43-cluTANiN2
Hence, M —
593. The e. m. f. of induction in the disk is shifted in phase by at/2 with
respect to the alternating current in the electromagnet.
On the other hand, the phase shift between the e. m. f. and the current
in the disk tends to at/2 if Le R. In our case R is small and this inequa-
lity is observed. As a result, the eddy current in the disk is shifted in phase
by IC with respect to the current in the electromagnet. The currents are oppo-
site in direction and will be mutually repulsed. Therefore, the disk will be
pushed away and the string on which it is suspended will be deflected from
the vertical.
The same result can be obtained by another method. If the resistance of
the disk can be neglected as compared with its inductive reactance, the full
magnetic flux through the disk undergoes almost no change. (For a super-
conductor the change in flux is strictly zero, see Problem 589.) This means
that the field of the eddy current in the disk is always directed against the
field of the electromagnet.
Hence, the disk will be repulsed.
594. If the self-inductance of the wires can be neglected, the amount of
heat AlVe =uAQ will be evolved (a is the potential difference between the
plates connected by the wires at a certain moment of time) when the charge
AQ is transferred from one plate to the other, or —AQ for the other pair
of the plates.
The transfer of the charge AQ leads to a change in the potential difference
on both capacitors by Acp=— Q . Hence,
AW e =uCAq)
A decrease in the potential difference between the plates of one capacitor
by cc' is attended by a similar increase on the other.
Therefore,
(U ri) — =-- U — 2cp
where U is the initial potential difference between the plates of the charged
capacitor and q) is the value by which this potential difference drops at the
12*
356 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

given moment. Since q) changes from

zero to U/2, the diagram showing u
versus q has the form shown in
Fig. 468 by the dotted line. The
relation uC versus IT is shown by
the solid line AB. The quantity of
heat A W e= uCAq) is shown in Fig.
468 by the area of the trapezium
with the middle line ab that corre-
sponds to the average potential in
the given range Ay.
The full amount of liberated
heat W e is depicted by the area
of triangle OAB. It is equal to the
loss of the electrostatic energy
U 1 U 2C Q2__W„
e =UC 2 =
Fig. 468 4 4C — 2
and does not depend on the resistance of the wires.
The resistance must not be regarded as zero or very small, however, since
the self-inductance of the wires must be taken into account.
595. The effective value of an alternating current is the value of a direct
current that produces the same quantity of heat in a conductor as the al-
ternating current during the same time.
Let us calculate the quantity of heat liberated during a period:

8 +0.24/!R =0.24n R
Q= 0.2410R—
8 4

On the other hand, Q=0.24/ e2f1RT

Therefore, / eft= °
2
596. When a sinusoidal alternating current flows through the circuit, the
d-c ammeter will show zero, since its pointer cannot follow the rapid
changes in the instantaneous values of the current owing to the inertia of
the movable ammeter parts. The thermal ammeter shows the effective value
10
of the alternating current /2=
If a direct and an alternating currents flow simultaneously through the
circuit, the d-c ammeter will show the mean value of the current equal to
the direct current 11=6 A.
The current flowing through the thermal ammeter is
1=11 +10 sin cot

On an average, it evolves per second the heat

= kR (/?+21110sin cet + /(1 sine cot)

The line denotes averaging in time.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 357

The average value of 2/ 31, sin 6.)t a period is equal to zero and the ave-
rage value of
n sin2cot -=- 1—cos 2 cot _12_2_ = n
2 2
is equal to the square of the effective value of the alternating current. The-
refore,
Q=kR (4+1)
On the other hand, the quantity of heat Q liberated in the ammeter per
second is related to the effective intensity of the current I flowing through
the ammeter by the formula Q =k/2R.
Hence, the a-c thermal ammeter will show
/=_V/1+n=.-10 A
597. Since R=0, the current I lags in phase behind the voltage U by
A/2. Diagrams showing U= U0 sin wt, I= /0sin (cot — — )and the instanta-
2
neous power P=IU are shown in Fig. 469. The sign of P changes every
quarter of a period. The supply of energy from the source to the coil corres-
ponds to a positive value of P. When P is negative, the energy returns from
the coil to the source. On an average, the coil consumes no power during a
period. The mean power is equal to zero.
598. The inductive reactance of a choke is much greater than its resistance:
Lo.) :>> R. The advantage of a choke over an ordinary resistor is that no heat
is liberated on the inductive reactance of a choke. For this reason a lamp
with a choke is much more economical than a lamp with a resistor connected
in series.
599. If Lo> R, the phase shift between the current and the voltage is
great and the power consumed by the mains cannot be high. When capacitors
are switched on, the phase shift is reduced, since the current flowing through
a capacitor leads the voltage, compensating thereby for the lag of the current
in phase in electric devices with a high inductance. As a result, the power
consumed by the mains increases.
600. (a) Since ends A and B are open, no current flows in section AC.
Therefore, the voltage drop in AC is zero. For this reason U 2 =U 1.
(b) When a variable potential difference is applied between points B and C,
the current flowing along BC creates a variable magnetic flux that generates
358 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

an e.m.f. of induction in section AC. Since Lco> R, the amplitude of this

e.m.f. will also equal U,. For this reason the amplitude of the voltage U 2
between points A and B will be equal to 2U, (step-up autotransformer).
601. When an alternating current flows in a conductor the amount of heat
U2
evolved is Q=/:fiRt. The expression for the evolved heat Q= R if t is true

only when Ohm's law can be applied in the usual form: /=—
R
The winding of a transformer has a very high inductive reactance. For
this reason Ohm's law in its usual form and, therefore, the expression
Uei,
2
(2 ' t cannot be applied. The amount of heat evolved is small, since
the intensity of the current and the ohmic resistance of the winding are
small.
602. If we neglect the ohmic resistance, the voltage across the terminals
of the primary winding U, can be represented as the algebraic sum of the
e.m.f. of self-induction of this winding and the e.m.f. of induction generated
in it by the current flowing through the secondary winding
, A/1 A/ 2
Ll ' =1-1 76,T —m At

The minus sign is due to the fact that the currents /, and / 2 have opposite
phases.
If the currents change according to the laws 11=101sin cot and 12=
= 102 sin cot, then
A/1 Al,
-,-- w/ o, cos cot and — = co/ 02cos cot
At At
Since the voltage U, is shifted in phase relative to the current /1 by a/2,
we can write U,=U„,, cos cot.
Upon dividing the expression for U, by Lico cos cot, we get
Uo1 • A4
Lico 01 Li 02

U01is the no-load current if the ohmic resistance of the winding is neglected.
Llco
Disregarding the no-load current, we find that
101 =M
/02 /-1
By using the expressions for the coefficient of self-induction and mutual
inductance from Problems 591 and 592, we obtain
11 _101_N2
102 N,
603. The positive half-waves of the current will charge the capacitor to
the amplitude voltage of the mains, equal to 127 J12 V= 180 V. When the
diode carries no current, it receives the voltage of the mains (with an ampli-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 359

tude of 180 V) plus the same vol-

tage of the charged capacitor. The
change in the potential along the
circuit at this moment of time is
shown in Fig. 470.
If the rectifier operates without
load, the capacitor should be calcu-
lated for a puncturing voltage of at
least 180 V, and the diode for a
voltage of at least 360 V.
604. The anode voltage of each
diode is
u
Fig. 470 Ua= sin cat—/R
2
A current flows through the diode when Ua> 0 and does not flow through
it when U a< 0. In a quarter of a period the current will not flow durihg
the time interval 0 t <11(Fig. 471), where t1is determined by the equation

Fig. 471

U.
U T
— sin coti — IR=O. Hence, arc sin
sin — . This is also the time during
2 t1=-3-c U
which the current does not flow in the following quarters of the period.
Altogether in a period the current does not flow during
2T 2/R
7 arc sin =0.465 T
U

3-6. Electrical Machines

605. If the frequency of the alternating current remains the same, this
means that the revolutions of the motor and the generator also remain as
before, and the e.m.f. of the generator will not change.
When the external resistance in the circuit is high, the circuit will carry
a smaller current and a lower power will be supplied. For this reason the
power of the motor that revolves the generator should be reduced.
606. The work performed by a field in moving conductors carrying a current
(armature windings) is not equal to the total work of the field. Apart from
the work spent to move the conductors, the magnetic field performs work to
560 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

retard the electrons in the conductor, which produces an e.m.f. of induction

in the armature winding. The first part of the work is positive and the second
negative. The total work of the magnetic field is zero.
The electromotive force of the source that generates a current in the motor
armature performs positive work, and the latter compensates for the negative
work of the magnetic field in retarding the electrons.
In essence, the motor does its work at the expense of the energy of the
source feeding it.
607. The power consumed by the motor is P=IU; here U=ei-FIR,
where ei
is the e.m.f. of induction appearing in the armature.
Hence,
P=lei±pR
Here PR is the Joule heat liberated in the windings, and lei
is the work
against the e.m.f. of induction, equal to the mechanical power P1developed
by the motor.
This power P1= , since 1=
uei . This expression is ma-
ximum when ei=_T(see the solution to Problem 516). Therefore, the
U2
maximum value of P1 =T— 180 V. The motor cannot develop a power of
R
200 watts.
608. The maximum power developed by a series motor (see Problem 607) is
U2
Pmax= 4 (R I + R2)

The power consumed by the motor is

, U—ei U2
P=UI=u —
Ri+ R2 2 (Ri ± R2)
since ei=__2_ .
Hence, the efficiency is For a shunt-wound motor
U2
Pmax=4Ri
The power consumed is
U U2(2R1+ R2)
P ---UI=U ( U—ei +
R2 ) 2R1R2
Therefore,
1 I
11= R
2 1+2
R,
I. e., less than 50 per cent.
609. Let us denote the length of the turn by 1 and its width by d
(Fig. 472). The force F acting on a conductor with a length / is F=kIHI. The
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 361

power is
P =2k1 Hlv = kl H Aco
The current I can be determined
from the formula

where 631 =10-811A.

Fig 472 Finally P can be written as tol.
lows:
H 2
P=kH A — co-10-8k HA
R
R
P reaches its maximum
U2 , U2
X 10
Pm"=k4 R = 4R
U
when co= 108 Here and l=g-
? . In a unit of time the
2H A X .'
2
battery performs the work 27. From this amount, one half is converted into
mechanical power and the other half is liberated as heat (see Problem 607).
The relation between P and co is shown in Fig. 473.
kHAU k-10-2112 A2
610. M=
U .108
The moment will be equal to zero when co= (see Fig. 474). Here
HA
1=0, because ei =u.
611. The nature of the relation between P and H is shown in Fig. 475
(see the solution to Problem 609). The power reaches its maximum when
U U2
H X 108. Here 63,--. and P max =- J.
=2Aco 2 4R

KHAU

Fig. 474

12*--1865
362 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

612. The torque will reach its

P U2
maximum M,„„=107 x— 4R63 dyne•
U
•cm when H =108 X
2A0)
613. As with a series motor, the
power of a shunt-wound motor is
p uei _61
ZAw R
Fig. 475 where R is the resistance of the
armature (see Problem 607). Two
values of ei correspond to a power
of P =160 watts: e1=80 V and e2 =40 V. Both values depend on the de-
sign features of the motor.
According to Faraday's law, ei is directly proportional to the number of
armature revolutions n per second and the intensity of the magnetic field
created by the stator. With a shunt-wound motor this intensity does not
depend on the load. Therefore, ei==an, where a is a constant quantity de-
termined by the design of the motor and the voltage applied. We obtain
from the data in the problem that a1 =8 and a2 =4. The value of eicannot
exceed 120 V.
Therefore, the maximum possible speed is either n1 =15 rev's or
02 =30 rev/s.
614. If the voltage on the stator is kept constant, then at the given
speed of the armature, the e.m.f. of induction in it does not depend on
whether it is rotated at the expense of the action of the magnetic field of
the stator on the current in the armature or with the aid of a mechanical
drive.
The power developed by the motor is P=Mco. In our case P=160 watts.
The e.m.f. of induction ei can be determined from the equation
p=t1ei-e2
R

(see Problem 607). Hence, ei=_-__

2
± -1/L
4
2- PR has two values: 6)1=80 V
and 6)2 =40 V. The e.m.f. of the generator will also be equal either to
80 V or 40 V.
The existence of two results is due to the fact that the same power of
the motor is obtained with the same product lei, while two pairs of pos-
sible values I and ei correspond to this product.
The values of eiand, hence, the current depend on the design features
of the motor, the number of turns, their shape, etc.
615. The mechanical power developed by the motor is

M 2 an= uei — e
(see the solution to Problem 607).
The e.m.f. of induction in the armature ei=kHn, where k is a pro-
portionality factor determined by the number of turns of the armature wind-
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 363

ing and their area, and H is the in-

tensity of the magnetic field of the
stator, which is directly proportional
to the current.
Upon excluding el from these equa-
tions, we find that
U 2 nMR
n=
kH k 2H 2
The relation between to and H is
shown in Fig. 476.
2nMR
Fig 476 If H <Ho= , then n
kU
From a physical viewpoint this means
4nMR
that the motor armature will not rotate. When H=H,„— — , the speed
kU
will be maximum. (This value can be found by the method described in the
solution of Problem 516.) Therefore, if Hm > H> 110, the speed increases
when the current grows in the windings of the stator, and decreases when H>H„,.
If the motor operates without load (M =0), the speed will be n =—
kH '
i.e., it always decreases with an increase of H.
616. The intensity of the current flowing in the winding of the motor
will be determined by the e.m.f. of the mains 63, their resistance r and the
e.m.f. of induction ei generated in the motor armature: r
.

At any moment, the potential difference U across the terminals of the

motor is equal to ei,
since the resistance of the winding is zero.

Therefore, the power P=IU= eeir -61•ts determined by the e.m.f. of

the mains, their resistance and by ej.
617. Assume that the voltage at the ends of winding W1changes in con-
formity with the law U01 = eosin cot. Hence u„-e,sin (cot —120°). The
potential difference U 12is equal to that on the windings W1and W2, i.e.,
630
U12 = sin cot — eosin (o)t — 120°)=
= 26% sin 60° cos (wt — 60°) = 80 Y3 sin (wt + 30°)
since sin 60°= and cos (cot —60°)= sin (cot+30°)
23

Hence, the amplitude of the linear voltage is 1I3 times greater than that
of the phase voltage.
618. When the load resistances are the same, the currents /1, 12 and /3
2
are identical in amplitude and shifted in phase by Tn. Therefore,

2
/1+ / 2 =/ 0sin cot+/ 0sin (cot + — n) =/ 0 sin (cot+ 3)
3

12**
364 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

and
ii + / 2 +4=/ o sin(cot+i)+/0 sin (cd+-1 J.e)=

=-2/ 0sin (c.ot al) cos T =u

619. The magnetic fields H1, H2 and H3 can be written as follows:

2
H, =Hosin cot, H2 =Ho sin (cot + 7at), and I/3 = Ho sin (cot +4 le)

Let us select the axes of coordinates x and y as shown in Fig. 220 and find
the sum of the projections of the intensities of these fields on these axes:
2 2 4 4
1-1„=-- Hosin cot+ Ho sin (cot + 2-e) cos —3— a +Ho sin (wt + TTc) cos —3- n
rte sin 4 a
Hy—
— H o sin (cot + —
2 a sin 2 Te+Ho sin (cot + 4
3 3 3 3
After simple transformations, we have
3 3
Hosin cot and Hy= 7 110 cos cut

Such projections are possible only if the vector showing the magnetic field
rotates clockwise with a constant angular velocity w.
620. In these conditions the currents in coils 1-2 and 3-4 are shifted in
phase by almost It/2. Correspondingly, the magnetic fields created by them
are shifted by the same magnitude. Thus, the space between the coils contains
the fields:
Hi----Hosin cot
directed vertically and
IC
H2 = Ho sin (cot + — ) =Hocos cot
2
directed horizontally.
This means (see Problem 619) that a revolving magnetic field is produced
in the space. As the field rotates, it carries along the cylinder.
This principle underlies the design of single-phase induction motors.
CHAPTER 4
OSCILLATIONS
AND WAVES

4-1. Mechanical Oscillations

621. The vertical component of the tension force T is equal to F =t cos a
(Fig. 477). For the conical pendulum F =mg, since the weight has no acce-
leration in the vertical plane.
When the mathematical pendulum is deflected the maximum from the
position of equilibrium (through the angle a), the resulting force is directed
at a tangent to the trajectory of the weight.
Therefore, T = mg cos a.
When the weight is deflected through the angle a, the tension of the thread
of the conical pendulum will be greater.
622. The period of oscillations of the pendulum on the surface of the Earth
/ /
is To =2a and at an altitude of h above the Earth T,= 21t
k
The number of oscillations a day is N1=24 X 60x 60 1 . Therefore,
T1 T1
at an altitude of h above the Earth the clock will be slower by the time

Ati =Ni (Ti —T0)=k (1—

To
The ratio between the periods is -,-TT = g =R +h
as follows from the law of gravitation. Hence,
kh kh
Ati= seconds
R h R =

If the clock is lowered into a mine, the acceleration

. . g, R h . 43-t 1
ratio is — = , since g=7 –5– Rap 17 and 02-=
g h
4a 1
=1, ---T(R—h)3 p (R _ hr (see Problem 234).
Hence,
To = 7 g2 =. R—h h
T2 g R 2R

In this case the clock will be slower by the time

To ) kh
At2 ,---k (1 -- -= — 1.35 seconds
Fig. 477 T, 2R
366 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

623. Each half of the rod with a small sphere on its end is a mathemati-
cal pendulum with a length d/2 that oscillates in the field of gravity of the
large sphere. In the field of gravity of the Earth the period of small oscilla-
tions of a mathematical pendulum is T0 =231 - . According to the law

of gravitation mg—y rnM E

R2 ,and therefore
17 1R2
To=-231
VME
where y=6.67 x 10-8cm2/g•s8 is the gravity constant, ME is the mass of
the Earth, and R is the distance from the pendulum to the centre of the Earth.
Correspondingly, the period of small oscillations of the mathematical pen-
d
dulum with a length 1= in the field of gravity of the large sphere will be
2
dL 2
T =2n 5.4 hours
2y M
624. The period of oscillations of a mathematical pendulum is

T=2:1
1 /- T
g
where g' is the gravity acceleration in the corresponding coordinate system.
In our case
e = y g2+,2
where g is the gravity acceleration with respect to the Earth.
Thus,
T =-231 17- I
g2 +02

/
625. T=--25t . Use the plus sign if the acceleration of the lift is
g±a
directed upward and the minus sign if it is directed downward.
626. The oscillations of the block in the cup are similar to those of a
mathematical pendulum, with the only difference that instead of the tension
of the spring the block is acted upon by the reaction of the support. There-
fore, the sought oscillation period is

T=--2a,
V g

627. When M m, the acceleration of the cup is a=. 2T-

4 —g. Therefore
(see Problem 626),
RM
T =2. =.2a-L 1/ ,--
g-Fa r
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 367

If F=0, i. e., with free falling of the cup, T=oo and there are no oscilla-
tions. When F = Mg, we have T =2n .
g
628. The oscillations of the block will periodically displace the cup in a
horizontal plane. Hence, the oscillation period of the block will diminish,
since an additional variable acceleration directed horizontally will appear in
the coordinate system related to the cup (see Problem 624).
629. Let us compare the motion of the centre of the hoop with that of the
e nd of a mathematical pendulum with a length R r . Both points describe
—

the arc of a circle with a radius R r. Let us assume that the hoop and the
—

pendulum are at rest at the angle (pa. On the basis of the law of conservation
of energy, we have the following expressions for the velocity vh of the hoop
centre and the velocity vpof the pendulum end depending on the angle (p
oh= jig (R — r) (cos (pp —cos (pi)
v = Jr 2g (R — r) (cos (pp —cos (ph)
(See Problem 207 for the kinetic energy of a hoop rolling without slipping.)
It follows from these expressions that
vP
Oh=
V 2
Since the centre of the hoop moves j12 times slower than the pendulum, the
period of motion of the hoop centre will be jr 2 times greater than that of
the mathematical pendulum with a length R r. Thus, we have for the
—

sought period:

T =2n
1/- 2 R — r
g
V212
Let us note that when r 0, we have T=22", although it may
seem at first sight that if r=0 there should exist the equality

T=2n
R

This can be attributed to the fact that the energy of rotational motion of the
hoop does not disappear when r 0.
630. Let the rod be initially deflected from the position of equilibrium
through an angle a. At the moment when the rod forms an angle p with the
vertical, the angular velocity colof the rod will, on the basis of the law of
conservation of energy, be equal to

co / = i/r2g (#1111+ m212)(cos p —cos a)

iniii+m2/Z
Let us now consider a mathematical pendulum with a length 1.
In this case at the same angles a and 0
V 2g
= - (CGS p — cos co
1
368 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Let us so select 1 that (1)1=.1)2. For this it is necessary that

, Inli+m21Z
mill + m 212
The angular velocity characterizes the change in the angle 13 in the course of
time. Since (01=-(02, the oscillation periods of the two pendulums are the same.
For a mathematical pendulum
T
Therefore, the sought period is

T=211 + m24 I
mi./1 -1-17/212 g
631. This problem can be solved by the same method as Problem 630. Let
the half-ring be initially deflected from the position of equilibrium through
the angle a. In motion, all the points on the half-ring have the same linear
nir2(o2
velocity. The kinetic energy is
2 "
When the half-ring is turned through the angle a—ip, the change in the
potential energy is
2
mg-- r (cos cp—cos a)

2
since the centre of gravity is at a distance of — r from point 0 (see Prob-
lem 115).
Equating the changes in the kinetic and potential energies, we obtain for co
2g
(cos (p — cos a)
2
It follows from the above that a mathematical pendulum with a length

2Thus,
will have the same period of oscillations as the half-ring.
the sought period is equal to
itr
2g
632. In the position of equilibrium the spring will be stretched by the
amount 1 that can be determined from the expression k1=-mg.
Let us assume that the weight is at rest at the initial moment of time and
the length of the spring changes by x, as compared with the position of
equilibrium. If the system is now left alone, the weight will oscillate near the
position of equilibrium with an amplitude equal to I x0 1. With a weightless
pulley (M=0) the period of oscillations is

To =r2a 1/ -Ln-
1 k
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 369

Let us denote the displacement of the weight measured from the position
of equilibrium by x. The velocity of the weight as a function of x can be
found from the law of conservation of energy
k (x0 +1)2 mv2 k (x+1)2
mgx, = 2 + 2 mgx
2
Bearing in mind that mg=k1, we find:
V k x2)

If M 0, the law of conservation of energy can be written as

k (x0 + 1)2 (m + M) v2k (x + 1)2
mgx0= 2 +2 mgx
2
It follows that
v= k(4—x2 )

M ±m
Thus, in the second case (M 0) the weight moves as if its mass had
increased by M as compared with the first case.
Hence, the sought period is

T = 2nj /m M
633. When the bottle is displaced from the position of equilibrium by x,
the force acting on the bottle will be equal to F = — yo Ax, where yo is the
specific weight of the water. The minus sign means that the force is directed
against the displacement x. According to Newton's second law, the oscillations
of the bottle are determined by the equation ma= — yo Ax. This equation is
absolutely similar to the equation for the oscillation of a weight on a spring:
2a =
ma= — kx. Since for the weight we have ci)=— , then the oscilla-
T
gy m'
tion frequency of the bottle will be

— 1 VV°A 25
. 1
2m —2a m second
634. The equation of motion of the mercury has the form
ma= — TA2x
where x is the displacement of the mercury level from the position of equilib-
rium. The equation of motion has the same form as in the case of oscillations
of a weight on a spring. Therefore (see Problem 632),

T =2r Y 1.54 seconds

2 AA
4
635. The force acting on the body is F=y — rcpmr where r is the distance
3
from the centre of the Earth and y is the gravity constant (see Problem L34).
370 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Remembering that g=1)-5---pR, this expression can be written as:

F=mg 7

Here R is the radius of the Earth. The equation of motion of the body has
the form:
mg
ma=-- r=—kr

The force is proportional to the displacement from the position of equilibrium

and directed toward the centre of the Earth. Therefore, the body will perform
harmonic oscillations with a frequency

(0= 1 n2
—= 1//-,1,7

Hence, the period of oscillations is

T=

The body will reach the centre of the Earth during

T4 2 I g 21 minutes
t=-

It is of interest that the time i does not depend at all on the distance from
the centre of the Earth at which the body begins to move, provided this
distance is much greater than the size of the body.
636. The force F acting on the weight deflected from the position of
equilibrium is 2f sin IT (Fig. 478). Since the angle y is small, it may be
4fx 4
assumed that F = or where k=
1 1•
By using the formula

T=2:-E
V
we get the following expression for the sought quantity:

T=
V171
4
637. The period of oscillations of the weight on a spring is

T=2n. Vrn

where k is the coefficient of elasticity of the spring equal to the ratio between
F
the force that caused the spring to stretch and its elongation: k=— .
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 371

Fig. 478

When two identical springs stretched by the force F are connected in series
F F k
k1 xi 2x 2
since the length of each spring increases by x. When such springs are connec-
ted in parallel, the force F1required to increase the length of each by x
should be two times greater than F.
F1 2F
Hence, K2 -=-=2k
X X
With series connection

T1= 2n 1/2=2st 2m

and with parallel connection

T2 = 23-c -TE

TI
Hence, --c
7 =2. The period is halved.
638. Let us deflect both pendulums from the vertical in the same direction
and through the same angle. In this case the spring will not be deformed.
It is easy to see that the pendulums released from this position will oscillate
in phase with a frequency of o= 1/ . If the pendulums are deflected in
opposite directions through the same angles they will oscillate in antiphase
and the spring will be deformed. To calculate the frequency of these oscilla-
tions, let us find the force that returns the pendulums to the position of
equilibrium. Upon deflection through the angle cp the force acting on the
mass m from the side of the spring is 2k1 sin cp. The sum of the projections
of the forces of gravity and elasticity on a tangent to the circumference, the
so-called "restoring force" F,. will be equal to
F,.= mg sin cp 2k1 sin cp cos cp
(Fig. 479). Since cos cp = 1 at small angles,
2k1 ) .
F ,.=-(mg +2k1) sin cp or
F,.= m (g+ — cp
m
For a mathematical pendulum the restoring force is mg sin cp. The frequency
/
of oscillations at small angles T can be found from the formula o= V — .
1
2k1
In our case the part of g is played by g+— tn
372 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Hence,

(0 =

The period of oscillations is

1
2k1
T=2n,17 g+—ni

639. Yes, it can. For this purpose the

door should be gradually swung with a
frequency equal to the natural frequency
of oscillations of the door. Upon resonan-
ce, the amplitude of oscillations may be
very high.
640. From the law of conservation of
energy:
Fig. 479 0)2
— (m12+ Mr 2) = Mgra—mgl (1—cos (p)
2
where co is the angular velocity of pulley rotation. Hence,
-1/ 2 gra
(M — 2mg1 sine ;)
co= m i2+ mr 2
Oscillatory motion will be obtained if the angular velocity is zero at a
certain value of the angle a. Here Mgra=2mgl sine 7or, upon introdu-

cing a= –t , we obtain T=sin2 7 To each value of a there corresponds

.
IT1
a definite maximum deflection from the position of equilibrium a that is
determined by the given transcendental equation.
This equation is solved the easiest by the graphical method. For this
purpose, plot the curve y=sin2 7a(Fig. 480). Hence intersection of this curve
act
with the straight line y= Twill give us point A that determines the value
of a at the given a. (The value of a that corresponds to the intersection of
a
this straight line with another branch of the curve y=sin2 — cannot be
2
obtained with the initial conditions given in the problem.)
Obviously, our solution of the equation will be other than zero only if a
is smaller than a certain limiting value of aodetermined from the condition
aoa a
that the straight line f./-= is tangent to the curve y=sin2—at point C.
2
2CD
Figure 480 shows that ao = 133°. Hence, /10 = = 0.73. The oscilla-
ao
Mr
tions are possible when — 00'="0.73.
ml
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 373

Fig. 480

4-2. Electrical Oscillations

641. Without a permanent magnet the oscillation frequency would be
doubled. When a sinusoidal current flowed through the coil of the telephone
it would cause the membrane to make two oscillations during one period of
current oscillations because the intensity of the magnetic field H created by
this current would have the form shown in Fig. 481a, and the force of attra-
ction of the membrane does not depend on the sign of H.
When there is a permanent magnet that generates an intensity of the
magnetic field exceeding the maximum intensity •of the current field, the
diagram of the resulting intensity has the form shown in Fig. 481b.
For this reason one oscillation of the current will correspond to one of
the membrane, and the sound will be much less distorted.
1
642. The frequency of natural oscillations is o= _if—L is in henries
jr LC
and C in farads. As has been shown in Problem 591, for a solenoid
L= 10 -9 henries. The capacitance of the capacitor is C=
A
X
43id
X farads.
9X 1011
374 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 481

Hence,
6)=3X1010
V Id
N2111112=3x
106
1
second
643. The frequency of natural oscillations of a circuit is determined from
the Thomson formula
1
(0 =
irc c
(a) If the coil contains the copper core, the periodic changes of the mag-
netic field of the coil will produce in the core eddy currents whose magnetic
field will weaken the magnetic field of the coil. This will reduce the inductance
of the coil and, consequently, increase the frequency (D.
(b) If the ferrite core is moved into the coil, the magnetic field of the
latter will increase. Accordingly, the inductance L of the coil will grow and
the frequency w will decrease.
644. Undamped oscillations will appear in the system (if the small losses
of energy for the radiation of electromagnetic waves are neglected.) When
the charge is distributed equally between the capacitors, the energy of the
electrostatic field is minimum, but the current intensity and the energy of the
magnetic field are maximum. The total energy does not change, but one kind
of energy is converted into another.
645. The displacement of the electron beam by the voltage supplied along
the vertical can be written as
IL
x= — V 0cos cot = a cos wt
2dV 1
(see Problem 543). The displacement of the beam along the horizontal (axis
y) is
IL
— cos (cot —q))=6 cos (tot— (p)
2dV Vol
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 375

Fig. 482

To find the trajectory, the time should be excluded from the data of the
equations. After simple transformations we have
x2 y 2 2xy
+ — –Ta cos q) sin2

ar x2 y2
If fit= , thenp= I. This is the equation of an ellipse.
a
If q),=--- a, then e., the beam oscillates along the straight
line forming with the x-axis an angle a determined by the equation
tan ce---=— (see Fig. 482).
a
646. The relation between the voltage and time is shown in Fig. 483. The
voltage across the capacitor (curve Oa) increases until it reaches V,. At this
moment the tube ignites and the capacitor is discharged through the tube

Fig. 483
376 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

(curve ab) until the voltage drops to Ve. The process is then repeated and
relaxation oscillations with a period t appear.
The charging and discharging current of the capacitor is not constant,
because it depends on the voltage across the capacitor, and decreases with a
growth of the voltage. For this reason Oa, ab, bc, etc., are not sections of
straight lines.
647. When the capacitance grows, the time needed to charge the capacitor
to V s and discharge it to Veincreases. The period will therefore be longer.
An increase in R will reduce the charging current of the capacitor and
will increase the period.
648. When the charge across the plates of the capacitor reaches its maxi-
mum, the plates should be moved apart. Here work must be performed to
overcome the forces of attraction between the plates. This work is spent to
increase the energy of the circuit. When the charge is zero, the plates should
be moved together to their original position. The energy in the circuit will
not change.

4-3. Waves
649. The tension of the string should be increased four times.
650. v =von, where n=1, 2, 3, 4, ..., and
1 f T _2 1
v
°= Ti 1/ — second
651. The pipe should accommodate a whole number of half-waves:
k=1 (k= 1, 2, 3, • • .)
2
The frequencies of the natural oscillations are
c kc 1
vk =k x 50
second
(c=340 m/s is the velocity of sound in air).
652. The sound of the tuning fork will be intensified when the frequency
of the natural oscillations of the air column in the vessel coincides with the
frequency of the tuning fork. The natural oscillation frequency of the air
2k+ 1 c
column in a tube closed at one end is vk = - where 1 is the length
4
of the tube and c=340 m/s is the velocity of sound. The quantity k takes
values of 0, 1, 2, 3, ... Therefore, the possible water levels in the vessel
determined by the distance from the surface of the water to the upper edge
of the vessel are
2k+1 C
Ik= (k=0, 1, 2, ...)
4 v
When 1=1 metre, two positions of the water level are possible: / 0 =25 cm
and 11=75 cm.
653. Let us consider a number of consecutive positions of the bullet flying
along KA, namely, K, F, E, D, B, and A (Fig. 484). At each point the
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 377

Fig. 484

bullet creates before its front a compression that spreads in all directions in
the form of a spherical pulse. Since the velocity of the bullet v is greater
than that of sound c, these pulses appear only behind the bullet. At the
moment when the bullet is at point A, the separate pulses will be as shown
in Fig. 484 by circles of various radii. The wave front has the form of a
cone that moves forward with the velocity of the bullet. The apex angle of
the cone can be determined from the ratio
BH =ct c
sin a=
AB vt v
654. The sound wave that reaches the man at point B (Fig. 485) is emit-
ted when the plane is at a certain point D (see the solution to Problem 653).
The distance CB=6 km.
The sought distance is
BC
sin a.
where v is the velocity of the plane and c the velocity of sound. Hence,
AB=9 km.
655. Ordinarily, the velocity of the wind at a certain altitude above the
ground is greater than at its surface. For this reason the wave surfaces
which in immobile air have the form of spheres with their centre at the
point of the sound source (dotted lines in Fig. 486) change their shape. The
velocity of the waves is higher in the direction of the wind than against it
The approximate shapes of the wave surfaces are shown in Fig. 486 by solid
lines.
The sound propagates in a direction perpendicular at each point to the
wave surfaces. For this reason the sound propagating against the wind is
deflected upwards (curve AB) and does not reach the man. If the sound pro-
pagates in the direction of the wind the sound is deflected towards the ground
(curve AC) and the man hears it.
656. TV stations operate on wavelengths smaller than 10 metres. For such
waves the ionosphere is "transparent" and does not reflect the waves. Short
waves are practically propagated along a straight line, since they undergo
almost no diffraction from such obstacles as houses, etc.
1 3-18 65
378 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 485

657. To estimate the distance to an object by the position of the reflected

pulse on the screen of a cathode-ray tube, this pulse should arrive not ear-
lier than in the time T and not later than in the time T= after sending
lier
the direct pulse. Hence, the minimum distance to the object is
, CT
izy m
2
and the maximum distance is
cT
L --= = 90 km
658. The wave reflected from the roof will reach the aerial with a lag of
AB
T= =10 -5s. The velocity of the cathode beam along the screen is

v= where At= s is the time during which the beam produ-

At , 25 x 625
ces one line (neglect the time of reverse travel of the beam).
The shift of the images is A/=v-r = 7.8 cm.
659. When the vibrator is immersed in kerosene its capacitance C increases
er times. The frequency of the natural oscillations of the circuit is propor-
tional to . Therefore, the oscillation frequency will decrease g,.
times. The frequency of the natural oscillations of the vibrator in a vacuum
is v0 =- and
, in a dielectric v=
21 2/
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 379

Wind

Fig. 486

The wavelength that corresponds to this frequency in a vacuum is

, = =21 Vs, 1.4 m
2■

In short, this result can be obtained as follows. The wavelength in kero-

sene is X=21 and increases Er times in a vacuum. Therefore,

X0 =2/ 17-
660. The horizontal position of the aerial means that the electric vector
of the wave oscillates mainly in horizontal planes. Therefore, the magnetic
vector oscillates along a vertical.
CHAPTER 5
GEOMETRICAL
OPTICS

5-1. Photometry
661. The minimum illumination of a wall (Fig. 487) is
I cos a
E1=
r2
The minimum illumination of the floor is
/ cos13
E2
r2
According to the condition,
cos a D
-2
E2 cos 2h
Hence,
D
h=— =7.5 m

662. The illumination of the middle of the table is

E==-L-
2

where H2 Is the height of the second lamp above the table.

Fig. 487 Fig. 488

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 381

In both cases, the illumination of the edge of the table is

11H1 12H 2
El= H?
D2)4 ./ ,and E2 =
(1-11+ D2 )3/2
4/
Therefore,
2 )32
d- /i
(
/2 4 =_--. 3
E2 (in+ D42 )3/2
The illumination of the edge of the table will be decreased three times.
663. If a normal to the plate forms an angle a with the direction AST,
the illumination of the plate will be
I
E=--I [cos a -F cos (90°— a)] = — x 2 cos 45° cos (a-45°)
a2 a2
For this reason the illumination of the plate will be maximum if it is pa-
rallel to side S1S2 of the triangle. The illumination is

E max =-11T 4-

664. When the auxiliary and standard sources are used together the illu-
minations will be equal if
/0 d
11
where 10 is the luminous intensity of the standard source and /1that of the
auxiliary source.
In the second case the illuminations are equal when
I,
I
where I is the sought luminous intensity.
Hence x= 1.ri • ri =400 10.
1
665. The illumination will be 25 times smaller.
666. The total luminous flux from the lamp is cD0 = 4a/. If the lamp is
fastened to the ceiling, the walls and the floor receive half of this flux. The-
refore, the sought flux is el= 23-E/ -= 628 1m.
667. The Earth receives 2.25x 109 of the total energy of the Sun.
668. The quantity of light energy absorbed by the internal walls of the
cylinder in a unit of time (luminous flux) is the same in both cases. The
area of the internal surface of the cylinder will change, however, R1/R2 times.
E1 = R 2
For this reason the illumination will increase R1/R2 times, i. e., —
E2 R1
382 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Paper

- 111 1 1 1 111r Text

669. The illumination on the edge of the table is
F ig. 489

/ cos cp I
E 12 = Rz coscpsin2 cp

where I is the luminous intensity of the lamp, R the radius of the table,
and cp the angle of incidence of the rays (Fig. 488).
The maximum value of E is attained if the angle cp satisfies the equation
1
1— si n2cp.= — sin2cp
2

i. e., when cp= arc sin -1/ r 23 (see Problem 407).

The lamp should be hung above the table at a height of h= R.
2
670. Tissue paper diffuses the incident light rays in all directions.
If the paper is at some distance from the page, the diverging beams of
light reflected from the white portion of the page (between the letters) overlap
on the side of the paper facing the text (Fig. 489).
As a result the paper will be illuminated more or less uniformly, and the
diffusion of the light will make it impossible to read the text.
If the paper is placed on the text, the illumination of the paper side adjoi-
ning the text will not be uniform. Accordingly the intensity of the diffused
light will be different at various portions of the paper, and the text can be read.

5-2. Fundamental Laws of Optics

671. The shadow will be equally distinct everywhere only if a point source
of light is used. The separate sections of an extended source throw shadows
that are superimposed on one another. The boundary of the shadow will be
the sharper, the smaller is the distance from the object to the surface on
which the shadow is formed, since the distances between the boundaries of
the shadows produced by the various sections of the source will be minimum.
It is for this reason that a man's legs give a sharper shadow than his head.
672. The pencil should be held parallel to the lamp and as close to the
table as possible. As a result the shadows sent by separate portions of the
lamp will be almost accurately superimposed.
If the pencil is perpendicular to the lamp, the shadows from it will be so
mutually shifted that practically no shadow will appear.
673. This phenomenon can be observed only if the angular distance between
the branches is less than the angular diameter of the Sun. Let us assume, to
introduce definite conditions, that the lower branch is thicker than the upper one.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 383

(a) (c) (a') Fig. 490

(e)
To understand why the illumination inside the shadow changes as stated
in the problem, assume that we look at the Sun alternately from different
sections of the shadow.
The Sun's disk can be seen entirely outside of the shadow. In section A
of the shadow (Fig. 235) the eye is in the half shadow cast by the lower
branch, and only this branch is visible in front of the Sun's disk (Fig. 490a).
Since the branch covers a part of the Sun's disk, the illumination of this
point will be weaker. Moving the eye farther to position B (Fig. 235), we
shall see that the other branch also partly covers the Sun's disk (Fig. 4906),
and for this reason the illumination will be still less. Moving farther, the eye
will occupy position C (Fig. 235) in which both branches will be superim-
posed (Fig. 490c). Now, the part of the Sun's disk covered by the branches
is smaller and the illumination greater. The disk as viewed from D and E is
shown in Fig. 490d and e. This explains why the central stripe of the shadow
is brighter than the adjacent parts.
674. As can be seen from Fig. 491, we have H=L sin cc, while sin a=— ,
a
since DE=--b is the cross-sectional diameter of the light cone on the ground.
With the angular dimensions of the Sun's disk [3, we obtain L=P-.
b2
Therefore, H =9 metres.

675. If the rays are turned in the periscope as shown in Fig. 492, the
sought ratio of the widths of the prisms alb can be found from the similarity
of the triangles:
a _L-E1
b

676. The height of the mirror

should be equal to half the height
of the man. The distance from the
lower edge of the mirror to the floor
should be equal to half the distan-
ce from the man's eyes to his feet
(Fig. 493).
677. Let h be the height of the
object and a the angle of incidence
of the rays on the mirror (Fig. 494).
If the screen is at a distance of
tan a from the object, a di-
Fig. 491 rect and an inverted shadows with
384 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

B A

Fig. 492

Fig. 493

their bases fitted against each other will be seen on the screen. The total
length of the shadow is 2h. The shadow is illuminated by the Sun and
contrasts with the other portions of the screen illuminated by both direct
and reflected rays.
If the screen is nearer, the length of the shadow is smaller than 2h and
will have portions that are illuminated neither by direct nor reflected rays.
678. A point source of light always produces a reflection that depends on
the shape of the mirror. The dimensions of the Sun are finite. Each small
section of the luminescent surface produces a bright spot that gives the shape
of the mirror. These spots from various portions of the Sun are superimposed
and produce a more or less diffused pattern.
If the surface on which the reflection is observed is far from the mirror,
the shape of the bright spot will not depend on the shape of the mirror. It
is only at a small distance from the mirror that the spot will reproduce the
shape of the mirror, since the angles at which the rays from the various
portions of the Sun fall onto the mirror differ very slightly from one another.

Fig. 494
GEOMETRICAL OPT ICS 385

Fig. 495

679. The reflected landscape is seen as if it were viewed from a point

below the water surface at a distance equal to that from the camera lens to
the water.
680. The whole of the image of straight line AB can be seen only if the
eye is inside the hatched area in Fig. 495.
681. When mirror MN moves toward the wall, the position of light spot AB
on the wall will be invariable as can be seen in Fig. 496 (Sr and S2 are the
images of source S with the mirror in two positions: MN and M'N').
The dimensions of the light spot will not change either, constantly remai-
ning equal to the double dimensions of the mirror.
682. If the losses in reflection are neglected, the illumination of the light
spot will always be one-fourth of the illumination of the mirror. At the same
time the illumination of the mirror changes in view of the change in the
distance from the lamp to the mirror and the change in the angle of inci-
dence of the rays. With a
small mirror the maximum
illumination will be observed
when the distance from the
mirror to the wall is
i =--- d' where d is the dis-
tance from the source of light
to the point on the wall which
the mirror is brought up to.
683. When the mirror turns
through an angle ex, the reflec-
ted ray will turn through 2tx
since the angles of incidence
and reflection increase by cc
Hence, the angular velocity
of rotation of the reflected ray
is (b.=--2nn x 2. The linear ve-
locity with which the light
spot moves along the screen is
v=41ctiR 62.8 m/s.
386 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

684. (a) The beam reflected from the first mirror forms an angle 2a with
the incident beam (a is the angle of incidence). During the time t the mirror
will turn through an angle cot and the new angle of incidence will become
equal to a+ wt, as will the angle of reflection. Therefore, the angle between
the incident and reflected beams will increase by 2cot, i.e., the reflected beam
will turn through an angle 2cot.
In view of this, the angle of incidence on the second mirror, provided it
does not rotate, would be 13 +2cot, where 13 is the angle of incidence with
immobile disks. But the mirror also revolves through the angle cot during the
time t, and therefore the angle of incidence becomes f3±3cot. The angle of
reflection will be the same. Thus, after two reflections the beam will turn
through the angle 3cot from its direction with immobile mirrors. After three
reflections the beam will turn through 5cot and after t 1 reflections through
(2n—I) ad. In this way its angular velocity will be Q=(2n-1)
(b) When the mirror moves from the source with a velocity v, the image
will move away from the source with a velocity 2v and from the second
mirror with a velocity 3v. Therefore, the second image moves with a velocity
3v with respect to the second mirror and with a velocity 4v with respect to
the source. The velocity of the third image with respect to the source will
be 6v and the velocity of the n-th image 2,w.
685. (a) When the first mirror turns through an angle cot the reflected beam
will turn through an angle 2cot (see the solution to Problem 684). Hence, the
angle of incidence on the second mirror will also increase by 2cot, and, if the
mirror did not revolve, the angle of reflection would also increase by aot.
After two reflections the beam would turn through 2c.ot as compared with the
case of immobile mirrors.
Since the second mirror does rotate, however, the angle of the beam inci-
dent on it decreases by cot during the time t. The angle of reflection decreases
by the same amount and for this reason the reflected beam will travel in the
same direction as with immobile disks.
Since this line of reasoning may be adopted for any two consecutive reflec-
tions, the angular velocity of rotation of the beam subjected to n reflections
will be 52=-0 if n is even, and 52=2co if n is odd.
(b) The first image moves away from the source with a velocity 2v and
from the second mirror with a velocity v. Therefore, the second image moves
with respect to the second mirror with a velocity — v, i.e., it is immobile
with respect to the source.

Fig. 497
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 387

Fig. 498 Fig. 499

Reasoning similarly, we find that the sought linear velocity of the n-th
image is zero if n is even, and 2v if n is odd.
686. The beam reflected from mirror ON forms with the incident beam an
angle cp (see Fig. 240) that does not depend on the angle of incidence i.
Indeed, as can be seen from triangle ABC, we have cp=180°-2 (i+r). On
the other hand, in triangle OAB, we have cc-F(90°— 0+ (90°--r)=180°.
Hence, (p--.180°-2a.=60°. When the mirror rotates, the direction of the
reflected beam does not change.
Thus, if the beam that fell on mirror OM is reflected from mirror ON, it
will always get into the receiver. As can easily be seen in Fig. 497 showing
two extreme positions of the mirrors at which the beam gets into the receiver
(OM, ON and OM', ON'), this occurs during one-sixth of a revolution.
For this reason one-sixth of all the energy of the beam will get into the
receiver during one revolution, which is a sufficiently large interval of time.
687. No, it cannot, since rays will reach the eye that produce the image
of only small portions of the frame (see Fig. 498 showing the path of the
rays from the extreme portions of the frame A and B).
688. 4 m2.
689. It follows from the similarity of triangles SOA, SOB, S'OA and S;OB
(Fig. 499) that the source of light S, its image S; in mirror OB and the
image S1in mirror OA lie on a circle with its centre at point 0. We have
SOS;=---cp. The virtual source S; is reflected from mirror AO and
produces image S; lying on the same circle at a distance of 2q arc degrees
from source S. Image S' of virtual source S' is formed in mirror OB in the
same way.
Continuing our construction, we obtain the third images .3'3 and S3 removed
from the source by Sip degrees and the fourth S4 and S4 (removed by 4p
degrees), etc.
If n is even (n=-2k), then image S fe'coincides with Sk and will be on one
diameter with the source. Altogether there will be 2k-1=--n —1 images.
388 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

If n is odd (n=2/ +1) it can

easily be seen that the i-th ima-
ges lie on the continuations of
the mirrors and thus coincide
with the (i + 1) th and all the sub-
sequent images. For this reason
there will be 2i images, i.e.,
n-1 as before.
690. Using the solution of
Problem 689, let us plot conse-
cutively the first, second, third,
etc., images of source S in the
mirrors (Fig. 500). All of them
will lie on a circle with a radius
OS and the centre at point 0.
If a is an integer, the last i-th
images will either get onto points
C and D at which the circle in-
tersects the continuations of the
mirrors, or will coincide with
Fig. 500 point F diametrally opposite to
the source. In both cases the
number of images will be a— 1.
If a is not an integer, for example where < 1, and i is an
integer, the last i-th images will lie on arc CFD that is behind both the
first and the second mirrors and there will be no more reflections. Thus, the
total number of images will be 2i.
691. Let us plot the image of point B in mirror bd (Fig. 501). Let us
then construct image B1in mirror cd. Also, B3 is the image of B2 in mirror
ac and B4 is the image of B3 in mirror ab.
Let us connect points A and B4. Point C is the point of intersection of ab
with line AB4. Let us now draw line B3C from B3, and connect point D at
which this line intersects ac with B2, E with B1, and F with B.
It can be stated that broken line ACDEFB is the sought path of the
beam. Indeed, since B3CB4 is an isosceles triangle, CD is the reflection of
beam AC.

r.

Fig. 501
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 389

Similarly, it is easy to show

that DE is the reflection of CD,
etc.
This solution of the problem
is not unique, since the beam
should not necessarily be sent
initially to mirror ab.
692. The coefficient of reflec-
tion of light from the surface of
water diminishes with a reduc-
tion in the angle of incidence.
If the observer looks down,
rays reflected at small angles
•• reach his eyes. The rays reflec-
ted from the sea water at the
horizon reach the eyes at greater
angles.
N. 693. According to the law of
Fig. 502 sin i
refraction =n (Fig. 502).
sin r
sin r 1
Upon exit from the plate = — . Upon multiplying these expressions, we
sin n
get sin i.e., beam CD leaving the plate is parallel to incident beam
AB. A glance at the drawing shows that a=i—r. The sought displacement
of the beam is x=EC=BC sin (i—r).
Since BC =— then
cos r '
d sin(i—r) cos i
x= =d sin i (1
cos r -11 n2— sin2 i)

And a maximum displacement of d can be obtained when i

694. The angle of incidence of the ray onto AC and BC is 45°. For total
internal reflection it is necessary that sin i > —
1.
n
Hence, a > 1.4.
695. The angle of incidence of the ray on face BC is equal to the sought
angle a. For the ray to be completely reflected from face BC, the angle a
should exceed the limiting one.
Therefore, sin a > ?, where n, is the refraction index of water.
Hence, a > 62°30'. 1
696. This phenomenon is nothing but a mirage frequently observed in de-
serts.
The hot layer of air in direct contact with the asphalt has a smaller re-
fraction index than the layers above. Total internal reflection occurs and the
asphalt seems to reflect the light just as well as the surface of water.
697. Let us divide the plate into many plates so thin that their refraction
index can be assumed constant within the limits of each plate (Fig. 503).
Assume that the beam enters the plate from a medium with a refraction
index of noand leaves it for a medium with a refraction index of no.
390 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

no

Is

Fig. 503
Then, according to the law of refraction,
sin a _n,
sin 13 no
sin _ n'
sin y n1
sin v _n"
sin S n'

sin cpn,
sin =77r
n
sin ,2,
sin x n,
Upon multiplying these equations we get
sin a _n,
sin x — no
Hence, the angle at which the beam leaves the plate

x= arc sin ("is sin (;‘)

n3
depends only on the angle of incidence of the beam on the plate and on the
refraction indices of the media on both sides of the plate. In particular, if
n3= no, then x= a.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 391

Fig. 504 Fig. 505

Generally speaking, the angle 0 at which the beam is inclined to the ver-
tical is related to the refraction index n at any point on the plate by the
ratio n sin 0 = const =no sin a. If the refraction index reaches a value of
n=nosin cc anywhere inside the plate, full internal reflection will take place.
In this case the beam will leave the plate for the medium at the same angle
a at which it entered the plate (Fig. 504).
698. The minimum amount of water determined by the level x (Fig. 505)
can be found from the triangle MNF. We have NF=x—b=--xtanr. From
the law of refraction
sin i
sin r=

Therefore,
blin2 —sin2 i
x— 27 cm
1—tan r -Ifn2 — sin2 i—sin i

since i =45° and n= 4 .

The amount of water required is V =xa2== 43.2 litres.
699. The man's eyes are reached by rays coming in a narrow beam from
an arbitrary point C on the bottom. They seem to the eye as issuing from
point C' (Fig. 506). Since Ai and Ar are very small, we can write:
A
AD= AC • H Or
cos r
AD' = AC' • Ai=—
hDl
cos i

By equating the values of AB from triangles ABD and ABD', we have

H A h A ,
LI -L3, &
cos2r cos2l
392 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

C Fig. 506

Using the law of refraction, we can find the ratio Li. Indeed,
Ar
sin i sin (1+ Ai)
=n and =n
sin r sin (r Ar)

Remembering that Ai and Ar are small, we have

sin Ai = Ai, sin Ar = Ar, and cos Ai === cos Ar =2--= I

Therefore, the last equation can be rewritten as

sin i +cos i • Ai =n sin r n cos r • Ar
Al cos r
Hence — =n Upon inserting this expression into the formula relating
' Ar cos i •

H . ._
,
.
.
i-''.
J.A
,-.7///,/ ////)//////// /7 // // // // . Fig. 507
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 393

H and h, we find
H cos3 i H cos3 t
n cos3 r n ( sin 2 i 3 /2
1
n2 )
H
When i=0, we have h=-_-- , i.e., the
depth seems reduced by n times. As
i increases, h diminishes. The approxi-
mate dependence of the seeming depth
on the angle i is shown in Fig. 507.
The man's eye is above point A of the
lake bottom.
700. (p= 120°.
701. The path of the ray in the
prism is shown in Fig. 508. There is
an obvious relationship between the
angles a and 13, namely, 2a +13-180°,
and a=2[3.
Hence, a.= 72°, 13=36°.
Fig. 508 702. The path of the ray in the prism
is shown in Fig. 509. To avoid
1
full internal reflection on face BN, it is necessary that sin p...‹ 7 As can
.

be seen from the drawing, 13=a—r. Hence, the greater the value of r, the
higher is the permissible value of a. The maximum value of r is determined
1
from the condition: sin r-= — (angle of incidence 90°).
n
Therefore, Amax =2 arc sin2 3- = 83°40'.

Fig. 509 Fig. 510

394 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 511

703. When considering triangles ABC, AMC and ADC (Fig. 510), it is
easy to see that r cp and y = a +13 — c. According to the law of re-
fraction,
sin a sin r, 1
=n, and —
sin r sin 13 n

Upon solving this system of equations, we find that

(1)=Gc+13— y
and
sin a 1 } 2
n=sin p sin p sin (a+ p--y) + tan (a+ (3—y) ±

704. According to the initial condition, the incident beam and the beam
that has passed through the prism are mutually perpendicular. Therefore,
L cp=L a and also L Y=L p (Fig. 511). The sum of the angles of the
quadrangle AKMN is 360°. Therefore, L KMN= 90° and beam
KM is incident onto face BC at an angle of 45°. If we know the angles of
triangle KBM it is easy to find that 13=30°. In conformity with the law of
sin a
refraction Hence,
sin 13
sin a= 0.5n and a= arc sin 0.5n

Since the full internal reflection at an angle of 45° is observed only

when n the angle a is within 45° < a 90°.
705. Paper partially lets through light. But owing to its fibrous structure
and the great number of pores, the dissipation of light is very high in all
directions. For this reason it is impossible to read the text.
When they fill the pores, glue or water reduce the dissipation of light,
since their refraction index is close to that of the paper. The light begins
to pass through the paper without any appreciable deviation, and the text
can easily be read.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 395

5-3. Lenses and Spherical Mirrors

706. n=1.5.
707.f =2R.
708. The convex surface has a radius of curvature of R1 =6 cm and the
concave one R2=12 cm.
709. In the first case the focal length is determined from the formula
1 .= ( ,\ ( 1 1
) V?T +-T2)
Since in a vacuum the focal length of the lens is f, then
1 1 ( nn 1) f
. Hence, h. 90 cm
R1 +R2 (n —1)!
1 —1
nl
In the second case the sought focal length is
(n-1)1
2— n , = 102 cm
n2
The lens will be divergent.
710. As shown in the solution of Problem 709
n2 (ni —1)
= D (n,—,12)
Therefore,
fDn ,
n2= 1.67
fD-F 1 —n1
711. The image will be m+ 1 times smaller than the object.
712. The lamp should be moved two metres away from the lens.
713. Obviously, one of the image will be virtual. Therefore, denoting the
distances from the sources of light to the lens by al and a2 and from the
lens to the images by b1and b2, we obtain:
1 1 1, 1 , 1 1
= , and -t- —
al —bl f a, b, f
According to the initial condition, al-I-- a2=1 and b1=b2. Upon solving
this system of equations, we get
F)
/ (1 ± T
2
The lens should be placed at a distance of 6 cm from one source and 18 cm
from the other.
714. Applying the formula of a lens to both cases, we obtain
11 , 1 1,1 1
— = — , anu and —
al bi f a2 62
396 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 512

According to the initial condition,

bl
a2=a1 +1 and =k1 =3
al
(magnification in the first case);
2- = k2=2
a2
(magnification in the second case).
kik2,
Hence, f = L 1=9 cm
715. (1) For this case the path of the rays is shown in Fig. 512a. From
the standpoint of reversibility of the light beams, point B can be regarded
as a source of light and point A as its image.
Then, according to the formula of a lens,
1 1 1
al b f
ai!)
Hence, f= 20 cm.
al b=
(2) The path- of the rays is illustrated in Fig. 5126. In this case, both the
image (point A) and the source (point B) are virtual. According to the for-
mula of a lens
1 I =- 1
-72 b f
2b
Hence, f..=aa+b=12 cm.
716. On the basis of the formula of a lens,
11 =- 1
a d—a f
where a is the distance between the lens and the lamp. Therefore,
a2—ad-Fdf
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 397

Fig. 513

Upon solving this equation, we obtain

d d2
a= -y ----df

Two positions of the lens are therefore possible: at a distance of a1 =70 cm

and at a distance of a2 =30 cm from the lamp.
When f'=26 cm, there will be no sharp image on the screen, whatever
the position of the lens, since to obtain the image it is necessary that d > 4f.
b
717. In the first case =–1- where a1and b1are the distances from the
'
h
object and the image to the lens. In the second case 2 = 62 .
H a2
It follows from the solution of Problem 716 that a1=b2 and b1=a2.
Therefore,
H=lrhih,
718. On the basis of the formula of a mirror
1 11
a T—T
The linear magnification of the mirror is
H b
h a
According to the initial condition, the angular dimensions of the image on
the concave mirror are 1.5 times greater than those on the flat mirror: 13=1.5a
(Fig. 513).
It is obvious that
tan a= 11and tan 13=
2a a+b
398 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Ai Fig. 514

Fig. 515

Fig. 516

Fig. 517
GEOMETRICAL OPT ICS 399

When h< 2a, a and 13 are small. For small angles

1 .5
a±b
H
Upon excluding the unknown quantities and b from the equations, we find
3
that f= a.
2
Hence, R =2f =3a= 6 metres.
719. The path of the ray is shown in Fig. 514. Let us continue AB up to
its intersection with the focal plane of lens NN. The beam of parallel
rays after refraction in the lens so travels that the continuations of the rays
should intersect at F'. Ray F'0 is not refracted. Thus, ray CA passing to
point A is parallel to F'0 up to the lens.
720. If A is the source and B is the image, then the lens will be conver-
gent. The position of the optical centre of the lens 0 and its foci F can be
found by construction as shown in Fig. 515.
If B is the source and A is the image, the lens is divergent. The respective
construction is illustrated in Fig. 516.
721. The centre of the lens 0 is the point of intersection of straight lines
SS' and N1N2. The foci can easily be found by constructing the rays parallel
to the major optical axis (Fig. 517).
722. Point 0, which is the optical centre of the lens, can be found by
dropping perpendicular BO onto straight line N1N2 (Fig. 518). Let us draw
an auxiliary optical axis DO parallel to ray AB and extend straight line BC
until it intersects DO at point E lying in the focal plane. Let us drop a per-
pendicular from E onto N 1N 2to find point F, one of the main foci of the
lens. By using the property of reversibility of the ray, we can find the other
main focus
723. The image S' may be real or virtual. In both cases let us draw an
arbitrary ray ADS' and auxiliary optical axis BOC parallel to it to find the
position of the source (Fig. 519). By connecting the points of intersection B
and C (of the auxiliary axis with the focal planes) to point D by straight
lines, we can find the position of the source S1(if the image S' is real) and
S2(if the image is virtual).
724. Since the ray incident on the mirror at its pole is reflected symmetri-
cally with respect to the major optical axis, let us plot point S1symmetrical
to S' and draw ray SS1until it in-
tersects the axis at point P (Fig. 520).
This point will be the pole of the mir-
ror.
The optical centre C of the mirror
can obviously be found as the point of
intersection of ray SS' with axis NN'.
The focus can be found by the usual
construction of ray SM parallel to
14- 0 Ye the axis. The reflected ray must pass
through focus F (lying on the optical
axis of the mirror) and through S'.
725. (a) Let us construct, as in the
solution of Problem 724, the ray BAC
Fig. 518 and find point C (optical centre of the
 Abi,
Fig. 519

Al

Fig. 520

Fig. 521
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 401

mirror) (Fig. 521a). Pole P can be found by constructing the path of the ray
APA' reflected in the pole with the aid of symmetrical point A'. The posi-
tion of the mirror focus F is determined by means of the usual construction
of ray AMF parallel to the axis.
(b) This construction can also be used to find centre C of the mirror and
pole P (Fig. 521b). The reflected ray BM will pass parallel to the optical
axis of the mirror. For this reason, to find the focus, let us first determine
point M at which straight line AM, parallel to the optical axis, intersects
the mirror, and then extend BM to the point of intersection with the axis at
the focus F.
726. (a) The rays reflected from the flat mirror increase the illumination at
the centre of the screen. The presence of the mirror is equivalent to the ap-
pearance of a new source (with the same luminous intensity) arranged at a
distance from the screen three times greater than that of the first source. For
this reason the illumination should increase by one-ninth of the previous illu-
mination, i.e.,
Ea .= 2.5 lx
(b) The concave mirror is so arranged that the source is in its focus. The
rays reflected from the mirror travel in a parallel beam. The illumination
along the axis of the beam of parallel rays is everywhere the same and equal
to the illumination created by the point source at the point of the mirror
closest to it. The total illumination at the centre of the screen is equal to the
sum of the illuminations produced by the source at the centre of the screen
and reflected by the rays:
Eb=2X2.25 lx=4.51x

(c) The virtual image of the point source in the convex mirror is at a
distance of 2.5r from the screen (r is the distance from the screen to the
source). The luminous flux cD emitted by the virtual source is equal to that
of the real source incident on the mirror:
11(01-= 12 02

Since the solid angle of of the flux incident on the mirror from source S
(Fig. 522) is one-fourth of the solid angle (o2inside which the rays from vir-
tual source Sipropagate, the luminous intensity 12 of the virtual source is
one-fourth of the intensity of source S. For this reason the virtual source
creates at the centre of the screen an illumination of 4X(2.5)2 =25 times smaller
that the real source. Hence, Ec =2.34 lx.

Fig. 522
402 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 523

727. Each section of the lens produces a full image irrespective of the other
sections. Therefore, there will be no strips on the photograph, and the image
will simply be less bright.
728. Any section of the lens gives an image identical in shape to that
produced by the entire lens. The layered lens can be therefore regarded as two
lenses with different focal lengths, but with a common optical centre. Accord-
ingly, this lens will produce two images: at point S1and at point S2(Fig. 523).
The image of the source will be surrounded by a bright halo with a diameter
of ab or, respectively, cd on a screen arranged perpendicular to the optical
axis at point S1or S2.
729. To prove that the visible dimensions of the Sun's disk near the hori-
zon and high above it are the same, let us project the disk in both cases onto
a sheet of paper with the aid of a long-focus lens. Both the lens and the
sheet should be perpendicular to the sunrays. A long-focus lens is required
because the dimensions of the image are proportional to the focal length.
If we measure the dimensions of the images, we see that they are equal.

5-4. Optical Systems and Devices

730. The mirror should be placed between the focus and a point lying on
the double focal length. The path of the rays is shown in Fig. 524.
731. The divergent lens should be placed at a distance of 25 cm from the
convergent one and the foci of both lenses will coincide. The path of the rays
is shown in Fig. 525.

Fig. 524
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 403

25cm --)-v

--- 40cm
A Fig. 525

732. Image A'B' of the object in the spherical mirror will be at a distan-
ce b1(Fig. 526) from the mirror determined by the formula of the mirror
1 1 2
a1

Hence, b1=8 cm. Distance AA' is 48 cm. Therefore, the plate should be pla-
ced at a distance of 24 cm from object AB.
733. Two cases are possible:
(a) The mirror is at a distance of d=f+R from the lens. The path of the
beam parallel to the optical axis of the system and the image of object AB
are illustrated in Fig. 527. Image A'B' (direct and real) is obtained to full
scale with the object in any position.
(b) The mirror is at a distance of d=f=R from the lens (Fig. 528).
The image of object A'B', also full-scale, will be inversed and virtual
with the object in any position.
734. The path of the rays in this optical system is shown in Fig. 529.
When the second lens is absent, the first one produces image A'B' that is at
a distance of b1=60 cm from the lens. This distance can be found from the
formula of the lens
1 11
7+
„1 7 =—
fl
Image A'B' is virtual with respect to
the second lens. Therefore,
1 1 1
a2 b2 f2

where a2=b1 —d= 30 cm.

Hence, b2 =7.5 cm.
735. It follows from the solution of the
previous problem that in the case of two
convergent lenses at a distance d from each
other the following equation is true
1 11 1 (al — f1) (f2 — b2)
7 —
f d a1b2f1f2
Fig. 526 .1 '2 /1 f2
404 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 527

In our case the divergent lens is tightly fitted against the convergent one
(d=0) and therefore
1 1 1 1 1
al b2 f1 [2 f
where f is the sought focal length of the system.
Hence, f = [IA
fl-f 2 •

736. The light beam issuing from a point at a distance of a 2 =5 cm from

the second lens impinges on it. As follows from the formula of a lens, the
continuations of the rays refracted by this lens intersect at a distance of
b2 =4 cm from it (Fig. 530). This point coincides with the focus of the third
lens. For this reason the rays leaving the system will travel in a parallel
beam. The given system is telescopic.
737. Figure 531 illustrates the path of the ray through the plate from
point S of the object. As a result
of refraction of light by the plate
ray BE seems to be issuing from
point S' that is the virtual image
of S in the plate. Thus, the distance
between the image of the object in
the plate and the lens is a' -=a—SS'.
The displacement SS'= AD=
DC.
Assuming the angles of incidence
on the plate to be small, we have
BC dr d
DC -==--==—
t r n

since — n.
r
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 405

d'
7

V
4
Fig. 529

1
— 17 )=4 cm. Before the plate was inserted, the
Therefore, SS' =d (1

screen had been at a distance of b= of 120 cm, and after it was in-
a— f
'f
serted at a distance of b'= —180 cm. The screen should therefore be
aa
' —f
shifted by 60 cm.
738. In the absence of the mirror the image A'B' of object AB (Fig. 532)
af
will be obtained at a distance of b= , 180 cm from the lens. After
a—f
reflected from the mirror, the image will occupy position A"B" and
will be at a distance of H'=b-1=80 cm from the optical axis.
The layer of water with a thickness of d will shift the image over a distance
1
of H — H' =d (1 — , where n is the refraction index of water. This fol-
lows directly from the solution of Problem 737.
1
Hence, H = H' +d (1-- =--85 cm.
n
739. Two cases are possible:
(1) The optical axis of the lens is perpendicular to the front face of the
wedge. The rays reflected from the front face pass through the lens and pro-
duce an image of the point source that Coincides,with the source itself. The

1-4-b
2

A Fig. 530
406 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 531 Fig. 532

rays reflected from the rear face will be deflected by an angle p (Fig. 533)
sin (p
determined by the equality sin 2a =-n. Since the angles are small IT = Zan.
The second image of the source will be obtained at a distance d from the
first image, namely d=fy=f2an.
Hence, n=- .
2af
(2) The optical axis of the lens is perpendicular' to the rear face of the
wedge. The rays reflected from the front face will be deflected by an angle
2a (Fig. 534) and produce an image at a distance of d1=2af from the
source.
The rays reflected from the rear face will be deflected by an angle 0 deter-
mined from the equations:
sin a sin (a+ 0)
it
sin 13 =n, and sin (2a—(3) =
When the angles are small, 0=-2a (n-1). For this reason the second image
will be at a distance ci2 =2a (n-1) f from the source. The total distance
between the images is d=d1+d2=2anf.
Hence, n= as in the first
f
case.
740. Since the image that coin-
cides with the source is formed
owing to reflection from the part
of the mirror not covered by the
liquid, the source is obviously arran-
ged at centre 0 of the hemisphere.
Let us find the position of the oth-
er image (point A in Fig. 535).
According to the law of refraction
sin a =__ n —a sin cp
and
Fig. 533 sin (3 sin 0
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 407

Fig. 534
As can be seen from the drawing, 0 =f3 212, where y= 13 is the angle
of incidence of the refracted ray on the mirror and (R-1—h) tan w = (R—h) tan a.
Neglecting h as compared with R, we can find from this system of equa-
tions that
2R—/
n= =1.6
2 (R-1)
741. The image A'"B"' obtained in the system is shown in Fig. 536.
F1and F2 are the foci of the lens and the mirror, and A'B' is the image
produced by the lens if its surface is not coated with silver.
The image A"B" produced by a concave mirror can be plotted, taking into
account that ray BO, after passing through the lens and being reflected from
the mirror surface, will travel along OB"; here L BOA= B"OA. Ray BC
,

emerges from the lens parallel to the optical axis of the system and after
reflection passes through F2.
The rays reflected from the mirror are refracted in the lens once more and
produce image AmB"'. Point B"' lies at the intersection of rays OB" and
O

Fig. 535
408 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 536

CD. Ray On" passes through the optical centre of the lens after reflection
and is thus not refracted. Ray CD can be plotted as follows. After the first
refraction in the lens and reflection, ray BC will travel in the direction of F,
and will be refracted in the lens once more. Its direction after the second
refraction can be found by the method described in Problem 723: ray OD pa-
rallel to CF 2is drawn through optical centre 0 until it intersects the focal
plane of the lens. The sought ray is obtained by connecting C and D.
Since the rays are refracted in the lens twice, focal length f of the system
can be found from the following ratio (see Problem 735):
1 1 ,
T7:1-7;1-
where f2 =-1is the focal length of the mirror
f1 t2
f= =2.5 cm
11+212
Therefore, the distance b to image A"'B"' can be found from the formula
1, 1 1
T I- T =7
of
Hence, b= =3 cm.
a--1
742. The focal length of the thin lens is f where r is the radius
n— 1
of the spherical surface.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 409

Fig. 537

Let the rays parallel to the optical axis of the spherical surface fall on
it from the air (Fig. 537). After being refracted on the surface, ray Ni( is
deflected by an angle a-13 from the optical axis.
As can be seen in Fig. 537a, we have OP tan a=F 2P tan (a-13).
According to the law of refraction, sin a
sin 13
Since these angles are small, roc==--- fi(a— fi) and a= 13n.
Therefore,

11— n-1 r=nl

If the parallel rays are incident from the glass (Fig. 537b), then similar
reasoning will give the equations:
sin a =1, and
r tan a=f, tan (p—co
sin p n

Since the angles are small, I3=na, and ra=f 2(p—a).

Hence, f2=—=_j.
n-1
743. Two cases are possible: the focus is outside the sphere, and inside it.
Let us consider the first case. The path of the ray incident on the sphere at
an angle i is shown in Fig. 538.
Bearing in mind that the angles i and r are small, we have, in accordance
with the condition of the problem,

BC = R sin a= R sin (2r —i) = R (2r — i) Ri

— (2—n)
n

The focus obviously lies outside the sphere when n < 2 and on the surface
of the sphere if n=2.

14-1865
410 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 538

The distance
CF = BC cot f3- and fi = 2 (i—r) 21 (n-1)
'

as can easily be found from Fig. 538.

The sought distance is
Rn
f=--R-F
2 (n-1)
When n > 2, the path of the ray is as shown in Fig. 539. The sought distance is
r =OF CF—R
As can be seen from Fig. 539,
CF= AC cot
AC = RI
1-r 1-f

Hence,

744. Let us extend ray BF until it intersects the continuation of the ray
incident on the sphere parallel to the optical axis (Fig. 538). It can easily
be seen that section DO that connects the point of intersection with the
centre of the sphere forms a right angle with the direction of the incident
ray. Triangle ODF is a right one, since
R n 2i (n-1)
OF [3 = Rt (see Problem 743)
2 n— 1
For this reason the main planes of sphere MN coincide and pass through its
centre.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 411

Fig. 539

745. The focal length of the sphere is

f= R n
2 n-1 15 cm
(see Problems 743 and 744). By using the formula of a lens, and this may
be done because the main planes coincide, let us find the distance from the
centre of the lens to the image
b.=of
—=— 15 cm
a—f
The image is virtual and is in front of the sphere.
746. The thin wall of the spherical flask can be regarded as a divergent
lens with a focal length of
R2
f 1- , 1 1) (n-1) AR
(n-1) ;
(ri — IT

After passing through two such lenses at a distance of 2R from each other
(Fig. 540), the rays parallel to the major optical axis (the flask diameter)
will be so refracted that their continuations will intersect at the focus F of

Fig. 540
14*
412 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

the system at a distance b from the second lens. According to the formula
of a lens,
1 1 1
fi +2R b Ti•
Hence,
b— (f1+ 2R)
2 (f + R)
Point D of the intersection of AB (continuation of the incident ray) and CF
(continuation of the refracted ray) lies on the main plane of the system at a
distance x from the second lens.
It follows from the similarity of triangles ACB and F1CO, and also of
triangles DCB and FCO that
x 2R
b — 2R+ f1
The main plane lies at the following distance from the second lens
2Rb f1R
2R +f1 f1+R
Therefore, the focal length of the system is
R2
f b x=
2 (f1 +R) 2 2 (n— 1) AR
In view of symmetry of this optical system, the positions of the second
focus and of the other main plane are obvious.
747. A glance at Fig. 541 shows that the angle of refraction is
r—L OAB=L ABO=L OBC=L OCB
and L BAD=L BCD= i— r
At point A the beam turns through an angle i—r, at point B through an
angle at-2r, and at point C through i—r. Therefore, the total angle through

Fig. 541
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 413

E7
A949°
7.50
138°-

120°
90°
EV°
.300

15 500 45 60'I 75 500

55° Fig. 542

which the beam is deflected from the initial direction is

0=i —r+n-2r+i—r=n+2i-4r

sin i
The angle r can be found from the ratio =n.
sin r
748. When a parallel beam of rays is incident on the drop, the ray passing
along the diameter has an angle of incidence of 1=0°, while the angles of
incidence of the rays above and below it may range from 0 to 90°.
(1) Using the results of the previous problem and the law of refraction,
we can find the values of 0 for various values of i:

Table 3

0 0

0° 180° 550 138°20'

20° 160°24' 60° 137°56'
40° 144°43' 65° 138°40'
50° 139°40' 70° 140°44'

(2) A diagram of 0 versus i is shown in Fig. 542.

(3) The minimum value of the angle of deflection is approximately equal
to 0,„,.„=138°. The rays leaving the drop are nearly parallel when 0r----0„,1„,
since in this case, as can be seen from Table 3 and the diagram, 0 changes
the slowest when i changes. An approximate path of the rays in the drop
Is illustrated in Fig. 543.
 414 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 543

749. In accordance with the formula of a lens

11, 1

The magnification is
6 6-- f
k=-
a = f =24 times
750. The condenser should produce a real image of the source on the lens
having the size of the lens. Therefore, using the formula of a lens and the
expression that determines its magnification, we can write two equations:
1 1 1 d x
—+ —=— and D
y f Do0 y
Here x is the distance from the source of light to the condenser and y is
the distance from the condenser to the lens. According to the initial condi-
tion, x+ y =1.
By cancelling x and y from the expressions obtained, we can find the focal
length:
dD0
1
f - (d+Do)2 —7.1 cm
The diameter of the condenser will be minimum if the slide is behind it.
The minimum permissible diameter is D= 11 cm.
751. Ground glass is needed to fix the plane in which the image is obtai-
ned, and to increase the angle of vision.
Transparent glass is used to examine the image produced by a lens in a
microscope. For this purpose a line is drawn on a transparent glass to fix
the focussing plane, and this line and the adjacent portion of the image pro-
duced by the lens are fccussed in the microscope. In this case ground glass
cannot be used, since the microscope will show all the distortions due to the
structure of the ground surface.
752. (1) The lanterns will appear equally bright, since thz illumination of
LA
the retina of the eye E=— is the same for both lanterns. (Here L is the
62
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 415

luminance of a lantern, A the area of the pupil, and b the distance from the
crystalline lens to the retina.)
(2) The image of a far object is closer to the lens than that of a near
object. For this reason a remote lantern produces a higher illumination of the
film and its image will be brighter on the photograph.
753. The illumination of the photographic film is

E
A (a — fr
b2 a2
2
2 is the lens speed, f is the focal length and a is the distance
where Si = -r--
from the lens to the object being photographed (see Problem 752). It is ob-
vious therefore that the exposure in a camera with a short focal length should
be smaller.
754. The distances between the Sun and the Earth and between the Sun
and the Moon are practically the same. For this reason if the Moon and the
wall had equal coefficients of reflection, their luminance would seem identical.
It can be assumed, therefore, that the surface of the Moon consists of dark
rock.
755. In air, the external convex cornea of the eye collects the rays and
produces an image on the retina. The crystalline lens only helps In this.
The refraction index of the liquid inside the eye is very close to that of
water. For this reason the cornea refracts almost no light and the eye becomes
very far-sighted.
The refractive properties of the cornea are completely retained when the
swimmer is wearing a mask.
756. When the man looks at remote objects through his spectacles, he sees
them as he would see objects at a distance of a2 =60 cm without any spec-
tacles.
Therefore, when the man is wearing spectacles (see the solution to problem 735)
1 _L 1 1 1
a ' b f
where a= co .
When the man is without spectacles
1, I I
az =7-
1
Here b is the depth of the eye, Tthe minimum optical power of the eye
1
and —the optical power of the spectacles. It is assumed that the spectac-
fo
les are fitted tightly against the eye.
Hence, f 0=— c/o.
Let us now determine the position of the nearest point of accommodation
of the eye with spectacles
1 , 1 1 1 , I- , 1
— = —„ and — -=- 1
al oi Il a3 bl /I /0
416 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Therefore,
1 1 -t-
, 1 1 1
—
a3 ai f0 al a,
and a, =15 cm
757. The long-sighted man when wearing his friend's spectacles can see
only very far objects. Therefore, the distance a2of best vision of the eye of
the long-sighted man can be determined from the equation
1 1
--- =DI
al a2
where al is a very great distance (a1 co) and D1is the optical power of
the spectacles of the short-sighted man.
The optical power D2of the spectacles that correct the defect of vision of
the long-sighted man can be found from the formula
1 1
=D2
ao a2
where a0 =0.25 metre is the distance of best vision of the normal eye.
The distance a3of best vision of a short-sighted eye can be found from the
equation
1 1
a0 a 3
If the short-sighted man wears the spectacles of his long-sighted friend,
the distance of best vision, i.e., the minimum distance a at which the short-
sighted man can easily read a small type, can be determined from the formula
1 1
- - D2
a a3
Upon solving these four equations, we get a = 12.5 cm.
758. When an object with a height of I is examined from a distance of D,
the angle of vision (piis determined by the formula

(1)1=-5

If the same object is viewed through a magnifying glass,

I' I'
W2= b+r L
where I' is the height of the image (Fig. 544).
The angular magnification is
N _(:p2=PD___k D
-- (pi IL— L
' b f 1b
where k= L is the linear magnification determined from the
/= =
formula of a lens (f is the focal length).
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 417

Fig. 544

Hence,
D b±f D L—r+f
N=
ff. f L

(1) When L= oo , we have N-T .

(2) When L=D, we have N=T+ 1-T •

759. The magnification of a telescope is N= , where fl is the focal

fl
length of the objective and f2that of the eyepiece.
Since in a telescope adjusted to infinity the distance between the objective
and the eyepiece is f i-1- /2,
D fl l is
d b

Here b is the distance from the eyepiece to the image of the diaphragm.
According to the formula of a lens,
1 I
f1 + f2 b 12

Upon cancelling b from these equations, we find that

D _N
d 12

760. Sharp images of remote objects will be obtained with the convergent
lens in three different positions. The lens can be placed in front of the d i-
vergent lens or behind it.
418 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 545

For the first position the distance d between the lenses can be found con-
sidering point K as the virtual image of point A in the divergent lens (Fig. 545).
1 1 1
=
f2—d 1 f,
Ray MN is parallel to the optical axis of the system.
Hence,
d=f—-=3.5
. 11+1 cm

For the second position (the convergent lens is behind the divergent one)
the path of the rays is shown in Fig. 546. Regarding point A as the image
of K in the convergent lens, let us use the formula of a lens
1 1 1
-Fd 1—d f,
Hence,
d= 1— 11 ± f1 V1 4f2
2 2
1+ 11
The distance between the lenses may be d5 =35 cm or d3 =5 cm.
761. Let the rays coming from one end of the diameter of the visible disk
of the Moon be directed along the optical axis of the system. The rays will
produce an image on the optical axis at point A (Fig. 547) removed by a
distance of 1=45 cm from the divergent lens.

A V

N
O O
zzr

A
Fig. 546
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 419

Fig. 547

The rays coming from the other end of the diameter form, according to the
condition, an angle pwith the first rays. After passing through the system,
these rays will produce an image (point B) lying in a plane perpendicular
to the optical axis and removed by the same distance 1 from the divergent
lens.
To find the diameter of the image Di = AB, let us consider the path of
the ray passing through the optical centre of the first lens.
In the first arrangement, the convergent lens is placed in front of the
divergent one at a distance of d1=3.5 cm. If we consider point E as the
virtual image of point 0 we can write

1 1 _ 1
d1 x1 f1

Using the similarity of triangles ABE and 01PE and remembering that
01 p=d 1 tan cp, we obtain

D1 di tanq) dig)
/4-xi x,

Upon cancelling x1from these equations, we find that D1=0.72 cm.

In the second arrangement of the lenses (d2 =35 cm), the path of the rays
is shown in Fig. 548. The diameter of the Moon's image D2 can be found

Fig. 548
420 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

B Fig. 549
from the equations:
D2 d 2tan (13, d2 )
(x2 + d2)-1 x2 x2
(considering triangles EOP, EAB and °POD and
1 1 1
d2 x 2 f 2
(considering E as the image of 01). Hence D2 0.011 cm.
In the third arrangement (d3 =5 cm) the path of the rays will be some-
what different (Fig. 549) than that shown in Fig. 548.
The equations for D3 can be written similar to the preceding cases as
follows:
D3 d3 tan q:1=-' d3T 1 1 1
, and
(1—d3)+Xa X3 3 x3 f2
-7
Hence, D3= 0.18 cm.
762. It follows from the formula of a lens
1 1I
a+ =
that the magnification of the objective is
Fob
a a — Fob
where b is the distance from the image to the objective.
The real inverse magnification of the object produced by the objective can
be viewed through the eyepiece as through a magnifying glass, the virtual
image produced by this magnifying glass being arranged from the eye at the
distance of best vision D=25 cm.
According to the formula of a magnifying glass
I 1 1
a1 D Feye
where al is the distance from the image produced by the objective to the
eyepiece.
he magnification of the eyepiece is
D D+Feye
k 2= —
a1 Feye
The total magnification of the microscope is
F o b (D±Feye)
k=kik 2= 180 times
(a—F- ob) F eye
'CHAPTER 6
PHYSICAL
OPTICS

6-1. Interference of Light

763. No, it does not. The presence of illumination minima on the inter.
ference pattern means that no quantity of light enters the given section of
sp ace.
764. The maximum illumination will be observed at an arbitrary point of
the screen C (Fig. 550) if the difference of the paths ci2-4=0.., where
k =0, 1, 2, ... is an integer.
According to the Pythagorean theorem,

hk +--12- )
2
d2=D2+(
= D2 + hk )2
whence
4-4 —(4+ di)d0=_-2hki
In accordance with the initial condition d2+di 2D. Therefore, d2 —d1 =
hkl
leX . The distance to the k-th light band from the centre of the screen is
2D
hk = D
,
l .The distance between the bands is Ah=hk r k =y •
765. The distance between interference bands is (see Problem 764).
In our case D= AB = a+b, and /=S1S2is the distance between the images
Si and S2of the source in the flat mirrors (Fig. 551). The value of 1 can

Fig. 550
422 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

ll

N Fig. 551

be found from triangle S1SB:

1 a
-T =2b y
- or 1--,
--2ba

Hence,
21.(a
Ah
2ba
+b)
766. The second coherent source is obtained in Lloyd's experiment by
reflection of the rays from mirror AO. In reflection the phase changes by n
(loss of a half-wave) and the oscillations will be damped at point 0 where
a bright band should be observed (a minimum of illumination). As compared
with Problem 764, the entire pattern will be shifted by the width of a light
(or dark) band.
767. The illumination on the screen will be intensified when c12 —(11=k1t.
The locus of points on the screen reached by rays from both sources with
this difference is a circle with its centre at point A (Fig. 552). For this reason
the interference bands will have the form of concentric circles.
When l=nX the illumination will be intensified at point A (an interference
maximum of the n-th order). The nearest bright interference band (circle) of

Fig. 552
PHYSICAL OPTICS 423

Fig. 553
the (n— 1)th order is at a distance from point A determined from the equation
d2 —d1=17(nk+ D)2 + vw+11,,_,=(n-1)
Bearing in mind the conditions of the problem that 2 < D and X <1, we get
7 2D (Di-nX)
1 =-: 172DX ( 12 +1)

768. The difference between the path of the rays for the k-th bright ring is
cl2 —c11=-17(21220 2 +4— V(nX)2 +4,-=lek
Therefore,
r = 11(9n2_k2) (n2—k2)
769. A semitransparent plate with an aperture can be used to create the
second coherent source closer to the screen than the first one. On the basis
of Huyghens' principle, the aperture can be regarded as the secondary source
and an interference pattern will appear on the screen.
If the distance between the sources is great, an interference pattern can be
obtained with the aid of a source producing waves very close to monochro-
matic ones.
770. To find the distance Ah it is first necessary to calculate the distance
1 between the virtual sources S1and S2 located at the point of intersection
of the continuations of the rays refracted by the prism faces.
For this purpose it will be the simplest to consider the path of the ray
normally incident on the face of the prism (Fig. 553).
No such ray actually exists, but it can be plotted by mentally extending
the upper prism downward. All the beams from a point source refracted by
a prism can be assumed to converge at a point, and this method is quite
permissible. Since the refracting angle of the prism is small (the prism is
thin), the virtual images S1 and S2of the source can be regarded as lying at
the same distance from the prism as source S. It can be seen from Fig. 553
that i=--oc and SA=aa. According to the law of refraction, r Consi-
424 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 554
dering triangle AS1B, we can write
±as= aan
2
Hence,
1=2aa (n— 1)
By using the solution of Problem 764, we find:
XD =_ X (a ± 6)
Oh— =0.15 cm
2aa (n —1)

771. N=— ' where L is the width of the interference pattern.

Oh
It can be seen from Fig. 256 that L=P— 1, where 1 is the distance between
Q
the virtual images S1and S2of the source.
Using the results of the previous problem, we get
4aba2(n —1)2 5
N—
(a +6) X
772. A biprism made of a substance with a refraction index n2 deflects
rays by an angle
94= ( 90°— -,r) (n2 — n1)

where is the refraction index of the medium from which the rays fall. For
a biprism in air
cp2 = (90° ) (n2 -1)
-2/
If the biprisms are equivalent, WI = (P2. Hence,
n2— nl n1-1
6— (3 + 180°
n2 — I n2 — I
For the values given in the initial conditions, 6 = 179'37'.
PHYSICAL OPTICS 425

Fig. 555

773. The path of the rays in the system is illustrated in Fig. 554. Hem
Si and S2are the images of source S in the halves of the lens. Obviously,
fa
b=
a- f

The distance 1 between Si and S2can be found from the similarity of

triangles S AB and SS1S2:
i= ad
a— f
The distance between adjacent interference bands on the screen is
X(D—h)
Ah= =(Da— Df — af)=-- IC-2cm
1 ad

(see Problem 764).

The sought number of interference bands is
N L_d (D + a) _25
Ah aAh
774. The distance between the virtual sources Si and S2 can be found by
the method described in the solution of Problem 773 (Fig. 555).
The distance between interference bands is
(Df — +0)
Ah
da
426 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

11111141111111ipplimilw
Nium
-

Fig. 556

The number of bands on the screen is

Ah
DI
where L= T- is the dimension of the portion of the screen on which interfe-
rence bands are observed. Therefore,
Nabfk
D= -15 cm
adl+abNX—bfNX.
The maximum possible number of bands can be determined from the condition
adi+Nabk—bfn=0
(here D oo).
Hence,
adl
Nmax—bfx — abX -5

The number of bands is finite, since the distance between them increases as
the screen is moved away, and the dimensions of the portion of the screen
on which the interference pattern appears grow.
775. The distance between the interference bands will not depend on the
position of the screen only if the source is arranged in the focal plane of the
lens. This directly follows from the expression
Ah=- (Df —Dad-an

obtained in solving Problem 774. When a= f,

=10-2cm
d
at any value of D.
For this case the path of the rays is shown in Fig. 556. A glance at this
illustration will show that the number of interference bands will be maximum
when the screen is in position AB. The distance from the screen to the lens
PHYSICAL OPTICS 427'

d
can be found from triangle OAB, remembering that the angle cc.—= — and
AB=R:

ddi
:=2 metres

776. The length of a light wave diminishes n times in glass, since the
frequency does not change and the velocity decreases n times. This produces.
anadditional difference in the path between the coherent waves in the beams.
At a distance of d1the upper beam will accommodate k1=dXn wavelengths,
d n di —d,
and the lower beam k _ 2 + wavelengths at the same distance.
2 7`
At any point on the screen the light waves will additionally be shifted with
respect to each other by tel —k, wavelengths. As a result, the entire interfe-
(di c/2)
rence pattern will be displaced by ki —k2= x (n 1)-100 bands.
The process of displacement can be observed at the moment when the plates
are introduced. After this has been done, the interference pattern on the screen
will be as before.
777. The lens is too thick. Interference occurs only with thin films. The air
layer between the lens and the glass is thin.
778. No, it will not. The difference of the path between the waves meeting
on the screen and emitted by the sources S and Sr or S and S2 is great.
In these conditions the spectra of various orders that correspond to the spect-
ral interval of the source are superposed in the same way as when the waves
are reflected from the boundaries of a thick film.
If the shield is removed, the only result will be superposition of monoto-
nously changing illumination on the interference pattern from sources Si
and S2.

cas•
Fig. 557
428 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

779. When the rings are observed in reflected light, the intensity of the
interference beams is about the same.
In transmitted light the intensity of one beam that was not reflected is
much higher than that of another beam that was reflected twice. As a result,
the maxima and minima will appear against the background of uniform illu-
mination, the light will not be extinguished completely and the entire pattern
will be less distinct than in reflected light.
780. In the absence of contact, the radius of the fifth ring is determined
r2
by the equation 2d=5X. If the dust is removed, the radius of this ring
2 -, 1
can be found from the equation 5k . Hence, d= 1.8X 10 -4cm.
2R
781. rk=-17
i 1 1
R2 R1 )
782. To reduce the reflection factor it is necessary that rays I and 2
(Fig. 557) reflected from the external and internal surfaces of the coat applied
to the optical glass damp each other.
This will occur if
k
2hn = (2k +1)— 1 ( )
2
where k = 0, 1, 2, ... . Hence, the minimum thickness of the coat is
hmi n =471 .
Condition (1) cannot be satisfied for all wavelengths. For this reason, h is
usually so selected as to damp the middle part of the spectrum. The thickness
of the coat exceeds hmin by an odd number of times, since it is easier to
make thick coats than thin ones (a quarter of the wavelength thick).
783. To observe an interference pattern, the maximum of the k-th order
corresponding to the wavelength 7v should not overlap with the maximum pf
the (k+ 1)th order corresponding to the wavelength 1+,+ AA., where AX= 100 A.
This will occur if (X ± Ak) k (k + 1).
Hence, k .
The maximum permissible thickness of the layer hmax satisfies the equation
2h,„= + kmax

where k max = A— x • If A, is the wavelength corresponding to the middle of the

visible section of the spectrum (X. = 5,000 A), then
hmax 1.3X 10-3cm

If a thin film with a refraction index n is used Instead of the air layer,
the maximum thickness should be n times smaller than in the air layer.
784. Upon the interference of rays I and 2 (Fig. 558) reflected from diffe-
rent faces of the wedge, the condition of the minimum can be written as
follows: 2hn=--kk (k= 0, 1, 2).
PHYSICAL OPTICS 429

>1 Fig. 558

Since the angle a is small, lz = xa.
Therefcre, the distance between the interference bands on the wedge is
Ax=
`tan
Ax a
According to the formula for the magnification of a lens, =-- where
A/ b '
a is the distance from the screen to the lens and b from the lens to the wedge.
1 1 1
Since b=d—a, then according to the formula of a lens, — a +d --=-._ a. = 7. Upon
cancelling a and b from these expressions, we can find the sought value of
the angle a
rd 2 —ofd
a=
2nAl d f rd2_4fd
The solution of this problem is not a single one, because a sharp image
can be obtained on the screen with fixed d and f when the lens is in one of
two positions.

6-2. Diffraction of Light

785. The radius of the first Fresnel zone can be found from triangles ADE
and DEB (Fig. 559):

ri= a2 — (a— x)2= (b +2-L.)2 — (b x)2

2

Since the wavelength is small, x—

Therefore, 4= 2ax— x2.
Neglecting the small value of x2, we finally obtain
abX
r =
1 11a±b
430 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 559

The same method can be used to obtain the radii of the following Fresnel
zones. For zone k
abkk
rk = a +b

786. A distance from a point source to the wave front of a oo corres-

ponds to a plane wave.
The sought radii of the zones are
abkk
lim kbk
„ r ad-b
(see the solution to Problem 785).
787. To solve the problem it is necessary to calculate the number k of
Fresnel zones that can be accommodated in apertures with diameters of D
and DI.
Using the results of Problem 785, we have
abXD
b--_
FC a

Now it is easy to find that k = 3 (an odd number). When the aperture is
5.2 mm in diameter, it can contain approximately four zones (an even num-
ber). Therefore, a greater aperture will reduce the illumination at point B.
788. When the four Fresnel zones are open the dark spot on the axis of
the beam is surrounded by bright and dark rings. When the aper-
ture is increased, the total illumination of the screen grows in magnitude,
but the distribution of the luminous energy on the screen so changes that
the minimum will be in the centre.
789. The sought illumination will be maximum when one Fresnel zone is
accommodated in the diaphragm. With a view to the solution of Problem 786,
we have
D=2 VbX=0.2 cm
PHYSICAL OPTICS 431

Fig. 560

790. The diffraction will be noticeable if the aperture accommodates a

small number of Fresnel zones, i.e., the radius of the aperture will be of
the same order as (or smaller than) the radius of the first Fresnel zone:
, ab ,
V
where R is the radius of the aperture.
When a=b, we have aX. > 2R2.
791. The Fresnel zones plotted in Fig. 560 make it possible to determine
the luminous intensity at point B. The illumination at this point is created
by the first and subsequent Fresnel zones. If the dimensions of the screen do
not exceed considerably the radius of the first central zone, found from the
formula in Problem 785, a bright spot is sure to appear at point B with an
illumination only slightly differing from that which would have appeared in
the absence of the screen.
792. Approximately three metres.
793. Here it is more convenient to select the Fresnel zones in the form of
bands parallel to the edges of the slit. The minimum will be observed in the
direction q if an even number of zones can be accommodated in slit AB
(Fig. 561). This figure shows four Fresnel zones. We have b=2kx, where x
is the width of the Fresnel zone, k=1, 2, 3, ... . Here AK is the difference
in the path between the extreme rays sent by one zone:

AK =x sin lzp
2
Hence,
x=
2 sin lip
Therefore, the minimum will be observed in the direction q if b sin cp=
794. The rays incident on the pinhole of the camera from a remote point
source are nearly parallel. If there were no diffraction the dimensions of the
432 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 561

bright spot would be equal to AB --=2r (Fig. 562). In view of diffraction,

the dimensions of the spot will increase to DC. The distance OC is determi-
ned by the angle pthat gives the direction to the first minimum (dark ring).
According to the note, 2rsinp 4. Therefore, the radius of the spot is
dX
OC=r+AC=--r-Pdsin(P
'slr+- 27
This value reaches the minimum (see the solution to Problem 504) when
Xd
r= — . The optimum dimensions of the hole r=
2r v
Xd

795. The angles that determine the directions to the maxima of the second
and the third orders satisfy the equations:
d sin cp2 =2X and d sin cp3 =- 3X
Hence,
1+.,=d (sin (1)3—sin TO =___.2d cos (T2 + TO sin (9)3—(1)2)
2 2

d (q)3 —T2)=da 1.7 X 10 -5CM

796. Sin T=I corresponds to the maximum value of k. Hence,

k= =4

797. For a spectrum of the first order to appear, d should be greater than
or equal to X. Therefore, the sought period of the grating must not be less
than 0.02 cm.
798. The direction to the first maximum is determined by the expression
d sin p=?. The screen is arranged in the focal plane of the lens. Assuming
dl
the angle IT to be small, we have 1=fq). Hence, X x 10-5cm.
799. The length of all waves diminishes in water n times (n is the refraction
index of water). Hence, the angles cp that determine the directions to the maxima,
PHYSICAL OPT ICS 433

Fig. 562

and the distances from the centre of the di ffraction pattern to the maxima cor-
responding to various wavelengths, also decrease n times, since according to
the initial condition the angles IT are small and sin ITp.
800. The spectra of different orders will be in contact if 0.2-=(k ± 1) Xi.
Therefore,

11 5

For this reason only the spectra of the sixth and seventh orders can be
partially superposed. But this grating (see Problem 796) can give only the
spectrum of the fourth order for this range of wavelengths. Therefore the
spectra will not be superposed in our case.
801. When the rays are incident on the grating at an angle 0 (Fig. 563),
the difference in the path between the waves issuing from the edges of adja-

Fig. 563
434 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

cent slits is
(5=BD—AC=d sin T—dsin 0
These waves add up and intensify each other when
d (sin (p—sin 0)-=kA
where k 1, 2, 3, ... for the maxima lying at the right of the central one
(k = 0) and k= —1, —2, —3, ... for those lying at its left.
The maximum order of the spectrum will be observed when (1)=-90°.
1
Thus d -(-1- )=kX. Hence, k= —6. The spectrum of the sixth order
2
may be observed. The minus sign shows that the spectrum lies to the left
of the central one.
802. As follows from the formula d (sin if—sin 0)=0, (see the solution
to Problem 801), the period of the grating will be minimum with tangential
it,
incidence of the rays: 0=90°. In this case — . Therefore, the period of
2
the grating should satisfy the inequality
2
803. In the general case, as shown in the solutio3 of Problem 801, the
sought condition will be
d (sin (p—sin 0)=0.
It may be rewritten as
P+2 sin W-2° kX
2d cos (

If d> k? then cp 0. Here cos (P+° cos 0, and sin (P- ° (1)--
2 2 2° •
Therefore, the condition that determines the directions to the principal maxima
will take the form
d cos 0 (p— 0) kA
The grating constant diminishes, as it were, and becomes equal to d cos 0
instead of d. The angles if-0are counted off from the direction of the inci-
dent light.

6-3. Dispersion of Light and Colours of Bodies

804. As shown in Problem 703, the angle of incidence a, the refraction
angle of the prism cp and the refraction index n are related to the angle 13
at which the beam emerges from the prism by the expression
sin a 2
cp +cot cp) +1
n=sin (sin 0 sin
herefore, we obtain the following equation for sin p
sin a sin2
sine (1 +cot2 0+2 sin 13 + n2=0
sin of tan of sin2cp
PHYSICAL OPTICS 435

Fig. 564

Or
1
2 sin2 13+ IfYsin f3+ 7-n2=0

Upon solving this equation, we find that

—1 ± 4n2-1
sin [3.
2 Y2-
The solution with the plus sign has a physical meaning. For red rays
sin pi,. 0.26. Therefore, p,. 111°6'. For violet rays sin 0.31 and 13„
18°6'. The sought angle is 0= ft —VI,. === 3°.

Fig. 565
436 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Fig. 566

805. For the red rays the focal ,length of the lens is
tr — 2 nR_1) = 27 cm
and for the violet rays fv ---=25 cm.
According to the formula of a lens, the image produced by the red rays
r
will be at a distance of br = , —58.7 cm and that from the violet rays
aa— t r
at b,„---50 cm.
The image of the source on the screen (Fig. 564) will have the form of
a spot whose edges are coloured red.
The diameter of the spot d can be found from the similarity of triangles
ABE and CDE:
d=D ' 0.15 cm
b,
806. The sunrays falling on rain drops may be assumed to be parallel.
As they emerge from a drop after being reflected once on its internal surface,
the rays diverge in all directions. Only the rays subjected to minimum defle-
ction are about parallel. When these rays get into the eye, they produce
the maximum visual impression. These rays travel, as can be said, with the
maximum density. The other rays are diffused in all directions. As shown
in Problem 748, the angle of deflection for parallel rays is 138°. Therefore,
the angle between the sunrays and the direction to the rainbow is 42° (for
red light) (Fig. 565).
The eye will receive light from the drops that are in the direction for-
ming an angle of 42° with the line passing through the eye and the Sun.
For violet rays this angle is about 40°.
807. The first (primary) rainbow is observed owing to the rays that were
reflected once inside the water drops. Upon refraction, the violet rays undergo
the greatest deflection from the initial direction (see Problem 747) (Z 0 grows
with n, since r decreases). For this reason the external arc will be red and
the internal one violet.
The reflection rainbow is caused by rays that were reflected twice inside
the drops. The approximate path of the ray is shown in Fig. 566. As can
be shown, the direction to the rainbow is 51° with the line that connects
the eye and the Sun. With two refractions and two reflections the colours
alternate in the reverse order: the external arc will be violet and the inter-
nal one red.
PHYSICAL OPTICS 437

Fig. 567

The luminous intensity is much weaker after two reflections, for which
reason a reflection rainbow is much less intensive than the primary one.
808. The geographical latitude of Moscow, i.e., the angle between the
plane of the equator and a normal to the surface of the Earth, is cp.=56°.
At this moment the Sun is in the zenith above the northern tropic (latitude
a=23.5°). Hence, the angle between the direction to the Sun and the hori-
zon (Fig. 567) is
13=900— (p+a=57°30'
A rainbow can be observed only when the altitude of the Sun above the
horizon does not exceed 42° (see Fig. 565). Therefore, no rainbow can be
observed.
809. Our eye perceives a colour when its sensitive elements are irritated
by a light wave of a definite frequency. The frequency of light waves, howe-
ver, does not change during transition from one medium into another.
810. The green glass should be used. In this case the word will appear
black against the green background of the paper, since the red colour of the
word "excellent" does not pass through green glass.
If the red glass is used, the word written by the red pencil will not be
seen against the red background of the paper.
811. Camera lenses predominantly reflect the extreme parts of the visible
spectrum: red and violet (see Problem 782). A mixture of these colours pro-
duces a lilac tint.
812. The colours of a rainbow are pure spectral colours (see Problem 806)
since only a ray of a definite wavelength is seen in a given direction. Con-
versely, the colours of thin films are produced by extinguishing (totally or
partially) of the rays of a certain spectral interval due to interference. The
colour of the film will supplement the colour of this spectral interval.
813. Under the force of gravity, the soapy water drains down onto the
lower portion of the film, which is always thicker than the upper one. Hence,
the bands that show the locus of points of equal thickness should be arran-
ged horizontally. The light-blue (blue-green) tint is obtained when the long-
wave (red-orange) part is excluded from the full spectrum (see Problem 812).
When the middle (green) part of the spectrum is extinguished, the remaining
rays impart to the film a purple (crimscn) hue, and when the short-wave
438 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

(blue-violet) part is excluded from the solid spectrum, the film will appear
as yellow. If the difference in the path of the mutually extinguishing rays
forms the same number of half-waves in all three cases, the yellow band
should be on top, followed by the purple band and by the light-blue band
at the bottom.
814. In the daytime the light-blue light diffused by the sky is added to
the yellowish light of the Moon itself. This mixture of colours is perceived
by the eye as a white colour. After sunset the light-blue colour of the sky
is attenuated and the Moon acquires a yellowish hue.
815. The smoke is seen against a dark background because it diffuses the
sunrays incident from above. The particles of the smoke diffuse blue light
much more intensively than red or yellow light. Therefore, the smoke seems
blue in colour.
The smoke is seen in transmitted light against the background of a bright
sky. The smoke seems yellowish since the blue light is diffused in all direc-
tions and only the long-wave part of spectrum of white light reaches the eye.
816. A thin film of water covering a moist object reflects the incident
white light in cne definite direction. The surface of the object no longer diffu-
ses white light in all directions, and its own colour becomes predominant.
The diffused light is not superposed on the light reflected from the object,
and for this reason the colour seems richer.
 TO THE READER

Mir Publishers ralould be grateful for your

comments on the content, translation and design
of this book. We would also be pleased to re-
ceive any other suggestions you may wish to
make.
Our address is: Mir Publishers, 2, Pervy
Rizhsky Pereulok, Moscow, USSR.

Printed in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics