HSC Physics Module 1: Space

Summary

Space: 1. The Earth‟s gravitational field

Define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational field

Weight is defined as the force of an object due to a gravitational field. It is a vector quantity
with the unit Newton (N). Mathematically, weight can be expressed as W=mg, where m is the
mass of the object and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to work done

Consider the work done to move an object from the Earth‟s surface to a height, h:

Work done = force x displacement

Work done = forcegravity x displacement (where forcegravity is the weight)

Work done = [mass x gravity] x displacement (as the displacement over which the work is
done is equal to the height of the lift)
Work done = [mass x gravity] x height

Mathematically, W = mgh

Perform an investigation and gather information to determine a value for

acceleration due to gravity using pendulum motion or computer assisted technology
and identify reason for possible variations from the value 9.8ms-2

Investigation: Determining a value for gravity

Aim: To determine a value for g, by observing the motion of a swinging pendulum

Equipment:
-50g mass or large nut to act as pendulum
-about 1.2m length of string
-a support at least one metre above the ground (e.g. hook on ceiling)
-stopwatch
-another person to assist

Method:
1/ Adjust the length of the pendulum, l, to one metre.

2/ Set up equipment as shown:

Robert Lee Chin 1

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Time taken for one

complete swing is
called the period, T

3/ Set pendulum gently by pulling it back 10˚ from vertical. Starting at the extreme of
the motion, time 10 full periods, finishing back at the same side.

2
4
4/ Divide time by 10 and record in table. Calculate a value for g, using g
T2

5/ Repeat steps 3-4 four more times, shortening string by 5cm each time.

6/ Calculate an average value for g, using all 5 trials

Results:

Trial Pendulum length (m) Period (s) g (ms-2) T2

1 1.01 2.00 9.9680 4.00
2 0.97 1.93 10.281 3.72
3 0.91 1.97 9.256 3.88
4 0.85 1.89 9.394 3.57
5 0.81 1.88 9.041 3.53
Average 9.59 n/A

Alternatively, plot T2 against l on an x-y graph and draw the line of best fit:
2
T squared (s ) length (m)
4 1.01
3.72 0.97
3.88 0.91
3.57 0.85
3.53 0.81
0.00 0.00

Robert Lee Chin 2

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

4π 2
Calculate „g‟ using the formula: g
gradient
T squared vs L

4.5
y = 4.0965x
4

3.5
T squared (s squared)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
length (m)

Gradient ≈ 4.10 (3 s.f.)

4 2
' g' 9.62888 ... 9.63 (3 s.f.)
4.10

Discussion:
Variations in g were due to reaction time in timing the swing- the accuracy of the stopwatch
is much more accurate than reaction time. Also, friction between the string and its attachment
as well as air resistance, which would have slowed the swing of the pendulum.

The reliability of the results could be improved by performing multiple trials for the same
length. Also, any results that do not conform with the majority of the results e.g. a value of
7ms-2 for „g‟, should be ignored and the trial repeated until a measurement that conforms to
the majority is obtained.

The validity of the experiment could be improved by using an attachment for the string that
would produce as little friction as possible, without causing the pendulum to swing
erratically. The experiment was conducted slightly above sea level (approximately 50
metres). While this altitude may not seem like much, it could have has some effect on the
results. Finally, two people were involved with performing the experiment- one to time the
pendulum and another to let go of the pendulum. It would be better to have only one person
to perform both of these steps because there are differences in reaction times when two or
more people are involved..

The first method gave a fairly reliable value for g, (9.59ms-2), only 0.21ms-2 less than the
published value of 9.8ms-2. Using the second method gave a slightly more accurate value of
9.63ms-2. The second method is more valid because it relies on the line of best fit, which
helps to rule out any discrepant results

Robert Lee Chin 3

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Gather secondary information to predict the value of acceleration due to gravity on

other planets

The value of g on a planet is given by:

m
g G Planet2 where,
( rPlanet )
11
G Universal gravitational constant 6.67 10 m 3 kg 1 s 2

m Planet mass of planet in kg

rPlanet radius of planet in metres

Planet Value Calculations

of g
(ms-2)
Mercury mPlanet 3.30 10 23 kg rPlanet 2.44 106 m

3.70 mPlanet 11 (3.30 10 23 ) 2

g G 2
6.67 10 6 2
3.69709... 3.70ms (3 s.f.)
( rPlanet ) ( 2.44 10 )
Venus mPlanet 4.87 10 24 kg rPlanet 6.05 106 m

8.87 mPlanet 11 ( 4.87 10 24 ) 2

g G 2
6.67 10 6 2
8.87450.. 8.87ms (3 s.f.)
( rPlanet ) (6.05 10 )
Earth 9.80
Mars mPlanet 6.42 10 23 kg rPlanet 3.40 106 m

3.70 mPlanet 11 (6.42 10 23 ) 2

g G 2
6.67 10 6 2
3.70427.. 3.70ms (3 s.f.)
( rPlanet ) (3.40 10 )
Jupiter mPlanet 1.90 10 27 kg rPlanet 7.15 10 7 m

24.8 mPlanet 11 (1.90 10 27 ) 2

g G 2
6.67 10 7 2
24.7894.. 24.8ms (3 s.f.)
( rPlanet ) (7.15 10 )
Saturn mPlanet 5.69 10 26 kg rPlanet 6.03 107 m

10.4 mPlanet 11 (5.69 10 26 ) 2

g G 2
6.67 10 7 2
10.43766.. 10.4ms (3 s.f.)
( rPlanet ) (6.03 10 )
Uranus mPlanet 8.68 10 25 kg rPlanet 2.56 107 m
8.83
mPlanet 11 (8.68 10 25 ) 2
g G 2
6.67 10 7 2
8.83416.. 8.83ms (3 s.f.)
( rPlanet ) ( 2.56 10 )
Pluto mPlanet 1.30 10 22 kg rPlanet 1.18 106 m
0.623
mPlanet 11 (1.30 10 22 ) 2
g G 2
6.67 10 6 2
0.62273.. 0.632ms (3 s.f.)
( rPlanet ) (1.18 10 )

Robert Lee Chin 4

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Analyse information using the expression F=mg to determine the weight force for a
body on Earth and for the same body on other planets

The magnitude of the weight force on an object can be calculated using a slightly altered
form of Newton‟s second law: F = mg. The direction of the weight force is the same as the
direction of the gravitational field at the location of the object i.e. towards the centre of the
Earth.

The acceleration due to gravity at the Earth‟s surface is 9.8ms-2. The weight of a 465kg llama
can be calculated as follows:

m 465kg g 9.8ms-2
W mg 465 9.8 4557 4600N (2 s.f.)

Acceleration due to gravity for the same 465kg llama on different planets:
Planet Value of g Weight Force Calculations
-2
(ms )

Mercury 3.70 W mg 465 3.70 1720.5 1700N (2 s.f.)

1700

Venus 8.87 W mg 465 8.87 4124.55 4100N (2 s.f.)

4100

Earth 9.8 4600 -

Mars 3.70 W mg 465 3.70 1720.5 1700N (2 s.f.)

1700

Jupiter 24.8 W mg 465 24.8 11532 12000N (2 s.f.)

12000

Saturn 10.4 W mg 465 10.4 4836 4800N (2 s.f.)

4800
Uranus 8.83 4100 W mg 465 8.83 4105.95 4100N (2 s.f.)

Pluto 0.623 290 W mg 465 10.4 293.88 290N (2 s.f.)

Robert Lee Chin 5

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Define gravitational potential energy as the work done to move an object from a
mm
very large distance away to a point in a gravitational field, E p G 1 2
r
The gravitational potential energy of an object at some point within a gravitational field is
defined as: the work done to moving the object from an infinite distance to a point in a
gravitational field

At an infinite distance away from a gravitational field, the gravitational potential energy is
zero. As an object moves towards the source of the field i.e. the centre of a planet,
gravitational potential energy becomes negative. Although this value is negative, it represents
a change in Ep i.e. work done. Work is therefore required to push an object away from, as
well as towards the Earth.

Mathematically:
m1m2
Ep G where,
r

Ep grav. potential energy

G universal grav. constant 6.67 10-11 m 3 kg 1s 2

m1 an object moving within the field

m2 mass of planet
Earth r radius of planet (m2 )

Ep
d

Robert Lee Chin 6

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Space: 2. A successful rocket launch

Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the
2 2
actual velocity of a projectile from its horizontal and vx ux
vertical components using: v u at
2 2
vy uy 2a y y
x ux t
1
y uyta yt 2
2
A projectile is any object that is launched, and then moves only under the influence of
gravity. Examples are a ball that is struck, a bullet shell once it is fired. A rocket or missile is
NOT a projectile.

The trajectory of a projectile can be analysed as two separate motions:

Horizontal (x-axis) motion, representing constant velocity
Vertical (y-axis) motion, representing constant acceleration at “g”, downwards

Horizontal
velocity,
Δy Vx

Uy
U
Vertical
θ Angle of launch velocity,
Vy
Ux
Δx= range = total horizontal distance
Ux

Equations for Projectile motion:

1) Resolve initial launch velocity into vertical and horizontal component

U
uy u . sin & ux u . cos Uy

θ
Ux

Robert Lee Chin 7

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

2) Horizontal motion is constant, so all you need is vx u x and x u xt

3) Vertical motion is constant acceleration at “g”

To find vertical velocity, use vy uy ayt (a y 9.8ms-2 )

1 2
To find vertical displacement, use y u yt a yt (a y 9.8ms-2 )
2

Points to remember:

-the motion is symmetrical, so the elapsed time is half the full flight
-vertical displacement, y has a negative sign

-at its peak height, v y 0

-Maximum range is achieved with a launch angle of 45˚, i.e. 45

-horizontal velocity is constant i.e. v x ux

-Use v y uy a y t to find “t” at max height (when vy=0) or find vy at a given time

1
-Use y u yt a y t 2 to find Δy at a given time, or find the time to fall through a given
2
height (if uy=0)

Example Problems:

1) A projectile is fired with a velocity of 50m/s at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.

Determine the range of the projectile.
u y 50 sin 30 u x 50 cos30 ay 9.8ms 2
1
Consider the half - flight, v y 0ms
vy uy 0 50 sin 30 50 sin 30
t1
2
ay 9.8 9.8
2(50 sin 30 )
t
9.8
2(50 sin 30 )
x u xt 50 cos30 220.924847... 220m (3 s.f.)
9.8

2) Military bombs must be dropped from an altitude of 15 000m when the plane is
flying level at 300ms-1.

Robert Lee Chin 8

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

a) How far in front must the bombs be released?

1 1
y 15000m u x 300ms uy 0ms
1
y a yt 2
u yt
2
1
15000 0t ( 9.8)t 2
2
15000
t 55.238333... 55.3s (3 s . f .)
4.9

x u xt 300(55.3) 16590m

b) How fast will they be going (in magnitude) when they hit the ground?
1 1 2
t 55.3s u x 300ms uy 0ms ay 9.8ms
1
vx ux 300ms
1
vy uy ayt 0 9.8(55.3) 541.94ms
2 2
v vx vy (300) 2 ( 541.94) 2 619.43439...ms 1
6.19 10 2 ms 1 (3 s.f.)

Describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion within the Earth‟s
gravitational field in terms of horizontal and vertical components.

The trajectory of a projectile (ignoring air resistance) is parabolic, with constant downward
acceleration at “g”. The trajectory can be analysed by considering its horizontal and vertical
components at particular instances during the flight. The horizontal motion of the projectile is
a constant velocity. Its vertical motion is changing all the time due to gravity, which causes
the projectile to accelerate at 9.8 m s-2 downwards.

Describe Galileo‟s analysis of projectile motion

Notice that none of the equations used for projectile motion ever use the mass of the
projectile. All objects, regardless of their mass, accelerate with gravity at the same rate.

Galileo (1564-1642) performed an experiment to verify this. He dropped objects of the same
size and shape, but with different mass, from the leaning tower in Pisa. He found that
regardless of mass, all objects hit the ground at the same time.

He also rolled cannon balls down an incline (there was friction) and was able to see 2
motions: constant horizontal velocity and constant vertical acceleration.

Robert Lee Chin 9

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Perform a first-hand investigation, gather secondary information and analyse data

to calculate initial and final velocity, maximum height reached, range, time of flight
of a projectile for a range of situations by using simulations, data loggers and
computer analysis

Experiment: Projectile launcher

Aim:
To construct a working model of a projectile launcher and to launch it at a target to gather
data for calculating various aspects of the projectile‟s flight including force, velocity and
range.

Equipment:
- projectile launcher
- steel ball bearings (small enough to fit in projectile launcher barrel)
- scientific scales
- digital video camera
- target (circle of diameter 5 % of range)

Note: The experiment requires the assistance of another person during the launching of the
projectile.

Procedure:
1) Weigh and record the mass of the steel ball with a scientific scale.

2) Set up equipment as shown below:

Range
Target

3) Place steel ball in barrel of projectile launcher. Pull back end of solid plunger rod
at least 20cm until a strong tension force can be felt. Get a friend to help hold
down the back end of the launcher base.

Robert Lee Chin 10

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

4) Ask an assistant to set up the video camera ready to record the projectile‟s flight
when launched.

5) Aim the launcher at the target and adjust the angle of launch according to the
range of the target.

6) Release the end of the rod and watch the ball bearing go!

7) Repeat steps 1-6 as many times as possible until accuracy is improved. Once the
desired amount of stretch and angle of launch is determined, keep these variables
controlled (constant) in each trial to provide reliable results.

8) Measure the displacement of the projectile in the launcher (this will depend on
how far back the plunger rod is pulled) and the angle of launch for each trial.

9) Use gathered data to calculate/determine values for:

-horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity
-the resultant initial velocity
-average acceleration & net force of projectile while in launcher.
-range if launched from 50m cliff
-velocity one quarter through its flight

Robert Lee Chin 11

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Results:
Gathered Data
Trial No. Time of Range x , Hit on target/distance
flight t, (s) (m) off from target (m)

1 0.70 4.0 Off target- 0.09

2 0.67 4.0 Off target - 0.11

3 0.78 4.0 Off target - 0.15

Average 0.72 4.0 n/a

Displacement of projectile in launcher, s = 0.284 m

Angle of launch, = 31˚
Mass of projectile, m = 0.015 kg

Discussion:

Initial horizontal velocity, ux = 5.6 ms-1

Initial vertical velocity, uy = 3.4 ms-1

Initial resultant velocity, v = 6.6 ms-1, 031˚ above horizontal

Average acceleration of projectile while in launcher, aav = 76.7 ms-2

Net Force on projectile while in launcher, Fnet = 1.15 N

Range if launched from 50 m cliff = 20.1 m

Velocity one quarter through time of flight = 5.8 ms-1, 016˚ above horizontal

Robert Lee Chin 12

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Quantity Data Calculations (all answers to 2 s.f.)

Initial x 4.0ms x 4.0 1

horizontal ux 5.6ms
t av 0.72 s t 0.72
velocity (ux)

Initial ux 5.6ms 1
uy ux tan 5.6 tan31 3.4ms 1
Vertical
Velocity (uy) 31

Resultant 1
uy 3.4ms v ux
2
uy
2
5.6 2 3.4 2 6.6ms 1
initial 1
velocity (v) ux 5.6ms v 6.6ms 1 ,031 above horizontal
31

Average v 6.6ms 1 v2 6 .6 2 2
acceleration, a av 77 ms
s 0.284 m 2s 2 0.284
(aav)

Net Force, m 0.015kg mv 2 0.015 6.6 2

(Fnet) Fnet 1 .2 N
v 6.6ms 1 2s 2 0.284
s 0.284m

Range if y 50m 1 2
launched 1
y u yt
a yt
uy 3.4ms 2
from 50m 1
2
cliff ay 9.8ms 50 3.4t 9.8t 2 4.9t 2 3.4t 50 0
2
1
ux 5.6ms Equation is in the form ax2+bx+c=0. Using the quad. formula, t is given
by +ve value of x:
2
b b2 4ac 3.4 3.4 4 4.9 50
x 3.6 2.9
2a 2 4.9
t 3.6s
x u x t 5.6 3.6 20.1m
1
Velocity one vx 5.6ms vy uy ayt 3.4 9.8 0.18 1.6ms 1

quarter of t av
time t
4 2 2 2
through v vx vy 5.6 2 1.6 5.82ms 1
0.72
flight 0.18s
4 1
vy 1 1.6
tan tan 016 v 5.8ms 1 ,016 above horizontal
u y 3.4ms 1 vx 5.6

Robert Lee Chin 13

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the:

-gravitational constant
-mass and radius of the planet

Escape velocity is defined as: the launch velocity required for a projectile to escape from the
Earth‟s gravitational field.

Mathematically, Escape 2GmE

velocity, where, Ve
rE

G universal grav.constant 6.67 10-11 m 3 kg 1s 2

The escape velocity is therefore proportional to the gravitational constant, G and mass of the
planet i.e. the greater the mass of the planet, the higher the escape velocity .It is inversely
proportional to the radius of the planet i.e. the larger the planet, the lower the escape velocity.

Note: The escape velocity of a planet is the same for all objects, independent of their mass.
The escape velocity on earth is approximately 11.2km/s.

Outline Newton‟s concept of escape velocity

Sir Isaac Newton, the scientist who developed the mathematics behind projectile motion,
created the following thought experiment: a person climbed a very high mountain and
launched a cannon ball from the peak. The cannon ball follows a parabolic trajectory before
hitting Earth. If the cannon ball were to be launched with increasing velocities, it would
travel around the Earth because, as it falls, the curvature of the Earth curves away from it.
Thus, the projectile would move in a circular orbit at a fixed height above the Earth‟s surface.

If the cannon ball were to be launched even faster than this, its orbit would changes from
being a circle to an ellipse. Faster still and it would follow a parabolic or hyperbolic path
away from the Earth, escaping it entirely.

Earth

Robert Lee Chin 14

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Identify why the term „g forces‟ is used to explain the forces acting on an astronaut
during launch

The term “g-force” refers to a mass‟s apparent rate as a ratio of its true weight.

True weight refers to the weight as mass experiences when stationary (or in relative motion)
on the ground e.g. sitting in a vehicle moving horizontally across a flat surface at constant
velocity, standing still at ground level. True weight cannot be felt because it is the force due
to gravity; gravity being a force-at-a-distance.

Apparent weight is the weight a mass experiences due to contact forces or an acceleration
(other than gravity). These forces are also known as inertial forces because they arise from
the body‟s inertia or resistance to having its momentum changed.

apparent weight
g - force
true weight
Humans and g-force:
-the maximum g-force a properly supported human can withstand is 20g (using fiberglass
seating in spacecraft)
-most people experience tunnel vision and lose colour perception at 4g

G-force experienced by astronaut during a launch into low orbit:

4
1st stage
jettisoned
3
g-force
2nd stage jettisoned
2
(decreasing mass)

1 1st stage
Ignition of
(decreasing mass)
2nd stage
time

Robert Lee Chin 15

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Comparison of forces of a launch to a roller coaster ride:

g-force Period during rocket launch Period during roller coaster ride
>1g Rockets burning Accelerating upwards
1g At point of lift off on horizontal surfaces and when it reaches peak
<1g Just after fuel is spent Accelerating downhill

1g 1g

<1g <1g
>1g
>1g

Identify data sources, gather, analyse and present information on the contribution of
one of the following to the development of space exploration: Tsiolkovsky, Oberth,
Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie, O„Neill or von Braun

Robert Goddard
Goddard was a pioneer of modern, liquid-fuel rocketry. As an undergraduate, he wrote a
paper proposing the use of gyroscopes for rocket stabilization. Later, he began studying the
possible use of liquid fuels in rockets to increase fuel efficiency. He also used calculus to
make theoretical calculations of the velocity and position of rockets. Later, he patented the
idea of a rocket fueled by gasoline and nitrous oxide- a milestone in rocketry. Goddard
designed an experiment that allowed him to confirm that rockets can perform in a complete
vacuum i.e. space. During his lifetime, he bought over 200 patents relating to rocket design.

Robert Lee Chin 16

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Discuss the effect of the Earth„s orbital motion and its rotational motion on the
launch of a rocket

The rotation of the Earth on its axis and the orbital motion of the Earth around the sun can be
used to provide a launched rocket with a “velocity boost”. This saves fuel whilst giving the
rocket the required kinetic energy to achieve the target velocity.

To reach Earth orbit, rockets are aimed towards the EAST to take advantage of the Earth‟s
rotation (about 1700km/hr or 500m/s). They receive this 1700km/h velocity boost which
contributes to their target velocity of about 30 000km/h for a low earth orbit.

Launch trajectory

Orbital path Earth rotation

from
North Pole

Rockets destined to go beyond the Earths orbit are NOT launched until the direction of the
Earth‟s orbit around the sun corresponds with the desired direction of the rocket. The rocket
is first launched into a low-Earth orbit, as shown above. Rockets are then fired to accelerate it
past the Earths‟ orbit. The rocket gains the velocity of the Earth relative to the Sun which is
about 107 000 km/h.

Launch trajectory

Sun Earth

Robert Lee Chin 17

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of the:

-Law of Conservation of Momentum
-forces experienced by astronauts

Rocket propulsion is a force pair derived from Newton‟s 3rd law i.e.,

Reaction force
pushes rocket
forwards

- FRocket on gases Fgases on rocket

p gases p Rocket
t t
(mv)gases (mv)Rocket
Momentum is conserved

Action force pushes on

gases, accelerates them
backwards

This means the rockets momentum remains constant at all times. During liftoff, the rockets
mass decreases as fuel is burnt. Therefore, to maintain Conservation of momentum, the
rocket‟s velocity must continue to increase i.e. the rocket‟s acceleration will increase.

Acceleration of rocket vs. Time:

Acceleration

Time

Robert Lee Chin 18

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Two forces act on an astronaut during launch: The downward weight force and the upwards
F (T mg )
thrust force. Newton‟s 2nd law states that F ma . Therefore, a . If the
m m
thrust force, „T’, remains constant, but „m’ keeps decreasing as fuel is burnt, then „a’ must
continue to increase.

What does this mean for astronauts? It means they will experience increasing g-forces. Also
note that as the rocket moves higher, the atmosphere thins, meaning the rocket will accelerate
even faster! However, modern rockets have the ability to throttle back the thrust, ensuring a
safer flight for the astronauts.

Analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of objects,
including satellites orbiting the Earth

Objects in uniform circular motion are always subject to a centripetal (centre-seeking) force.
The force is tangent to the circle at a particular instant and is always directed perpendicular to
the velocity at that instant.
V

FC

What causes centripetal force?

Example Fc caused by…

Swinging an object on a string Tension force in string
Vehicle turning a corner Frictional force between tyres and ground
Satellite orbiting Earth Gravitational force between satellite and
Earth
A gear turning inside a motor Torque of gears turning on eachother
Electron moving perpendicular to a uniform Magnetic force between magnetic field and
magnetic field electron

Robert Lee Chin 19

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Solve problems and analyse information to calculate centripetal force acting on a

mv 2
satellite undergoing uniform circular motion about the Earth using: F
r

For a satellite orbiting the Earth, the centripetal force is supplied by the gravitational force
between the satellite and Earth. Hence, use:

mv 2
FC where,
r

FC centripetal force,in Newtons(N)

m mass of object, in kg
v orbital velocity,in kg
r radius of orbit/ height above surface,in metres

If the orbital velocity is not known but the masses of the two bodies (e.g. satellite and Earth)
are known, the centripetal force can be found because it is supplied by the gravitational force:
mm
FG G 1 2 2 where,
r

r radius of orbit/height above surface

m1 mass of orbiting body
m2 mass or central body
G universal grav. constant

Orbital velocity can be calculated using the same values as above:

Gm
v where,
r

m mass of Earth or other planet

r radius of orbit/height above surface
G universal grav. constant

The velocity can also be calculated if the radius and period are known:
2 r
v where,
T
T time taken for one orbit, in seconds

Example Problems:

Robert Lee Chin 20

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

1) The Hubble telescope has a mass of 1 200 kg and orbits at an altitude of 600 km.
Calculate the centripetal force acting on this satellite as it performs circular motion
around the Earth.

The Centripetal force is the gravitational force between the satellite and Earth i.e. FC = FG.
m1 1200kg m2 5.97 1024 kg G 6.67 10 11m3kg-1s - 2 r 6.0 105 6.37 106 6.97 106 m
mm 11 1200 (5.97 1024 )
FG G 12 2 (6.67 10 ) 9835.9396... 9.84 103 N (3 s.f.)
r (6.97 106 )2

Hence, the centripetal force acting on the satellite is 9.84 x 103 N.

2) A car with a mass of 800 kg travels at a constant speed of 7.5m/s on a roundabout so

that it follows a circular path with a radius of 16m.

A person observing makes the statement: „there is not net force acting on the car
because the speed is constant and the friction between the tyres and the road
balances the centripetal force acting on the car.‟

Assess this statement. Support your answer with an analysis of the horizontal force
acting on the car, using the numerical data provided.

The car is being acted upon by a net force which is the centripetal (centre-seeking) force. The
centripetal force is directed to the centre of the circle, perpendicular to the motion of the car
at any instant. The friction is not balancing the centripetal force; the friction IS the centripetal
force that is keeping the car in uniform circular motion. If there were no centripetal force, that
is, no friction (e.g. on a very smooth surface such as ice), the car would go off at a tangent to
the circle.

m 800kg r 16m v 7.5ms -1

mv 2 800 (7.5) 2
Fc 2812.5 N
r 16

Hence, the car is being acted on by a centripetal net force of 2812.5N

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Compare qualitatively low Earth and geo-stationary orbits

Low-Earth Geo-stationary
Altitude (km) Above the Earth‟s atmosphere but Outer van Allen belts
below the van Allen radiation (35 800 km)
belts
250 1000

Orbital period (hours) 1.49 1.75 23.9 (aka “sidereal day”)

Orbital velocity (m/s) 7750 7350 3070
Uses Spy, surveying and weather Communications, weather
satellites, remote sensing, military satellites, scientific studies
purposes and for human
spaceflight
Additional information Other sub-types include polar From Earth, appears to be
orbits(spying) and equatorial low- fixed in the sky.
earth orbits
All occupy a single ring
positioned above the equator

Geostationary orbit is much

35 800km
higher, with a period ≈24 hrs.

A communications receiving
dish needs only to be aimed
250-1000 km directly at it to receive optimal
signal strength- no further
adjustments are needed.

Earth, viewed
from North
pole

Low-Earth orbit has shorter

period ≈1.5hours, but faster
velocity. Used by the Hubble
space telescope.

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Define the term orbital velocity and the quantitative and qualitative relationship
between orbital velocity, the gravitational constant, mass of the central body, mass
of the satellite and the radius of the orbit using Kepler's Law of Periods

Orbital velocity is defined as: the instantaneous speed (magnitude) in the direction indicated
by an arrow (directional) drawn as a tangent to a particular point on the orbital path.

Johannes Kepler discovered the mathematical relationship between the period of an orbit and
its radius:
R 3 T 2 i.e.
R3
constant
T2

We know that for an orbiting satellite, FC = FG, so:

m1v 2 GmM
r r2
GM 2 r
v2 but orbital velocity, v
r T
4 2 r 2 GM
So,
T2 r
R3 GM
Hence, where,
T2 4 2

R radius of orbit/height above surface

T period of orbit
G universal grav.constant
M mass of centralbody

Kepler‟s law of periods also applies to planets. When comparing any number of planets in the
R3
solar system, 2 will always give a constant.
T

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

R3 GM
Solve problems and analyse information using:
T2 4 2

Example Problems:

1) Two planets, X and Y, travel around a star in the same direction, in circular orbits.
Planet X completes one revolution around the star in time T. The radii of the orbits are
in the ratio 1:4.

How many revolutions does planet Y make about the star in the same time T?

3
R
Using constant,
T2
( R X ) 3 ( RY ) 3
and RY 4R X
(T X ) 2 (TY ) 2
( R X )3 (4R X )3
(T X ) 2 (TY ) 2
1 43
2 2
TX TY
2 2
TY 64T X
TY 8T X i.e. In thesame time it takes Y to make one revolution, X makes 8 revolutions.
1
Hence, Y must make revolutions
8

2) In June 1969 the Apollo 11 Command Module with Michael Collins on board orbited
the moon waiting for the ascent Module to return from the Moon‟s surface. The mass of
the Command module was 9.98 x 103 kg, its period was 119 minutes and the radius of its
orbit from the moon was 1.85 x 106 metres

a) Assuming the command module was in circular orbit, calculate

i) The mass of the moon
T 119 60 7140 s R 1.85 10 6 m

R3 GM
T2 4 2

2
4 R3 4 2
(1.85 10 6 ) 3
M 2 11 2
7.35110 ... 10 22 7.35 10 22 kg (3 s.f.)
GT (6.67 10 )(7140 )

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

ii) the magnitude of the orbital velocity of the command module

M 7.35 10 22
Gm (6.67 10 11 )(7.35 10 22 )
V 1627.87373... 1630ms 1 (3 s.f.)
R 1.85 10 6

Remember : the mass here refers to the mass of the planet!

The mass of the commandmodule is not needed.

3) From nearest to furthest, the four satellite moons of Jupiter first observed by Galileo
in the year 1610 are called Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. For the first three
moons, the orbital period T of each is exactly twice that of the one orbiting immediately
inside it. That is, TEuropa=2xTIo
TGanymede=2xTEuropa

The mass of Jupiter is 1.90x1027 kg, and the orbital radius of Io is 421 600 km.

a) Use Kepler‟s law of periods to calculate Ganymede‟s orbital radius.

R Io 421600km 4.216 108 m
(R Io ) 3 (R Gany m ede) 3
and TGany m ede 4TIo
(TIo ) 2 (TGany m ede) 2
(R Io ) 3 (R Gany m ede) 3
(TIo ) 2 (4TIo ) 2
(R Gany m ede) 3 Gm
2
(4TIo ) 4 2
(4TIo )(Gm)
(R Gany m ede) 3
4 2
(4TIo )(Gm) 3 (4 4.216 108 )(6.67 10 11
)(1.90 10 27 )
R Gany m ede 3
4 2 4 2
175587433.3... 1.76 108 m (3 s.f.)

b) Calculate Ganymede‟s orbital speed

R 1.76 108 m m 1.90 10 27 kg

Gm (6.67 10 11 )(1.90 10 27 )
V 26833.87445... 2.68 10 4 ms 1 (3 s.f.)
R 1.76 108

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Account for the orbital decay of satellites in low Earth orbit

A satellite in a stable orbit around the Earth possesses a certain amount of mechanical energy,
which is the sum of its kinetic energy (due to its high speed) and its gravitational energy (due
to its altitude). The lower the altitude of the orbit, the lower the total mechanical energy is.

Orbital decay affects satellites within the Earth‟s atmosphere (up to 1000 km above Earth‟s
surface). The force due to friction between the satellite and the air particles of the atmosphere
creates heat, resulting in the satellite losing kinetic energy. Gravity causes the satellite to lose
altitude and as the satellite falls to lower altitudes, the atmosphere becomes denser and
frictional forces increase.

This decay is cyclic and speeds up as time passes, causes it to plunge closer to Earth before
vaporizing due to enormous heat build up. Note that few satellites actually make it back to
Earth intact.

Discuss issues associated with safe re-entry for a manned spacecraft into the Earth‟s
atmosphere and landing on the Earth‟s surface
Issues with re-entry include:
-heat build-up
-large g-forces produced
-ionisation blackout
-landing

In orbit, a spacecraft has a high kinetic energy (due to high velocity) and GPE due to its
height above the Earth‟s surface. During re-entry, the craft must decelerate to lose all this
energy.

As the atmosphere decelerates the spacecraft, much of this energy is converted to heat. This
extreme heat must be tolerated or minimised otherwise the craft risks vaporising. This can be
minimised by using a blunt shape for the nose cone. A blunt shape creates a shockwave ahead
of itself that absorbs heat generated by friction. Another method is to use protective layers
e.g. sacrificial layers, insulating panels or heat-resistant alloys. Finally, the craft can reduce it
speed using a series of braking ellipses, in which the craft uses the atmosphere to slow it
down before passing into an elliptical orbit to cool down.

The deceleration of the craft also results in g-forces, much greater than those experienced
during launching due to. Humans are better able to tolerate g-forces lying down, directed
“eyes in” rather than “eyes out”. Space shuttles are designed so that astronauts are reclined
back and experience g-forces “eyes in”. Use of breaking ellipses also reduces the g-forces

Ionisation blackout is a radio blackout that occurs as ions accumulate on the craft as heat
builds-up. The Tracking and Data relay Satellite and new space shuttle designs have
eliminated this problem. The shuttle design creates a hole in the layer of ions at the tail end of
the craft. Radio signals are sent from this opening to the Tracking and Data relay Satellite,
then back down to ground station.

The spacecraft still have considerable velocity when landing- enough to kill the occupants.
Safe landing can be achieved using a separate re-entry capsule with a parachute and landing

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

in the ocean. Another method is for the craft to reach a specific altitude before the occupants
complete the descent via parachute. Lastly, the craft can be fitted with landing gear and a
drag chute, allowing it to land on the airfield and be reused.

Identify that there is an optimum angle for re-entry into the Earth‟s atmosphere and
the consequences of failing to achieve this angle
The optimum angle of re-entry depends on the craft, but is usually between 5˚ to 7˚- a 2˚ entry
“window”. A spacecraft following the correct angle will decelerate safely along a descent
path of about 1000 km. An angle of 7˚ to 9˚ will subject the astronauts to dangerously high g-
forces. Any steeper than 9˚ will cause the craft to burn up. Re-entering at angles shallower
than 5˚ will cause the craft to rebound off the atmosphere back into space.

Angle < 5˚
– too shallow; craft will
“bounce off” ˚

Angle > 7˚
– too sharp; craft
will “burn up”
˚

Angle between 5˚
an 7˚
– optimal range

Space: 3. The Solar System is held together by gravity

Present information and use available evidence to discuss the factors affecting the
strength of the gravitational force

The strength of the gravitational force is proportional to the product of the masses of the two
1
objects i.e. FG mM and inversely proportional to their distances apart i.e. FG . So the
r2
greater the masses of the two objects, the greater the gravitational force and the greater their
distance apart, the weaker the gravitational force.

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Given that M and m are constant, g decreases by a factor of the square of r:

r
m FG g

2r g
m FG
4
M
3r g
m FG
9
4r g
m FG
16

The distribution of mass in the two objects also affects the uniformity of the gravitational
field. For example, areas of higher or lower density such as mineral, oil and gas deposits will
affect g and variations in the thickness of the Earth‟s crust due to tectonic plate boundaries.
The shape of the two objects will also affect g. For example, the Earth is not a perfect sphere,
but flattened at the poles- g will have greater value here.

Variations in altitude affect g i.e. the higher you are, the lower g is. Finally the rotation of the
Earth creates a centrifuge effect that effectively lowers the measured value of g.

Describe a gravitational field in the region surrounding a massive object in terms of

its effect on other masses in it
m
g G Planet2
From the mathematical formula: ( rPlanet ) , the gravitational field surrounding a

massive object is proportional to its mass but inversely proportional to its radius squared.
Every mass acts as if surrounded by a “force field” which attracts any other masses within
this field. This field extends on to infinity, meaning that every mass in the universe is
exerting a force an every other mass, hence the term Universal gravitation.

Define Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

Sir Isaac Newtons law of Universal gravitational showed that the gravitational force between
two masses:
- is proportional to the product of their masses
- is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from their centres apart

Mathematically, this is given by:

mM
FG G 2 where,
r
G universal grav.constant 6.67 10 -11 m 3 kg 1 s 2

m and M massesof objects inviolved, in kg

r distance from their centresapart,in metres

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

m1 m 2
Solve problems and analyse information using F G
r2

Example problems:

1) Describe the way in which gravitational force varies with distance for any two
objects.
For any two objects, (assuming their masses remain constant), the gravitational force between
k
them is inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart i.e. F , where k is a
r2
constant. Say the force is equal to g at a distance of r. Then the force diminishes by half at a
distance of 2r. At a distance of 3r, it is one-ninth and at a distance of 4r, it is only one-
sixteenth. The force diminishes rapidly at first, then more slowly as the distance increases.
However, the force never reaches zero unless the distance is infinity.

Force

Distance

3) A geostationary satellite of mass 860kg orbits the Earth with a orbital radius of 35
800km. Calculate the force of gravity keeping it in orbit, assuming mass of Earth is
5.97x1024 kg.
m1 860kg r 3.58 108 m m2 5.97 10 24 kg

m1m2 11 860 (5.97 10 24 )

F G 2
(6.67 10 ) 8 2
4.00596... 1010 4.01 1010 N (3 s.f.)
r (3.58 10 )

Discuss the importance of Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation in understanding

and calculating the motion of satellites
Once a launched rocket has gained sufficient altitude, it can be accelerated into orbit. It must
attain a specific orbital speed to achieve orbit. If the speed is too low, it will spiral back into
the atmosphere, eventually burning up or crashing back down to Earth. If the speed is too
high, it will leave the Earth‟s orbit altogether. For satellites orbiting the Earth or other
planets, a centripetal force maintains uniform circular motion. Without this, it would fly off at
a tangent to the circle. The centripetal force keeping satellites in orbit is gravity.

By equating the expression for gravitational force with the expression for uniform circular
motion, we can find the velocity required to maintain uniform circular motion around the

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

GmE
Earth (orbital velocity), v . Given that mass and radius of the Earth are constants,
r
and noting that r = rEarth + altitude, the only variable is the altitude of the satellite above the
Earth. The greater the radius of orbit, the lower the velocity required to maintain orbit. At a
given orbital radius, a satellite orbiting a smaller planet would need to travel at a lower
velocity. The bigger the planet, the greater the velocity would need to be.

Furthermore, the above expression for orbital velocity can be used to derive Kepler‟s law of
R 3 GmE
periods i.e. 2 constant
T 4 2

Identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space probes
When scientists wish to send out probes into deep space for exploration, there are
considerable implications:
-it costs billions of $ to send a space probe to a single planet…
-so it makes more sense to send one probe to several planets…
-but the distances are enormous and even at high speeds, it takes years to reach planets…
-probes may also need to change direction when travelling between planets…

The solution is to fly the space probe close to a planet. This causes the planet to give some of
its kinetic energy to the probe which then swings around in a new direction with increased
velocity. The planet will actually slow down as it loses a small amount of energy, but because
of the huge mass of the planet compared to the probe, the energy loss is insignificant.

Planet orbit

“slingshot” trajectory

Planet orbit

Probe

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Space: 4. Current and emerging understanding about time and

space

Outline the features of the aether model for the transmission of light

During the 19th century, physicists knew that all waves required a medium to travel through.
Since light was a waveform, it was hypothesised that there was a universal “aether” aka
luminiferous aether) which transmitted light through the vacuum of space.

Features of the aether:

-completely transparent
-fill all of space
-be stationery in space i.e. act as an absolute frame of reference for all other bodies
-possess extremely low density
-have no mass
-have great elasticity to propagate light waves

Describe and evaluate the Michelson-Morley attempt to measure the relative velocity of
the Earth through the aether

It was reasoned that if the aether existed, the Earth should move through the aether as it
orbited the Sun. This is analogous to putting your hand out of the window of a moving car on
a windless day- you will feel an apparent wind.

The Michelson-Morley experiment in 1887 tried to detect the aether using the principle that a
beam of light travelling into the aether would be slowed down compared to a beam of light
travelling across the aether and an effect called interference.

The apparatus was set up on a large stone block floating on mercury. A single light source
sends a beam of light to a half-silvered mirror and is split in two. One beam (red) heads into
the aether while the other (blue) heads across it. Both beams travel the same distance, reflect
against a mirror and finish their journey at a telescope. The interference pattern of the two
light waves is compared using an interferometer. The entire apparatus is then rotated by 90˚
so that the rays reverse positions. If the interference pattern changed, it would provide
evidence for the aether‟s existence.

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Mirror

Apparatus
Aether wind is rotated
by 90˚

Light
source

Mirror

Half-
silvered
Mirror

Telescope

The experiment concluded with a null result i.e. there was never any change in interference
pattern detected. Even though it was repeated extensively with various adjustments and
refinements e.g. different times of year, different altitudes, it was always a null result.

Gather and process information to interpret the results of the Michelson-Morley

experiment

Michelson and Morley attempted to prove the existence of the aether using the assumption
that the speed light waves would be slowed down when travelling against the “aether wind”
compared to light waves travelling perpendicular to it. The shone monochromatic light as a
half-silvered mirror inclined at 45 o to the light beam, so that half the light passed through the
mirror while the other travelled perpendicular to it. Both light beams travelled the same
distance and were reflected back by mirrors placed perpendicular to the beams. The two
beams formed an interference pattern of alternating light and dark patterns. When the
apparatus was rotated, they expected to see a change in interference pattern as the two beams
had switched positions. No such change was ever found even though the equipment was
sufficiently sensitive enough. Hence, they concluded that the aether probably did not exist

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Discuss the role of the Michelson-Morley experiments in making determinations

about competing theories

A hypothesis gives rise to predictions that can be tested by experiment. From the results of
the experiment, judgements can be made as to the validity of the hypothesis. If the results of
the experiment do agree with the predictions, then the hypothesis can be accepted as true. If
the results do NOT agree with the predictions, they can be rejected as wrong.

The Michelson-Morley experiments were performed to test the prediction that an aether wind
should exist. The experiment had null results in all instances, despite the equipment being
adequately sensitive. However, this did NOT disprove the theory- it merely failed to find any
evidence for it.

Various modifications were made to the aether model. Each modified theory resulted in new
predictions, yet every test failed.

20 years after the Michelson-Morley experiment, Einstein proposed his theory of relativity
which did not require an aether model. This theory came with its own predictions which
could not be tested at that time. As technology improved, the predictions were tested all
found to be true.

However, the Michelson-Morley experiment was NOT a failure. It provided supporting

evidence for the theory of relativity by allowing a choice to be made between the two
conflicting theories.

Perform an investigation to distinguish between inertial and non-inertial frames of

reference.

Investigation: inertial and non-inertial frames of reference

Aim: to distinguish between an inertial and a non-inertial frame of reference

You will need:

-the help of another person who can drive
-a plumb bob, or any mass e.g. a nut hanging on a short length of string.

Method:

1/ Once in car, ask driver to take short trips across some smooth straight sections of road
travelling at constant speed and accelerating. Do the same when travelling along
bends. Do NOT look out the window; look only at the plumb bob.

2/ Note when the bob hangs directly down and when it does not. The plumb bob
effectively acts as an accelerometer.

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Results:
Events when bob hangs straight down Events when bob does not hang straight down
Car is at rest Car is turning a corner

Travelling at constant velocity on smooth Car is accelerating/decelerating

straight

The plumb bob is on an angle when in a non-inertial frame of reference i.e. accelerating,
decelerating or changing direction. The bob hangs straight when in an inertial frame of
reference i.e. at rest or when moving along a flat straight at constant speed.

Constant velocity/at
rest: inertial frame of
reference

Turning a corner, accelerating or

decelerating: non-inertial frame
of reference

Conclusion:
In an inertial frame of reference, there is no way of determining velocity without reference to
an outside point. In anon-inertial frame of reference, objects will experience a net force,
indicated in this case when the bob hangs on an angle.

Robert Lee Chin 34

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Outline the nature of an inertial frame of reference

An inertial frame of reference is a rigid framework relative to which measurement such as

position, velocity and displacement can be measured. It is defined as one that is moving with
constant velocity (including direction), or is stationery. One cannot distinguish between two
inertial frames of reference.

A non-inertial frame of reference involves a change in velocity i.e. an acceleration or

deceleration.

Discuss the principle of relativity

The principle of relativity states that all uniform, steady motion is relative to an observer i.e.
undetectable without reference to another frame of reference. For example, if travelling on a
plane that is flying horizontally at constant velocity at night, you cannot tell the plane is
moving at all!

In an inertial frame of reference, all measurements and experiments give the same results.
The principle of relativity:
-only applies for inertial frames of reference
-does not apply for non-inertial frames of reference

Analyse and interpret some of Einstein‟s thought experiments involving mirrors and
trains and discuss the relationship between thought and reality

Einstein’s “Thought experiment”:

Imagine you are in a train that is travelling at the speed of light. You are holding a mirror in
front of you. Will you be able to see your reflection?

There are two possible outcomes:

No, you will not see your reflection. This is because you are already travelling at the speed of
light. This would support the aether model by implying that light has a fixed velocity relative
to it. But… it would violate the principle of relativity because you would be able to tell how
fast you were going.

Yes, you would see your reflection. This would support the principle of relativity because
you would not be able to distinguish your speed. BUT… it would mean that a person
observing your reflection from outside the train would see it moving at twice the speed of
light!

Einstein concluded that…

Yes, he would be able to see his reflection because the principle of relativity is NEVER
violated. But… the person outside the train would observe your reflection to be travelling
normally. This meant that you would both perceive time to be passing differently.

The aether model could be regarded as superfluous.

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

The main limitation of these experiments is that they are based on your common sense
because most such situations cannot be test in reality. The common goal of a thought
experiment is to explore the potential consequences of the principle in question

Describe the significance of Einstein‟s assumption of the constancy of light

What Einstein assumed from his theory of relativity was all observers see light travelling at
the same velocity, (300 000 000 m/s), regardless of their motion. His assumption explained
the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment and proved there was no need for an
aether model.

The significance of the constancy of light is that there is no such thing as an absolute frame of
reference i.e. the principle of relativity is NEVER violated and that space and time are
relative values.

Identity that if c is constant, then space and time are relative

In classical physics, space (distance, position, velocity etc.) were relative values but time was
an absolute, passing identically for everyone.

The theory of relativity challenged classical physics by assuming that c is a constant. Since
distance
c , then space and time pass differently for different observers, depending on how
time
fast they are moving.

Discuss the concept that length standards are defined in terms of time in contrast to
the original metre standard

The metre was first defined in 1793 by the French government as “one-millionth of the length
of the Earth‟s quadrant passing through Paris”. After this arc was (incorrectly) measured,
platinum and iron standards were made.

When the Systeme Internationale (SI) was established in 1875, it was defined as “the distance
scribed between two lines on a single bar of platinum-iridium alloy”.

The current definition takes advantage of better technologies and the constancy of light to
give a more precise definition. One metre is defined as “the length of the path travelled by
1
light in a vacuum during the time interval of th of a second”.
299 792 458

Other measurements defined in terms of the speed of light include the light-year
(approximately 9.47 x 1012 km)

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Analyse information to discuss the relationship between theory and the evidence
supporting it, using Einstein‟s predictions based on relativity that were made many
years before evidence was available to support it

Einstein‟s theory of relativity predicted alterations to time and space including time dilation,
mass dilation and length contraction. When Einstein proposed his theory in 1905, these
predictions could not be tested because technology was not yet advanced enough. These
predictions can now be tested, because of technological developments.

Atomic clocks were developed in the latter half of the 21st century. Extremely accurate
atomic clocks have been synchronised, then flown around the world in high-speed aircraft.
When brought back down, the clock that was in the aircraft had slowed down slightly.

The strongest evidence comes from particle accelerator experiments. Subatomic particles
such as electrons and protons are accelerated to speeds very close to the speed of light. Their
masses are observed to increase exponentially and infact, newer, heavier particles can be
created by colliding subatomic particles together. The half-life decay of radioactive particles
travelling at relativistic speeds has been shown to take much longer from the perspective of
the scientists.

Special relativity has played a key role in the development and design of particle accelerators.
One of the earliest particle accelerators, the Cyclotron, reached an energy limit and hade to be
modified due to relativistic effects.

Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the consequence of special relativity in

relation to:
-the relativity of simultaneity
-the equivalence between mass and energy
-length contraction
-time dilation
-mass dilation

The relativity of simultaneity refers to the idea that if an observer sees any two events to be
simultaneous, then another observer in a different frame of reference will not judge them to
be simultaneous i.e. whether you judge two events to be simultaneous depends on the framer
of reference.

As an example, say there are two people, A and B. Both are equidistant from two identical
light sources and A remains stationary. At the moment when B begins to move right with
velocity, v, both lights flash. A, who remains stationery will judge both flashes of light to
reach him/her at the same time. B, however, has moved towards the right slightly so that the
light from flash 2 reaches them slight before flash 1 (remembering that the speed of light is
not infinite). Hence, B will judge the two flashes of light as not simultaneous.

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

A B

Flash 1 v Flash 2

d d

The rest mass of an object is equivalent to a certain amount of energy. Mass can be converted
into energy and vice versa. For example, nuclear fission reactions that occur in the Sun
involve mass being converted into energy and when water is heated, its mass will increase
slightly.

Einstein‟s famous equation expresses this equivalence of mass and energy: E mc 2 , where
E is the amount of energy, m is the rest mass and c is the speed of light. Since c is squared,
the amount of energy released from even a small mass is enormous.

For length contraction, time dilation and mass dilation relativistic effects, we use the factor:
v2
1 . Remember that this factor will always be less than one.
c2

The length of an object measured within its frame of reference is called its proper length, Lo.
Observers in different frames of reference will always judge the observed length, Lv, to be
contracted i.e. Lv Lo . For example, a car 3 metres long travelling at 0.5c will appear shorter
(2.6m) to a standing observer.
v2
Lv Lo 1 where,
c2

Length contraction is given by: Lv length as judged by an outside observer

L0 " rest length" within F. of R.
v relative speed within F.of R.
c speed of light 3.0 108 ms 1

The time taken for an event to occur in its rest frame is called the proper time, to. Observers
in different frames of reference will always judge the observed time, tv, to be longer i.e. time
passes slower for the person within the travelling frame of reference, t v t o . Using the above

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 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

example, say the person in the car speaks on their mobile phone for 1 minute. The standing
observer will judge the time taken to be 1min 10 seconds.

to
tv where,
v2
1
c2

Time dilation is given by:

tv time as judged by an outside observer
t 0 " proper time" within F. of R.
v relative speed within F. of R.
c speed of light 3.0 108 ms 1

Another consequence of special relativity is that the mass of a moving object increases as its
velocity increases- this is called “mass dilation”.

mo
mv where,
2
v
1
c2

Mass dilation is given by:

mv mass as judged by an outside observer
m0 " proper mass" within F. of R.
v relative speed within F. of R.
c speed of light 3.0 108 ms 1

This effect is only noticeable at relativistic speeds. As an object is accelerated closer and
closer to the speed of light, its mass increases and so does the amount of energy required,
making further accelerations more and more difficult. The energy that is used to accelerate
the object is instead converted into mass!

E m c2
v2
Lv Lo 1
c2
to
tv
Solve problems and analyse information using: v2
1
c2
mo
mv
v2
1
c2

Robert Lee Chin 39

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

Example Problems:

1) The nearest star to us is the Large Magellanic Cloud, with its centre located
1.70x105 light years from Earth. Assume you are in a spacecraft travelling at the
speed of 0.99999c towards the Large Magellanic Cloud.

a) In your frame of reference, what is the distance between Earth and the Large
Magellanic cloud?

Lo 1.70 10 5 LY (1.70 10 5 ) (365 24 60 60) (3.0 108 ) 1.608336 10 21 m

c 0.99999c

c2 0.99999c 2
1 1 0.004472124
v2 c2
c2
Lv Lo 1 2 1.608336 10 21 0.004472124 7.19267... 1018 7.19 1018 m (3 s.f.)
v

b) In your frame of reference, how long will it take you to travel from Earth to the
Large Magellanic cloud?
Lo 1.608336 10 21
to 8
5.36112 10 21
c 3.0 10

to 5.36112 10 21
tv 1.198786... 1015 1.20 1015 s (3 s.f.)
c 2 0.004472124
1
v2

2)
a) A piece of radioactive material of mass 2.5 kg undergoes radioactive decay. How
much energy is released if 10 grams of this mass is converted to energy during the
decay process?

m 0.01kg
E mc 2 (0.01)(3.0 108 ) 2 9.0 1014 J

b) A mass is moving in an inertial frame of reference at a velocity v relative to a

stationery observer. The observer measures an apparent mass increase of 0.37%.
Calculate the value of v in ms-1.

Robert Lee Chin 40

 HSC Physics Module 1: Space
Summary

mv 1.37
m0 1

mo
mv
c2
1
v2
c2 m0
1 2
v mv
v2 m0
1
c2 mv
v2 m0
1
c2 mv
m0
v2 c2 1
mv

m0 1
v c2 1 (3.0 108 ) 2 1 114 489 348ms 1
mv 1.37

Discuss the implications of time dilation and length contraction for space travel

Current maximum velocities do not allow for viable interstellar travel, as they would take
long. If relativistic speeds were attainable, the nearest stars would take only a few years to
reach. For example, our nearest star, Alpha Centauri would take 8 years to reach travelling at
0.5c. However, due to the effects of time dilation and length contraction, it would take
significantly less time (7 years, infact) for the crew on board such a spacecraft.

However, acceleration is always the most costly part of space travel. The effect of mass
dilation and time dilation means that the amount of energy required to accelerate beyond 0.9c
would be prohibitive. As one gets closer and closer to the speed of light, the energy input
required only marginally increases the velocity.

If the astronauts were to return to Earth, they would have aged significantly less than those
who remained on Earth. While this could make long space journeys possible to achieve
within a lifetime, governments may prohibit it because they may not get any “results” during
their lifetime.

We currently lack the fuel and technology required, hence it is an impractical situation. The
speeds reached by astronauts (the fastest to date is a tiny 0.01c) provide negligible relativistic
effects. Scientists have proposed using matter-antimatter based engines to reach relativistic
speeds but this may takes years to happen.

Robert Lee Chin 41