Laboratory Manual

MATERIAL SCIENCE
AND TESTING LAB
3ME8A

B.Tech. (Mechanical) 3rd Semester

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

Max. Marks: 75 (as per Rajasthan Technical University Syllabus, Kota)

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S. No. Name of Experiment Page No. Hours

To perform Tensile/Compressive Test on a given
1 3-5 2½
specimen.
2 To perform Torsion Test on a given specimen. 6-7 2½

To determine Rockwell and Brinell hardness of a

3 8-11 2½
given material.
To perform Impact test on a given material: IZOD
4 12-15 2½
Test.
To perform Impact test on a given material:
5 12-15 2½
CRARPY Test.
To study and perform Fatigue test on a given
6 16-18 2½
material.
To study and perform spring test on a given helical
7 19-22 2½
spring.
Comparative study of microstructures of different
8 23-24 2½
given specimens.
Specimen preparation for metallographic
9 25-26 2½
examination /micro structural examination.
TOTAL HOURS: 22 ½

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 EXPERIMENT NO.1

OBJECTIVE :-To conduct tensile test on the specimen and determine its properties

EQUIPMENT:-TFUC Universal Testing Machine

MACHINE DISCRIPTION:- The machine comprises of three main parts,

1.Machine frame i.e. loading unit
2.Hydraulic system
3.Electronic control panel

The machine frame consists of two cross head which can be adjusted by means of geared
motor. Compression test carried out between centre and lower table, and tension test is
carried between centre and upper crosshead. Sensing of load is by means of precision
pressure transducer of strain gauge type.
For measurement of ram stroke ,rotary encoder is fitted in the bottom of the machine,
also adjustable limit switch is provide for safety limiting of ram stroke. Hydraulic system
consists of motor pump unit with cylinder and piston. Safety relief valve is provided for
additional safety.

SAFETY PRECAUTION:-
1. Remove the jaw – lock handle before starting the tensile test.
2. The jaws should be released slowly.
3. Ensure proper locking of test specimen.

THEORY:-
In this test the load is applied along one axis, and rate of loading is constant. The test is
done on the universal mechanical testing machine which is typically screw – driven or
hydraucally powered. In some cases the machine may be computer controlled. The
primary data generated are load vs elongation which converts into stress vs strain data.
Typical device for measuring strain are mechanical dial indicator, electrically-resistive
strain gauge attached to specimen, or extensometer that employ either an optical device, a
strain gauge or an inductive or capacitive transducer.
There are different types of specimen depending on the type of the grips and in the form
of the available material (sheet, rod, etc.). A good surface finish is required so that
surface flows do not provide stress concentrations to cause premature failure.
Stress = load / A0
Strain= Δl / l

PROCEDURE:-

(A) TENSION TEST :-

1. Select the proper jaw and complete the upper and lower chuck assemblies .
2. Apply some graphite grease to the tapered surface of the grip for the smooth motion.
Then operate the upper cross –head grip operation handle and grip fully the upper end of
the test piece.

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3. Keep the left valve in fully closed position and the right valve in normal position .Open
the right valve and close it after the lower table is slightly lifted.

4. Now adjust the load to zero by TARE push button.

5. Operate the lower grip handle and lift the lower cross head up and grip fully the lower
part of the specimen. Then lock the jaws in this position by operating the jaw locking
handle. Then, slowly turn the right control valve to open the position (i.e.anticlockwise)
until you get the desired loading rate.

6. Then keep on increasing the load. When the test specimen is broken, close the right
control valve, take out the broken test pieces.

(B) COPMRESSION TEST :-

1. Fix the lower pressure plate on the lower crosshead and lower table respectively.

2. Place the specimen on lower compression plate.

3. Then adjust the ZERO by lifting the lower table and perform the test in the same way
as the tension test.

OBSERVATIONS :-

Original dimensions:
Length= Diameter=
Final dimensions:
Length= Diameter=
Stress (at any three points in elastic limit): From Stress Strain Curve

Strain (at any three points in elastic limit): From Stress Strain Curve

CALCULATIONS:-

i) Original Area

ii) Final Area

iii) Final percentage reduction in area

iv) Load (at three points selected on stress strain curve)

v) Modulus of Elasticity vi) Possion’s ratio

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TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF CALCULATED DATA FROM TEST

S.No. Load Stress Strain Yield points UTS

1. UYP LYP
2.
3.

UYP: Upper yield point

LYP: Lower yield point

RESULT:- The given material has:

Modulus of Elasticity =
Poisson Ratio=
Tensile Strength=

DISCUSSION:-
 When the initial area of the specimen is used in the calculation, the stress is called
the nominal stress.
 A more exact value of the axial stress, called the true stress, can be calculated by
using the actual area of the bar at the cross section where failure occurs.
 The slope of the straight line in graph is called the modulus of elasticity.
 Considerable elongation of the test specimen occurs with little increase in the
tensile force called yielding.
 During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its crystalline
structure.
 The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress is
called the ultimate stress

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 EXPERIMENT NO.2

OBJECTIVE:-To conduct torsion test on a round specimen.

EQUIPMENT:- Torsion testing machine

SAFETY PRECAUTION:-
1. Be care full to avoid pinching fingers in grips during installation of parts.
2. Care should be taken to avoid damage to strain gauges mounted on specimen.

THEORY:-
Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque, therefore is expressed
in Nm. In sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this
section is perpendicular to the radius.

Figure 1
The applied torque (T) as shown in Figure 1, to the specimen and resulting deformation
(angle of twist,) are measured during the torsion test. These results are converted to
shear stress () and shear strain () by the following respective equations (1-3):

T=  max R3 (1)
2
 max C
 (2)
R L
 max  C  (3)

 C is the shear modulus or more commonly the modulus of rigidity

PROCEDURE
1. Place specimen in grip by tightening the collet chuck.
2. Set the main pointer at ―0‖by turning the rack.
3. Set the ―0‖ by on angle measuring discs by rotating it.
4. Reset the counter.
5. Fit the recorder pen into pen holder mounted on rack and set its starting position over
graph paper.

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6. Pull out the locking pin provided to lock the jaw head of measuring panel.
7. Start the geared motor with the help of forward switch.
8. Now the torque will be applied to the specimen and the pointer will start indicating the
torque until the specimen fails.

OBESERVATION TABLE:

S.No. Torque Total Specimen Angle Angle Actual Actual

(Nm) number of revolution on on disc 2 angle of angle of
specimen in degree disc1in in twist in twist in
revolution degree degree degree radian
1.
2.
3.

Length of Specimen:
Diameter of specimen:

CALCULATIONS:-
1. Maximum Shear stress in test specimen:
2. Modulus of Rigidity:
3. Shear Strain:

RESULT:-
1. Torsional strength of test specimen is……
2. Modulus of rigidity of test specimen…………..

DISCUSSION:-
 Could the same procedure can be applied on hollow shaft? Justify
 What are the assumptions upon which the elastic torsion formula is based ?

 Assumptions:
1. Material is homogenous.
2. Circular section remains circular and do not warp.
3. A plane section of a material perpendicular to its longitudinal axis remain plane
and do not warp after the torque is applied.
4. Shaft is loaded by a couple or torque in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the plane.
5. Shear stress is proportional to shear strain, it means that Hook’s Law is
applicable.
6. In circular shafts subjected to torque shearing strain varies linearly.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

OBJECTIVE:-To conduct hardness test on test specimen.

EQUIPMENT:- TRB-250 Hardness testing machine

DISCRIPTION :-The material of hardness tester is cast iron. The enclosed design
protects the internal operating parts from the dust effect. The elevating screw is also
protected by a rubber bellow. One end of main loading lever is located internally by two
bearing and other end is free. The weights under hydraulic dashpot system control are
applied on this free end, which transmits the pressure on diamond holder and thereby on
the test piece for determination of hardness value.

The diamond holder of this machine is guided with linear motion. Bearings facilitate
measurement of hardness of pin of very small diameters.

SAFETY PRECAUTION:-

1. Adjust the test specimen on anvil at almost central position.

2. Use the micrometer precisely.

THEORY :-

Hardness is the property of material to resists surface indentations or abrasion. Factors

influencing hardness include microstructure, grain size, strain hardening etc. Generally as
hardness increase, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength decrease, thus,
specification often require of hardness test rather than tensile tests.

Different materials have different performance, but the test result also depends on what
kind of indenter is used (size/shape/material) and how much force is used to push it into
the sheet metal.

In standard brinells test 10 mm diameter hardened steel ball is forced to penetrate the
material by 3000 kgf for steel and cast iron. The Brinell hardness number is calculated by
dividing the load applied by the hemispherical surface area of the indentation. Brinell
hardness number of a material is given by:

BHN = 2P/{Π D[D-(D2-d2)]}

where:

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P = applied force (kgf)

D = diameter of indenter (mm)

d = diameter of indentation (mm)

BHN is designated by the most commonly used test standards as HBW (H from hardness,
B from brinell and W from the material of the indenter, tungsten carbide).

HBW is calculated in both standards using the SI units as

Where, F is applied force (N)

PROCEDURE:-

(A) BRINELL TEST

1. Place the specimen on anvil.

2. Bring the surface of specimen up by rotating handle of elevating screw just to touch
the indenter.
3. Now apply the minor load of 10 kgf by revolving handle up to the small dial indicator
come to rest position.
4. Select load as per the dia. of ball indenter.
5. First load and then unload the specimen.
6. Note the dia .of indent in the test piece using brinell microscope.
7. Calculate brinell hardness.

The Brinell hardness test involves applying a specified load using a hardened steel or
tungsten carbide spherical indenter of a specified diameter (typically 1mm to 10mm).
Due to the challenges of measuring a curved surface area, Brinell testing is typically not
used for sheet metal.

Like Brinell testing, the Vickers hardness number is calculated by dividing the applied
load by the surface area of the indentation. However, a Vickers microhardness test is
typically done with significantly less force than a Brinell test, using a diamond indenter
having a square cross-section. Built into the Vickers microhardness test machine is a
microscope that allows for more precise measurement of the diagonal cross-sectional
lengths. By magnifying the surface, it becomes possible to target specific microstructural

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constituents (like martensite or bainite in Advanced High Strength Steels) or to assess the
quality of heat treating or surface hardening operations.

(B) ROCKWELL TEST

1. Place sample on anvil.

2. Move to red spot (inner scale) while applying minor load.
3. Select load according to the chart.
4. Apply load using lever when the pointer comes in stable position while unload.
5. Read Rockwell hardness no. directly from outer scale.

Rockwell hardness values are determined using a two-step process. First, the indenter
(either ball- or cone-shaped) is pushed into the surface until the desired pre-load (also
called ―minor load‖) is reached (10kg for the B and C scales, 3kg for the N and T
superficial scales). This small initial penetration seats the indenter and provides a
reference depth. An additional ―major load‖ is applied, which results in deeper
penetration into the sheet metal surface. The major load is then removed and the minor
load is re-applied. The difference between this depth reading and the reference depth is
used in the Rockwell hardness calculation, and is ―d‖ in the equation for the Rockwell B
scale:

HRB = 130 – ( d / 0.002mm )

OBERVATION:-

(A) Brinell test

S.No. Indenter Dia. BHN

1.
2.
3.

(B) Rockwell test

S.No. Indenter area RHN

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CALCULATION:-

Calculate brinell hardness using formula.

RESULT:- BHN and HRB of given specimen is...

DISCUSSION:-

 What are the limitations on the thickness of specimen for hardness test?

Specimen thickness should be at least ten times the indentation depth; allowance should
be made for at least three indentation diameters between the center of one indentation and
the specimen edge, or to the center of a second indentation.

 What are advantages of vicker test against brinell test?

The Vickers test is reliable for measuring the hardness of metals, and also used on
ceramic materials. The diamond material of the indenter has an advantage over other
indenters because it does not deform over time and use. The impression left by the
Vickers penetrator is a dark square on a light background. The Vickers impression is
more easily "read" for area size than the circular impression of the Brinell method.

Just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface treatments

 Why surface condition is necessary for Brinell, Rockwell, Vicker hardness test.

Another big source of error with some hardness testing is the surface quality on the test
sample. This is where surface finish inspection starts to play a role. A minimum surface
finish requirement is specified in order to assure proper hardness gage function. A surface
finish of 80 microinches or better average roughness (Ra) is often required to assure
proper hardness measurements.

Surface finish—also known as profile—is composed of two elements: waviness and

roughness. Waviness, or longer wavelength variation, is caused by macro-type
influences, such as worn spindle bearings or vibration from other equipment on the shop
floor. Roughness is the short wavelength pattern caused by tool marks from grinding,
milling or other machining processes and is influenced by the condition and quality of
that tooling. As the indenter is apt to be small compared to the waviness component of
the surface, it is the latter, short wavelength roughness pattern that influences hardness
values the most.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 4, 5

OBJECTIVE:- To conduct impact test on single notch square section specimen using
(a) Izod Test (b) Charpy Test

EQUIPMENT :- Universal pendulum impact testing machine

SPECIMEN Details
(a) A steel specimen 75 mm X 10mm X 10mm for Izod Test
(b) A steel specimen 55 mm X 10mm X 10mm for Charpy Test

THEORY:
An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability of material to absorb energy
during plastic deformation. Static tension tests of unnotched specimens do not always
reveal the susceptibility of a metal to brittle fracture. This important factor is determined
by impact test. Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility of the
material. Several engineering materials have to withstand impact or suddenly applied
loads while in service. Impact strengths are generally lower as compared to strengths
achieved under slowly applied loads. Of all types of impact tests, the notch bar tests are
most extensively used. Therefore, the impact test measures the energy necessary to
fracture a standard notch bar by applying an impulse load. The test measures the notch
toughness of material under shock loading. Values obtained from these tests are not of
much utility to design problems directly and are highly arbitrary. Still it is important to
note that it provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or
toughness of the same material under different condition. This test can also be used to
assess the ductile brittle transition temperature of the material occurring due to lowering
of temperature. During the impact test load is applied as an impact blow of weighted
pendulum hammer released from a fixed height h. The specimen is positioned at the base.
The pendulum released from height h strikes and fracture the specimen at the notch. The
pendulum continue its swing due to inertia and rise up to maximum height h’ which is
lower than h.
The energy absorbed at the fracture E can be obtained by simply calculating the
difference between the potential energy of pendulum before and after the test using
formula.
E=m.g.(h-h’)
where, m=mass of pendulum
g=gravitational acceleration

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The notch impact strength (I) is calculated by:-
I=E/A
Where, I = impact strength in joules/cm2
E = Impact energy absorbed by the specimen during rupture in joules
A=area of cross section of specimen below the notch before test in cm2
In impact tests, the fracture may be either brittle or ductile. The brittle fracture is not
accompanied by noticeable plastic deformation. On the other hand, considerable plastic
deformation takes place in ductile fracture.

PROCEDURE:-
(a) lzod test
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the steel
specimen in impact testing machine’s vice in such a way that the notch face the hammer
and is half inside and half above the top surface of the vice. 2. Bring the striking hammer
to its top most striking position unless it is already there, and lock it at that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the operating
manual supplied with the machine.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its
momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it continues to swing.
At its topmost height after breaking the specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the
pendulum falls back. Note the indicator at that topmost final position.
5. Again bring back the hammer to its idle position and back

PROCEDURE :-
(b) Charpy Test
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the steel
specimen in impact testing machines vice in such a way that the notch faces the hammer
and is half inside and half above the top surface of the vice. 2. Bring the striking hammer
to its top most striking position unless it is already there, and lock it at that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the operating
manual supplied with the machine.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its
momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it continues to swing.

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At its topmost height after breaking the specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the
pendulum falls back. Note the indicator at that topmost final position.
5. The specimen is placed on supports or anvil so that the blow of hammer is opposite to
the notch.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS :-
1. Confirm the tightness of all the fixing screws of charpy –izod block, stiker etc.
2. Do not stand in swinging area of pendulum.
3. Do not operate the machine if the release mechanism is found defective.
4. The support/striker should be removed when machine is idle. Confirm that the
pendulum hammer is positively secured in horizontal position with the help of hook.
5. Do not operate the hammer by operating pendulum release mechanism when the hook
is in suspended position.
6. Fixed the specimen in proper position for the betterment of test result.

OBSERVATION:-
(a)Izod test
S.No. Mass of pendulum Test specimen (Area h (m) h’ (m)
(kg) in cm2)
1
2
3

(a)Charpy test
S.No. Mass of pendulum Test specimen (Area h (m) h’ (m)
(kg) in cm2)
1
2
3

CALCULATION:-
Average Energy absorb at fracture
Average Notch Impact strength

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RESULT:-
(A) Energy absorbed by test specimen and its notch impact strength determined by Izod
test are:
(B) Energy absorbed by test specimen and its notch impact strength determined by
Charpy test are:

DISCUSSION:-

 Difference between Izod and Charpy Test (test material position, notch position,
test specimen dimension, angle of impact)

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

OBJECTIVE:- To conduct fatigue test and interpret the results.

EQUIPMENT:- FTG-8(D) fatigue testing machine

‘MACHINE DISCRIPTION’: Two swivelling bodies LH and RH are mounted in their
brackets and fixed over the base. These bodies contain the hollow shaft assemblies within
them. The hollow shaft assembly consists of hollow shaft, collet, clamping cum
loosening ring, lock nut and bearings. These RH and LH assemblies hold and grip the
specimen .The clamping cum loosening ring tightens the specimen .The rotation
preventing assembly consisting of locking ring, locking rod and spring which help in
preventing the rotation of hollow shaft assembly while clamping/loosening of the
specimen. The motor inside the base drives the RH hollow shaft assembly through belt
and flexible shaft. The pulleys are selected such that the specimen rotates at 4200 rpm.

SAFETY PRECAUTION:-

1. The flexible shaft shall never be rotated in direction opposite to the direction indicated
by arrow.
2. The specimen shall never be run without tightening it in both side collets.
3. Never allow the locking rod to enter into slots of clamping ring when machine is in
running condition.

THEORY:-
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at a stress below the yield point
stress. Such type of failure of material is known as fatigue. The fatigue of material is
effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static and fluctuating load
and the number of load reversals.
Fatigue limit (σe) is defined as the maximum value of the completely reversed bending
stress which is polished standard specimen can withstand without failure.
The stress v/s time diagram for fluctuating stress having values σmin and σmax. The
variable stress, in general, may be considered as a combination of steady stress and
completely reversed stress component σv.
1. Mean or average stress (σm) = (σmax+ σmin)/2
2. Reversed or alternating or variable stress (σv ) = (σmax - σmin)/2
3 .Stress ratio (R) = σmax / σmin

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The specimen loading arrangement results in a constant bending moment PL/2 kg-cm
over the length of specimen.
Bending stress can be calculated using the equation:
b M

y I

Where,  b is bending stress, I is moment of inertia, M is bending moment, and y is

the radius of rod.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Fix the specimen in the fatigue testing machine.

2. Start the machine allow the specimen for cyclic loading. The specimen is rotate at
constant speed. Revolution counter is used to record the number of cycle to which the
specimen fails.

3. Construct the S-N curve for the specimen.

4. Investigate fracture surface of broken specimen and sketch the result.

OBERVATION:-

Details Specimen 1 Specimen2 Specimen3 Specimen4 Specimen5

Specimen dia.
(cm)
Length (cm)

Weight(kg)

No. of cycle
to failure (N)

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CALCULATION:-

(i) Bending Moments

Specimen 1 Specimen2 Specimen3 Specimen4 Specimen5

(ii) Moment of Inertia=

(iii) Bending stress(S)

Specimen 1 Specimen2 Specimen3 Specimen4 Specimen5

RESULT:- Plotting of S-N curve

DISCUSSION :-

 What are the stages in a fatigue facture?

 Where do most fatigue cracks start?

 What information can be obtained observing the fracture?

 What are the mean stress and R-ratio?

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

OBJECTIVE:- To determine the stiffness of the spring and modulus of rigidity of the
spring wire

EQUIPMENTS:-

i) Spring testing machine. ii) A spring iii) Vernier caliper, Scale. iv) Micrometer.

THEORY:-

Springs are elastic member which distort under load and regain their original shape when
load is removed. They are used in railway carriages, motor cars, scooters, motorcycles,
rickshaws, governors etc. According to their uses the springs perform the following
Functions:
1) To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.
2) To store energy as in clock springs.
3) To apply forces to and to control motions as in brakes and clutches.
4) To measure forces as in spring balances.
5) To change the variations characteristic of a member as in flexible mounting of
motors.

The spring is usually made of either high carbon steel (0.7 to 1.0%) or medium
carbon alloy steels. Phosphor bronze, brass, 18/8 stainless steel and metal and other metal
alloys are used for corrosion resistance spring.
Several types of spring are available for different application. Springs may classify as
helical springs, leaf springs and flat spring depending upon their shape. They are
fabricated of high shear strength materials such as high carbon alloy steels spring form
elements of not only mechanical system but also structural system. In several cases it is
essential to idealize complex structural systems by suitable spring.
Expression (1) to (5) are used for identifying stiffness and modulus of rigidity of spring
coil

J= d 3 (1)
32
d
T=Wx (2)
2
T C
 (3)
J L

 (4)
R
W   K (5)

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  J : Polar Moment of Inertia
 T : Torque
 W: Weight or Load applied on spring
 C: Modulus of rigidity
 Ø : Angle of twist
 K: Stiffness of spring

PROCEDURE

1) Measure the diameter of the wire of the spring by using the micrometer.

2) Measure the diameter of spring coils by using the Vernier caliper

3) Count the number of turns.

4) Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by a suitable weight
and note the corresponding axial deflection in tension or compression.

5) Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings.

6) Plot a curve between load and deflection. The shape of the curve gives the stiffness of
the spring.

OBESERVATION:

Least count of micrometer = ……mm

Diameter of the spring wire, d =………mm (Mean of three readings)

Least count of Vernier caliper = ……mm

Diameter of the spring coil, Dn = ……mm (mean of three readings)

Mean coil diameter, D:

Number of turns, n:

Length of Spring coil, l :

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Compressive
Load, W (N)
Deflection,
δ(mm)
Stiffness, K
(N/mm)

CALCULATION:-

1. Average Stiffness

2. Modulus of Rigidity (mean of three calculations)

RESULT:-

1. The value of spring constant k of closely coiled helical spring is found to be------------
N / mm

2. Modulus of rigidity of given spring is specimen………….. N / mm2

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DISCUSSION:-

 Spring Definitions:

A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect or

distort under the action of applied load; it recovers its original shape when load is
released.

or

Springs are energy absorbing units whose function is to store energy and to restore it
slowly or rapidly depending on the particular application

 Uses of springs:

(a) To apply forces and to control motions as in brakes and clutches.

(b) To measure forces as in spring balance.

(c) To store energy as in clock springs.

(d) To reduce the effect of shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.

(e) To change the vibrating characteristics of a member as inflexible mounting of motors.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

OBJECTIVE: Comparative study of microstructures of different types of Cast

Iron and steel.

EQUIPMENTS:-

N/A

THEORY: Microstructure of different types of Cast Iron:

1. Gray Cast Iron

2. White Cast Iron

3. Malleable Cast Iron

4. Ductile Cast Iron

5. Compacted Graphite Cast Iron

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Microstructure of different types of Steel:

1. Microstructure of Steel Formed from Eutectoid

Composition

2. Eutectoid Steel

3. Martensite

4. Ferrite

5. Austenite

DISSCUSSION:
Investigate the following factors:
 The use of different types of cooling media (air and oil) to investigate the effect of
the cooling fluid on the formed structure.
 The variation of carbon content and the impact on the microstructure.
 The effect of tempering temperature on the formed structure.
 The effect of the tempering time on the microstructure.
 The Martensitic structure and its types.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

OBJECTIVE: Specimen preparation for metallographic examination /micro

structural examination.

EQUIPMENTS:- Grinding papers, Grinder, Etching agent, Metallurgical Microscope

THEORY: The preparation of a metallurgical specimen generally can be divided into a

series of stages: sectioning, mounting, grinding and polishing, and etching.
(i) Sectioning: Sectioning is the removal of a small representative volume of material
from the parent piece. The microstructure of the material must not be altered in the
process. Cold work and heat are the two most likely conditions that can quickly bring
about structure changes. Quite obviously operations such as sawing that generates heat or
shearing that introduces cold work are not preferable for sectioning. Cutting using a
bonded abrasive wheel with coolant offers the best solution to minimize or eliminate heat
and deformation.
(ii) Mounting: Metallurgical specimens are mounted primarily for (1) convenience in
handling and (2) protection and preservation during subsequent grinding and polishing.
(iii) Grinding and Polish: Grinding and polish are accomplished by sequential coarse
grinding, medium grinding, and rough and final polishing. The specimen should be
carefully rinsed before proceeding from one operation to the next.
Coarse grinding is done on a wet-belt grinder with 120 and 240 grit belts.
The purpose of coarse grinding is to obtain a flat surface free from previous cutting tool
marks.
Medium grinding is accomplished using successively finer grits of
metallographic grinding paper. The paper is supported on a hard, flat surface such as
glass or steel. The specimen is moved along the length of grinding paper without rotation
or a rocking motion. When grinding is completed on one grit the scratches should all run
in the same direction. Before proceeding to the next finer grit the specimen should be
washed to avoid brining large particles to the finer grit. The specimen is rotated 90
degrees between grits so that scratches from each successively finer grit run at right
angles to those from the previous one. The polishing on a grit is complete when coarser
scratches from previous grit have been totally removed.
Rough and final polishing is accomplished on cloth-covered wheels
charged with fine abrasive alumina particles suspended in water.

(iv) Etching: The specimen surface is fairly smooth immediately after the final polish. A
smooth surface deflects lights from the illuminator in the metallurgical microscope along
the same direction showing no contrast and cannot reveal surface characteristics. Surface
characteristics such as different phases, inclusions, porosity, cracks, intergranular
corrosion can be revealed by etching. Etching is defined as the process to reveal
structural details by preferential attack of a metal surface with an acid or other chemical
solutions.

25 | P a g e MST LABORATORY MANUAL

PROCEDURE:
1. Obtain a steel specimen from the instructor and remove as much surface scale as
possible
2. Mount the specimen in a phenolic cylinder using a compression mounting press.
3. Prepare the specimen by coarse grinding on a wet-belt grinder, hand polishing on
four successively finer grits of polishing paper, and fine polishing on two
polishing wheels with 1.0- mm and 0.05-mm alumina powders.
4. Etch the steel specimen by immersing it in a nital solution (5% concentrated nitric
acid in alcohol). Start with 5 seconds of immersion. Rinse the specimen with
water, dry with paper towel, immerse briefly in alcohol, and blow dry the
specimen with a blow dryer.
5. Examine the specimen under microscope for identifying the surface features.
6. Make the power supply ON to microscope. Select an appropriate lens for vision.
Focus the microscope by using the general knob and then fine tuning knob. See
the surface of specimen through eyepiece lens. Depending upon whether the
microscope is binocular or trinocular, use each objective lens to study the
microstructure.

PRECAUTIONS:
The specimen must be completely dry, otherwise the microstructure will not be clearly
visible.

MICROSTRUCTURE OF STEEL WHEN VIEWED THROUGH MICROSCOPE:

DISCUSSION:
 Microstructure of metals are different from each other-why?
 How microstructure is related to mechanical properties?
 What are the methods of finding out the grain size.

26 | P a g e MST LABORATORY MANUAL