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CHAPTER 1
PRELIMINARY

1.1 Background
The human body really needs energy to perform various activities, this
energy can be obtained body through food. Food is not just able to channel the
energy in the human body, the human body requires only the juices from these
foods. In addition to getting the food energy also serves as penutrisis body. How
does the body get the juices of the food? That can get in the process of the
digestive system, as well as how we recognize a wide variety of diseases that can
affect the digestive system will be discussed in this paper.
This paper will discuss about penegrtian digestive system, what are the
organs that play a role in the digestive system, how the mechanism of the
digestive system, digestive system Disease, to the digestive system in animals.

1.2 Formulation of the problem

1.2.1 What is the purpose of the digestive system?
1.2.2 Any organ that plays a role in the digestive system?
1.2.3 How the mechanism of the digestive system?
1.2.4 Any disease digestive system?

1.3 Aim
1.3.1 In order for students to know what is the purpose of the digestive system.
1.3.2 In order for students to know what are the organs that play a role in the
digestive system.
1.3.3 In order mahasisiwa know how the mechanism of the digestive system.
1.3.4 In order for students to know what the digestive system disease.

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CHAPTER 2
DISCUSSION

2.1 Understanding Digestive System

Food digestion is the process of converting food of large size into smaller
size and smoother, and break down complex food molecules into simpler
molecules by using enzymes and digestive organs. This enzyme is produced by
the digestive organs and type depend on the food that will be digested by the
body. Digested nutrients will be absorbed by the body in a simpler form. Ingestion
of food on the human body can be distinguished5 kinds:
1. Injesti
Is a process put or put food in the mouth. Usually by hand or using tools
such as spoons, forks, chopsticks, and so forth.
2. Mechanical digestion
Proses mechanical digestion is the process of converting food into small and
soft. Mechanical digestion is done by the teeth, called mastication and other aids
such as gravel on pigeons. This process aims to help to make the process of
chemical digestion. This process is done consciously or according to our wishes.
Mechanical digestive process also occurs in the esophagus with peristalktik
movement called deglutisi.
3. Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion process is the process of changing the molecules of
complex food substances into molecules simpler so it is easy to digest. Chemical
digestion is done by enzymes, acids, 'bile', and water.
4. Absorption / Absorption
Absorption is the movement of nutrients from the digestive system to the
circulatory system and the 'lymphatic capallaries' through osmosis, active
transport, and diffusion.

5. Defecation / Purge
Purge / disposal of undigested material from the 'tract' digestion through the
anus.

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2.2 Organ Participate In The Digestive System

2.2.1 Digestive tract
The digestive tract is a continuous channel in the form of a tube surrounded
by muscles. Pencernan system humans have in general a process that initially after
the food is chewed and swallowed, it should be about 5-10 seconds to pass
through the esophagus and into the stomach, which spend 2-6 hours to digest the
majority. Final digestion and nutrient absorption occur in the small intestine for a
period of 5-6 hours. Within 12-14 hours, any material that is not tercena will pass
through the large intestine and feces excreted through the anus. The organs are
involved, among others, oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small bowel
lumen, and the epithelium of the small intestine. (Campbell, 2008: 39)

2.2.2Additional digestive organs (accessories)

This additional digestive organs function to assist in performing its digestive
tract. Teeth and tongue contained in the oral cavity, gall bladder and digestive
glands will be linked to the digestive tract through a channel. Additional digestive
glands will produce secretions that contribute to the breakdown of foodstuffs.
Teeth, tongue, gall bladder, some digestive glands such as the salivary glands,
liver and pancreas. Parts of the Human digestive system:

a. Mouth
The process of digestion begins from the food into the mouth. In the mouth
there are tools that help in the digestion process, namely the teeth, tongue and
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salivary gland (saliva). In the mouth, the food experience in mechanical and
chemical digestion. Some organs in the mouth, namely:
1) Tooth
Teeth serve to chew food so the food becomes smooth. This situation allows
the digestive enzymes to digest food more quickly and efficiently. Teeth can be
divided into four kinds, namely incisors, canines, molars front and rear molars. In
general, human teeth consists of three parts, namely dental crown (corona), tooth
neck (neck), and the tooth root (root). Crowns or tooth cusp part which looks from
the outside. Each type of tooth has a tooth crown shape is different. Chisel-shaped
incisors, canines shaped like a pointed chisel, and molars somewhat cylindrical
shape with a wide and flat surfaces grooved. The shape of crowns on incisors
associated with functions for cutting and nibbling. The canines are shaped like a
pointed chisel to tear food. While the molars with a wide and flat surfaces grooved
serves to chew food. Neck of the teeth is the tooth that is protected in the gums,
while the root of the tooth is the tooth that is embedded in the jaw. When we
observe the cross-sectional images of teeth, it will look the parts as in the picture
below.

Parts of the teeth

Tooth enamel is the hard white coating that covers the crown of the tooth.
Dental bone, dentin is composed of substances. Marrow tooth (pulp), a tooth
cavity in which there are nerve fibers and blood vessels. That is why when we are
perforated teeth will ache, because the teeth are nerve cord.
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2) Tongue
The tongue is a mass of striated muscle covered by mucous membrane of
muscle fibers intersect each other in the 3 areas, grouped in bundles, usually
separated by connective tissue. On the lower surface of the tongue, mucous
membrane smooth, while the dorsal surface irregular, pervaded by many small
bumps called papilae. Papilae tongue protrusions are oral epithelium and lamina
propria allegedly different shapes and functions. There are 4 types of papilae.
 Papilae filiformis: mepunyai protrusion shape slim and conical, very much,
and there are on the entire surface of the tongue. Epitelnya not contain soy
nipple (receptor).
 Papilae fungiform resembles the shape of mushrooms because they have a
narrow stalk and the top surface widened. This Papilae, containing nipples
taste buds scattered on the upper surface, an irregular manner are on the
sidelines between papilae filoformis are numerous.
 Papilae foliatae, arranged as protrusions are very solid all the lateral edge of
the back of the tongue, these papillae contains a lot of nipple ketchup.
 Papilae circumfalatae a very large papilae flat surface extending above the
other papilae. Papilae circumvalate scattered in the area "V" on the posterior
part of the tongue. Many mucous and serous glands (von Ebner) drain the
contents into the surrounding groove in the edge of each papilla. The
arrangement that resembles a moat allows continuous fluid flow at the top of
many soy contained nipples along side these papillae. The flow of this
secretion is important to get rid of particles from around the nipple soy sauce
so that they can accept and process new stimuli pengencapan. In addition to
serous glands associated with this type of papillae, mucous and serous glands
are small scattered throughout the oral cavity wall so epiglottis, pharynx,
palate,
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sensitivity lies tongue to taste

3) Salivary gland
Saliva or salivary glands produce saliva (saliva). The salivary glands in the
mouth there are three pairs, namely:
a) Parotid glands, located under the ear.
b) Submandibular gland, located in the lower jaw.
c) Sublingual gland, located under the tongue.
The layout of the salivary glands in the mouth can be seen in the following
figure.

Parotid glands produce saliva liquid. Submandibular gland and sublingual

glands produce a latex containing water and mucus. Saliva serves to facilitate the
ingestion of food. So, saliva serves to moisten and lubricate the food is so easy to
swallow. In addition, the lining of the mouth saliva also protects against heat,
cold, acids, and bases. There are enzymes in the saliva ptyalin (amylase). Ptyalin
enzyme function in the mouth convert food containing carbohydrates (starch) into
simple sugars (maltose). Maltose is easily digested by the subsequent digestive
organs. Enzyme ptyalin works well at a pH between 6.8 to 7 and 37 ° C.
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b. pharynx
The pharynx is the transition space between the oral cavity and respiratory
and digestive systems. He established a relationship between the area of the nose
and larynx. The pharynx is limited by the type of mucosal squamous stratified
epithelium, except in areas that did not experience any breathing part abrasion. In
areas latter, multilevel thoracic epitelnya ciliated and goblet cell. The pharynx has
a tonsil which is the body's defense system. Pharynx mucosa also has many small
mucous glands in the layer of dense connective tissue.

c. Esophagus
Gullet (esophagus) is a conduit between the mouth to the stomach. The
esophagus serves as a way for the chewed food from the mouth to the stomach.
Thus, the esophagus does not happen digestive process.
Throat muscles to contract in waves that push food into the stomach. The
esophagus movement called peristalsis movement. This movement occurs because
the muscles are elongated and encircle the esophagus wall shrink alternately.
Thus, the peristalsis movement is a movement flared flowers esophagus to push
food into the stomach. For more details, please refer to the following figure.

Motion peristalsis in the esophagus

Food is in the esophagus is only about six seconds. The base of the throat
(pharynx) striated muscle. Striated muscle of the esophagus to work consciously
at will in the process of swallowing. That is, we swallow if the food had been
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chewed at will. However, after ingestion of up before issuing a stool, working the
muscles of the digestive organs furthermore not according to the will of our
(unconscious).

d. side
Gastric (ventricle) is the big bag which is located on the left side of the
abdominal cavity as the site of a number of digestive process. Hull consists of
three parts, namely the upper (cardiac), the center of the rounded (fundus), and
bottom (pylorus). Cardiac adjacent to the heart and is associated with the
esophagus. Pylorus directly related to the duodenum. At the end there is a cardiac
and pyloric sphincter valve or regulating the entrance and exit of food to and from
the stomach. Hull structure can be seen in the picture below.

hull structure
The stomach wall is composed of muscle in whorls, longitudinal, and
diagonal. These muscles cause the stomach to contract, so that the food is mixed
well and evenly mixed with gastric juice. This causes the food in the stomach is
shaped like porridge. The stomach wall contains gland cells that serves as a
digestive glands that produce gastric juice. Aqueous gastric mucus (mucin),
gastritis, renin enzyme, and the enzyme pepsinogen. Acidic gastric juice because
it contains stomach acid. Stomach acid serves to kill germs or bacteria that enter
with food and also serves to activate pepsinogen into pepsin. Pepsin functions to
break down proteins into peptone and proteosa. The enzyme renin function
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agglomerate milk protein (casein) contained in milk. The presence of the enzyme
renin and the enzyme pepsin in the stomach showed that the digestive process
occurs chemically.
1) Kardia area
Kardia is the transition between the esophagus and the stomach. Lamina
proprianya contain tubular glands Cardia simplex branched, curled and often have
a large lumen which serves secrete mucus. These glands same structure as the
terminal portion esophageal cardiac glands and contain (and possibly secretion)
lysosomal enzymes.

2) The corpus and Fundus

Lamina mucosa composed of six types of cells, namely: (1) the cells of the
mucous isthmus, (2) parietal cells (oksintik), (3) the cells of the mucous neck, (4)
chief cells (cells zimogenik), (5 ) cells argentafin, and (6) cells that produce
glucagon-like substance.
a) Isthmus mucus cells found in the top of the gland at the transition area
between the neck and gastric pits. These cells secrete mucus that restricts
neutral and protects the gastric acid.
b) Parietal cells (oksintik) mainly located on the upper half of the gland and
inserted between the cells of the mucous neck. Parietal cells are spherical or
pyramidal cells with a spherical nucleus in the middle of a clear and
eosinophilic cytoplasm. Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid (HCl)
contained in gastric juice. In the case of atrofikans gastritis, parietal cells and
chief cells, both numbers are declining, and the gastric juice has little or no
activity of pepsin. Secreted acid chlorides derived from the blood contained in
the added cations (H +) derived from work one-enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
Carbonic anhydrase work on CO2 to produce carbonic acid, which dissociates
into bicarbonate and one H +.
c) Mucous neck cells contained in the grouping or single cells between the
parietal cells in the gastric glands of the neck. Secretions of mucus neck cells
are rich in acidic mucus glikosaminoglikans.
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d) Chief cells (cells zimogenik) synthesize and secrete proteins that contain
inactivated enzyme pepsinogen. When pepsinogen granules is released into
acidic gastric environment, the enzyme is converted into a highly active
proteolytic enzyme called pepsin.
e) Argentafin cells are also called cells enterokromafin for affinity for chromium
salts and silver. These cells are less numerous and located at the base of the
gland, tucked between cells zimogenik. Their function is still a matter of
speculation (not clear).
f) Other endocrine cells that can be classified as cells Apud (Famine precursor
uptake and decarboxyllation) produces the hormone Gastrin.
3) pylorus
In pylorus are short coiled glands secrete enzymes that lysozyme. Among
the cells contained mucus to lenjar pyloric gastrin cells (G), which serves secrete
the hormone gastrin. Function gastrin stimulates gastric acid by the gastric glands.
Mukosae muscular stomach consists of 2 or 3 layers of muscle that is
perpendicular to penetrate into laminan propria. When the muscles contract will
result in folds on the surface of the organ which will further suppress gastric
glands and secrete secretions.
a) Submucosal consisting of rare connective tissue and vessels
blood and lymph vessels and infiltrated by lymphoid cells and mast cells.
b) Muscularis externa consists of spiral fibers located in three main directions:
external layer is longitudinal, the middle layer is circular, and the internal layer
is tilted.
c) Serous layer is thin and covered by mesotel.

4) Substitution (turnover) Gastric Mucosal

In addition to replacing the epithelial cells that flake off every day, gastric
mucous membranes can regenerate when injured. Mitotic activity is mainly
carried out by glandular cervical cells. Free renewal of epithelial cells is about 5
days. Gastric epithelial barrier-lived, and the cells continuously flake off into the
lumen. These cells differentiate into cells with slow partietal and chief cells (cells
zimogenik).
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In addition to enzyme digestion, the stomach wall also produces the

hormone gastrin which serves to expenditure (secretion) gastric juice. Occur in the
stomach stirring motion. Movement started from cardiac stirred up in the pyloric
region. Continuous stirring motion occurs both when the stomach contains food or
on an empty stomach. If the stomach contains food, whisking motion harder than
when the stomach is empty. Maybe we never felt stomach ache and went off
because our stomach is empty. That is because the stirring motion when the
stomach is empty. For more details can be seen in the following figure.

Stirring motion in the stomach.

Food generally lasts three sampat four hours in the stomach. Fiber foods can
last even longer. From the stomach, food is gradually out into the duodenum
through the pyloric sphincter.

e. Small intestine
Small bowel (intestine) is the absorption of nutrients and the scene of the
most long digestive process. The small intestine is composed of:
1) Duodenum (duodenal)
2) Jejunum (jejenum)
3) Absorbent intestine (ileum)
In the duodenum and the pancreatic fluid channel empties bile duct. The
pancreas produces pancreatic juice containing enzymes as follows:
1) Amilopsin (Pancreatic amylase) That is an enzyme that converts starch (starch)
into simpler sugars (maltose).
2) Steapsin (Pancreatic lipase) That is an enzyme that converts fat into fatty acids
and glycerol.
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3) trypsinogen If not active, it will be activated to trypsin, an enzyme that

converts the protein and peptone into a dipeptide and an amino acid that is
readily absorbed by the small intestine.
The bile produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Furthermore,
bile flowed through the bile duct into the duodenum. Bile contains bile salts and
bile pigment (bilirubin). Functioning bile salts emulsify fat. Brown bile pigment,
and is produced by means of a remodel red blood cells that have been dark at
heart. Bile pigment gives characteristic brown color of stool. For more details,
please refer to the following figure.

In the duodenum and the

pancreatic fluid channel empties bile duct.
In addition to enzymes from the pancreas, small intestine wall of the small
intestine also produce a latex-containing enzymes as follows:
1) maltase, Function convert maltose into glucose.
2) lactase, Serves to convert lactose into glucose and galactose.
3) sukrase, Function convert sucrose into glucose and fructose.
4) trypsin, Function convert peptones into amino acids.
5) Enterokinase, Activating trypsinogen to trypsin.
The small intestine is relatively long - approximately 6 m - and this allows a
long contact between the food and the digestive enzymes as well as the results of
the digestive and absorptive epithelial cell barrier. The small intestine consists of
three segments: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Mucous membrane of the small
intestine showed a series of so-called permanent crease or fold sirkularis valvula
Kerkringi. Mucous membranes there is a small hole which is the mouth of the
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gland tubulosa simplex called intestinal glands (crypts or glands Lieberkuhn). The
glands of intestinal epithelial barrier has small intestine and goblet cells (top).
Intestinal mucosa is limited by several types of cells, that most of the
thoracic epithelial cells (absorptive), Paneth cells, and the cells were secreting
endocrine polypeptide.
1) Thoracic cells are absorptive cells are characterized by their apical surface
specialties experiencing the so-called "striated border" which is composed of
microvilli. Microvilli have important physiological functions as greatly
increase the contact surface of the small intestine with food. Striated border is
where the small intestine disakaridase enzyme activity. This enzyme bound to
the microvilli, hydrolyze disaccharide into monosaccharides, making it easily
absorbed. In the same place are suspected dipeptidase enzyme that hydrolyze
dipeptide into the elements of amino acids. Thoracic intestinal cell function is
more important is absorbing substances produced juices of the digestive
process.
2) Goblet cells lies tucked between the cells of absorption, fewer in the duodenum
and increases when it reaches the ileum. Goblet cells produce acid glycoprotein
whose main function is to protect and lubricate the intestinal mucosal barrier.
3) Paneth cells (macrophages) in the basal part of the intestinal gland serous
exocrine cells that synthesize lysozyme has antibacterial activity and plays a
role in overseeing the intestinal flora.
4) Endocrine cells of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal hormones, among
others: secretin, and cholecystokinin (CCK). Role of secretin pancreatic fluid
and bicarbonate secretion. Cholecystokinin acts stimulate gallbladder
contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion. Thus, the activity of the digestive
system and the nervous system is regulated by hormones peptide.

Vessels and nerves of the small intestine

The blood vessels that feed the small intestine and play a role to get rid of
the results of digestion are absorbed through the layer of muscle and form
extensive submucosal plexus. From submucosa, its branches extend into the
muscle layer, lamina propria, and villi. Each villi receive, according to its size,
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one or more branches that form meshes capillaries just below the epithelium. At
the end of the villi, formed one venules or more of these capillaries and walk in
the opposite direction, reaching submucosal venous plexus. Lymph vessels of the
small intestine begins as a dead end in the core tube villi. This structure, in
addition to the larger of the blood capillaries, often elusive because the walls to
collapse. These vessels run into the area above the lamina propria muscularis
mukosae, where they form a plexus. From Herein they headed into the
submucosa, where they surround the lymph nodules. These vessels anastomose
quickly and left the small intestine along with blood vessels. Innervation of the
small intestine is mainly formed by intrinsic and extrinsic elements.
Classify intrinsic component formed by neurons that form mesenterikus
plexus (Auerbach), there is between the outer longitudinal muscle layers and
layers in the circular muscle and submucosal plexus (Meissner) in the submucosal
layer. Plexus plexus contains some nauron receive information from the sensory
nerve endings close to the epithelial lining and the smooth muscle layer of the
composition of intestinal contents (chemoreceptors) and the intestinal wall
(mechanoreceptors). Other nerve cells are effector and innervate the muscle layer
and cells that secrete hormones. Formed by the intrinsic innervation plexus plexus
is responsible for kontrkasi small intestine that occurs in a state where the
extrinsic innervation none at all (in total).
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The structure of the small intestine can be seen in the picture below.

Cross-section of Human Intestinal Smooth

In the intestinal wall absorber-flakes are flakes intestine called villi (See
picture above). Vili serve to expand the area of absorption small intestine so that
food juices can be absorbed more and faster. Wall villi contains many blood
capillaries and lymphatic capillaries (intestinal lymph vessels). In order to reach
the blood, food juices must penetrate the intestinal wall cells which then enter
blood vessels or lymph vessels. Glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals
after being absorbed by the small intestine, through the blood capillaries will be
carried by the blood through the hepatic portal vein to the liver. Furthermore, from
heart to heart and then circulated throughout the body. Fatty acids and glycerol
together with bile to form a solution called micelles. At the time of contact with
the small intestine villi cells, glycerol and fatty acids to be absorbed. Furthermore,
fatty acids and glycerol were taken by the intestinal lymphatic vessels (veins kil),
and finally into the bloodstream. Whereas bile salts that have entered the blood to
the liver to make bile back. Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) are
absorbed by the small intestine and removed through the lymph vessels.
Furthermore, these vitamins into the circulatory system. Generally the nutrients
absorbed when it reaches the end of the small intestine. The rest of the food that is
not absorbed, slowly moving towards the large intestine. and K) are absorbed by
the small intestine and removed through the lymph vessels. Furthermore, these
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vitamins into the circulatory system. Generally the nutrients absorbed when it
reaches the end of the small intestine. The rest of the food that is not absorbed,
slowly moving towards the large intestine. and K) are absorbed by the small
intestine and removed through the lymph vessels. Furthermore, these vitamins
into the circulatory system. Generally the nutrients absorbed when it reaches the
end of the small intestine. The rest of the food that is not absorbed, slowly moving
towards the large intestine.
f. Colon
Food that is not digested in the small intestine, such as cellulose, together
with mucus will go to the colon into the stool. In the large intestine are
Escherichia coli. These bacteria help in the process of decay of the remaining food
into feces. In addition to decompose the leftovers, the E. coli bacteria also produce
vitamin K. Vitamin K plays an important role in blood clotting process. The rest
of the food in the large intestine entry contains a lot of water. Because the body
needs water, so most of the water is absorbed back into the large intestine. Re-
absorption of water is an important function of the colon. The large intestine is
composed of parts that go up, starting from the appendix (appendix), part
landscape, part decreases, and ends at the anus. For more details, can be seen in
the picture below.

Structure of the colon

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Food trip up in the colon can reach between four and five hours. However,
in the large intestine of food can be stored for up to 24 hours. In the large
intestine, the stool is pushed regularly and slowly by peristalsis movement toward
the rectum (bowel shaft). Peristalsis movement is controlled by smooth muscle
(involuntary muscle).

g. anus
A pit disposal of faeces from the body. Before being discharged through the
anus, faeces collected prior to the rectum. If the stool is ready to be discarded then
sphinkter rectum muscle regulate the opening and closing of the anus. Sphinkter
muscles that make up the rectum there are two, namely smooth muscle and
striated muscle. Thus, the process of defecation (bowel movements) done
consciously, with the contraction of the abdominal wall, followed by loosening
muscle contraction sphinkter anus and colon and rectum. As a result of feces can
be pushed out of the anus. For more details, can be seen in the picture below.

There are muscles in the anus sphinkter, rectum, and veins. Sphinkter
muscle function is to open or close the anus. While the function is to store feces
rectum while.

h. salivary glands
Besides the tiny glands scattered throughout the oral cavity, there are three
pairs of major salivary glands; parotid, submandibular (submaxilaris), and
sublingual.
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Salivary glands are composed of units called morphologic and functional

adenomer. A adenomer has a section consisting of secretory cells glandularis.
Near the base of the secretory cells and ductal interkalaris are smooth muscle cells
called myoepithelial. Salivary glands that are not purely classify adenomer but
contain other elements such as connective tissue, blood and lymph vessels, and
nerves. Channels that are in the lobules is called ductal intralobularis-merge into
duct ekstralobularis.
Kelejar function is a saliva moistens and lubricates the mouth and its
contents, begin the digestion of food, organize excretion of certain substances
such as urea and thiocyanate, and reabsorb sodium and excrete potassium. The
main function of the pancreas is to produce digestive enzymes that work in the
small intestine and excrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the
bloodstream.

i. Pancreas
The pancreas consists of exocrine and endocrine parts. Endocrine portion
consists of the islets of Langerhans and exocrine part composed of glands asiner,
it is called pancreatic acini section. Asiner pancreatic cells are serous cells, and
have the properties of the protein memsintesis. Once synthesized in the basal part
of the cell, then the proenzyme hereinafter leave the rough endoplasmic reticulum
and into the Golgi apparatus. The proenzyme collected in vesicles called secretory
granules prozimogen. Mature secretory granules (zymogen granules), attached to
the membrane and collected on the apical (end) cells.
Secrete human pancreatic exocrine part:
- water
- ions: bicarbonate.
- enzymes: karboksipeptidase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, lipase and
amylase.
- proenzyme as follows: trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen.
Regulation of secretion of pancreatic acini is regulated by two hormones -
secretin and cholecystokinin (formerly called pankreoenzim) - produced by the
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duodenal mucosa. Stimulation of the vagus nerve (parasympathetic nerve) will

also increase the secretion of the pancreas.
1. secretin stimulates the secretion of fluid, a little protein (enzyme) and rich in
bicarbonate. Its function is mainly facilitate the transport of water and ions.
The results of this secretion kimus role to neutralize the acid (the new food
partially digested) so that pancreatic enzymes can be able to function at optimal
neutral pH range.
2. cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates the secretion of fluid (a little), many proteins
and enzymes. This hormone works mainly in the process of spending zymogen
granules. Joint work to two of these enzymes generate the secretion of
pancreatic juice rich in enzymes.

j. Liver (liver)
The liver is the largest organ of the body, after the skin, is located in the
abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm. Most of the amount of blood (about
70%) comes from the portal vein. Through the portal vein, all substances that are
absorbed through the intestine reaches the liver except fatty acids, which are
transported through the lymph vessels.
The liver lobule
The liver is composed of liver cells, called hepatocytes. These epithelial
cells are grouped and interconnected in radier arrangement (menjari) form a
building called the liver lobule. In certain animals (such as pigs), lobules
separated from each other by a layer of connective tissue. Cracks portal, located
on the corners of the polygon liver (liver lobules) and occupied by the portal
triangle (triangle of the portal). Triangle porta human heart contains venules (a
branch of the portal vein); and arterioles (branch of the hepatic artery); bile duct
(part of the bile duct system); and lymph vessels.
Sinusoid capillary separating the cells of the liver. Sinusoid is dilated
vessels irregular and consists of a single layer of endothelial cells that are not
intact (continuous). Sinusoid has an imperfect barrier and allow the drainage of
macromolecules easily from the lumen into the liver cells and vice versa. Sinusoid
coming from the edge of the lobule, filled by venules-venules in, terminal
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branches of the portal vein and hepatic arterioles, and they walked toward the
center, where they empty into the vena centralis. At the sinusoid also contain
phagocytic cells known as Kupffer cells. Canaliculi bile between the liver cells.
Endothelial cells are separated from the adjacent hepatocytes by subendothelial
gap known as gap Disse, which is actually a free collagen and the basal lamina.

2.3 The mechanism of the digestive system

First of all, the digestion is done by mouth. Here do the mechanical
digestion is the process of using teeth to chew food and chemical digestion using
enzymes ptyalin (amylase). Ptyalin enzyme function in the mouth convert food
containing carbohydrates (starch) into simple sugars (maltose). Maltose is easily
digested by the subsequent digestive organs. Enzyme ptyalin works well at a pH
between 6.8 to 7 and 37 ° C.
The food is then taken to the stomach and passes through the esophagus.
Food can be dropped into the stomach due to the contraction of the muscles in the
esophagus. In the stomach, food is going through chemical digestion process
using a substance / enzyme as follows:
 Renin, functioning precipitate milk protein (casein) from milk (ASI). Only
owned by the baby.
 Pepsin, serves to break down proteins into peptone.
 HCl (hydrochloric acid), serves to activate pepsinogen into pepsin. As a
disinfectant, as well as stimulate the hormone secretin and cholecystokinin in
the small intestine.
 Lipase, serves to break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. However lipase
produced very little.
Once the food is processed in the stomach which takes about 3-4 hours, the
food will be brought into the duodenum. In the duodenum following are enzymes
from the pancreas:
1. amylase
An enzyme that converts starch (starch) into simpler sugars (maltose).
2. lipase
The enzyme that converts fat into fatty acids and glycerol.
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3. trypsinogen
If not active, it will be activated to trypsin, an enzyme that converts the
protein and peptone into a dipeptide and an amino acid that is readily absorbed by
the small intestine.
In addition, there are also bile. The bile produced by the liver and stored in
the gall bladder. Furthermore, bile flowed through the bile duct into the
duodenum. Bile contains bile salts and bile pigment (bilirubin). Functioning bile
salts emulsify fat. Brown bile pigment, and is produced by means of a remodel red
blood cells that have been dark at heart. Bile is a resultexcretionin the heart. Bile
pigment gives characteristic brown color of stool.
Furthermore, the food was brought to the small intestine. Occurs in the
small intestine chemical digestion process involving various digestive enzymes.
Digestible carbohydrates into glucose. Digested fats into fatty acids and glycerol,
as well as protein is digested into amino acids. So, in the duodenum, the whole
process of digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins resolved. Furthermore,
the process of absorption (absorption) will take place in the jejunum and mostly in
the intestine absorbent. Carbohydrates are absorbed in the form of glucose, fat is
absorbed in the form of fatty acids and glycerol, and protein is absorbed in the
form of amino acids. Vitamins and minerals are not experiencing digestion and
can be directly absorbed by the small intestine.
Food that is not digested in the small intestine, such as cellulose, together
with mucus will go to the colon into the stool. In the large intestine are
Escherichia coli. These bacteria help in the process of decay of the remaining food
into feces. In addition to decompose the leftovers, the E. coli bacteria also produce
vitamin K. Vitamin K plays an important role in blood clotting process. The rest
of the food in the large intestine entry contains a lot of water. Because the body
needs water, so most of the water is absorbed back into the large intestine. Re-
absorption of water is an important function of the colon. Furthermore, the
leftovers will be removed through the anus in the form of feces. This process is
called defecation and done consciously.
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2.4 Disease In The Digestive System

1. Sprue, Bad Breath and Toothache
a. Sprue
Digestive tract disturbed or attacked by canker sores are mouth (lips and
gums) and the tongue. When you are exposed to thrush, lips and tongue like hurt
and sore, especially when eating. Usually people who are affected by this disease
become reluctant to eat, so the condition of the body down. The cause is "hot in
'or sores on the mouth and tongue. People are susceptible to thrush possibility of
lack of vitamin C or weak durability.
Treatment is done with drugs thrush. If the signs would be attacked by
canker sores appear should take a refresher or prevention solution heat inside.
People who are prone to canker sores should eat foods that contain a lot of vitamin
C or increase the intake of vitamin C in the form of tablets or drink supplements
rich in vitamin C.
b. Bad breath
c. Tooth ache
Toothache is most often caused by a hole in the tooth. Cavities are also
called dental caries. The cause of cavities in children are food containing sugar.
The rest of the food on the teeth and become a hotbed of bacteria. Bacteria will
easily breaks into a tooth to tooth loss. And into cavities so that invade blood
vessels and nerves teeth. Tartar can cause tooth fragile and easily dislodged.
Cavities should be repealed in order to not spread to other teeth. In toddlers, better
cavities so that growth remains patched regularly.
d. poisoned
Food poisoning is a condition that
causes a person to experience nausea,
abdominal pain, vomiting, loss of appetite,
diarrhea, fever, fatigue, and muscle pain
caused by eating contaminated food, for
example by norovirus virus or bacteriaE. coliand salmonella that causes typhoid
fever and paratyphoid.
e. Diarrhea and Constipation (constipation)
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Diarrhea is a disease or a
state in which the patient
experienced bowel movements
mixed with water several times.
The cause of diarrhea is
inflammatory bowel by other
diseases such as cholera and dysentery. Often the diarrhea is also caused byvirus,
Bacteria, allergies or can not stand certain foods, or malnutrition. Diarrhea,
including diseases that are often experienced by small children because
predilection to put something into his mouth or also experienced by the children
who like to snack at random. People with diarrhea will lose a lot of fluids and if
diarrhea lasts longer, the patient may become dehydrated. The health condition of
children with diarrhea usually quick to decline. Body weight also be reduced
dramatically. Even if not promptly treated can cause death in children under five.
Treatment of symptoms is done with drugs that stop diarrhea. For example,
norit or karbotablet, is the main ingredient of carbon. Diarrhea caused by bacteria
can be treated with antibiotics. If the cause is due to malnutrition, it should be
given nutritious food intake over time.

Constipation (constipation)

Constipation or what we often call

as "constipation" is a state which
experienced about a man with symptoms
of hardened thus difficult fases issued.
Constipation is caused by the absorption
of water in the rest of the meal. As a
result, fases lack of water and becomes
hard. It occurs from bad habits that delaying big waste. In addition, due to a lack
of patients in fiber foods, less drinking, stress, and others. Therefore, consume a
lot of fruits and vegetables in fiber, drink plenty of water, eat regularly, waste
water every day, eat fibrous foods and regular exercise can prevent this disorder.
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f. Ulcer

The disease is also called

gastric ulcers or wounds in the
stomach. Digestive tract are attacked
by ulcers are the stomach or
duodenum. Symptoms include
stiffness in the back one to two hours
after eating or when the stomach is
empty. Symptoms famous of ulcer
disease are nausea, bloating, and
vomiting. Other symptoms are lack of appetite and weight down. The cause of
ulcer disease is Helicobakter pylori bacteria or use of a type of anti-inflammatory
drugs.

The treatment is done by giving antibiotics if bacterial cause earlier. For

example, administration tetrasikin or amoxicillin. Light can be treated with
antacids. Nausea and bloating can be treated with medication heartburn.
g. typhus
h. Typhoid fever
Typhoid fever is a serious disease caused by bacteria. The bacteria causes
the sufferer typhoid fever, weakness, and even death. Incidence of typhoid fever
usually occurs in a very densely populated area. When sanitation and hygiene
improved to modern standards, the incidence of typhoid fever decreased
dramatically. Now relatively little sparse.
Symptoms of the disease are fever, especially at night, headache, abdominal
pain, bitter tongue so no appetite. Gelaja first appear one to three weeks after
consuming water or food contaminated with typhoid fever. Fever typically occur
in the first week and the second week of increases and remains high. Often there
is also followed by the appearance of patches of pink. At the level of severe,
greenish diarrhea. Furthermore, things happen more fatal like ulcers in the
intestine and even holes in the intestinal wall.
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The disease is caused by bacteria called Salmonella typhi. This bacterium is

mainly transmitted through contaminated water or food. Victims of typhoid fever
rid of bacteria in the faeces and urine. Healthy people but carriers of disease
bacteria can transmit the disease through feces. The bacteria also can be carried by
plainly that perch on stools contaminated and then landed on the food. Food
contaminated then we makan.Pengobatannya done by giving antibiotics. This
drug will inhibit the growth of Salmonella and accelerate recovery of the body.
i. Dysentery
This disease affects the intestines. Intestinal dysentery infected by germs
(bacteria or amoeba) become inflamed. Common symptoms include abdominal
pain, diarrhea (diarrhea) sometimes bloody and slimy. There are two types of
dysentery dysentery amebik baksiler and dysentery. Baksiler dysentery caused by
Shigella bacteria of the family. While amebik dysentery caused by Amoeba
family. Dissemination or transmission such as diarrheal diseases, namely through
the patient feces that contaminate water or soil. And healthy people use water or
soil contaminated with feces that contain the germs of this disease.
j. Stomach ulcers and gastritis
1) Gastric
Gastric ulcer is one of the digestive system abnormalities that
damage to the mucous membranes. Peptic ulcers can be caused by
factors germs, toxins, or psychosomatic. Anxiety, fear, stress, and
fatigue is psychosomatic factors that may eventually stimulate
spending HCL in the stomach. If HCL excessive mucus selapu hull
will be damaged.
2) Gastristis
Is an acute or chronic inflammation of the mucous lining
(lender) of the stomach wall. The reason is that people with eating
that contains bacteria. It might also be the levels of hydrochloric
acid (HCL) in the stomach is too high.
k. Hepatitis
Hepatitis is a disease caused by a viral infection of the liver. The virus can
enter the body through water or food
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l. Appendix (Appendicitis)
Appendicitis is a disorder that occurs due to
inflammation of the appendix. The reason is the presence of
bacterial infection of the appendix (appendectomy).
Appendicitis is an inflammation and swelling that occurs in the
appendix, which is a sac-shaped organ and the size of a finger,
which is connected to the large intestine.
A person who is diseased the appendix was originally going to have pain
that often appear and disappear in the middle abdomen. This pain within a few
hours it will feel more constant and slowly move toward the source of the
inflammation, ie to the right lower abdomen. The cause of appendicitis itself is
still not known with certainty. Experts argue that this condition can be caused by
blockage of the entrance of the appendix by feces or by swelling of lymph nodes
in the intestinal wall. One reason is also because of a bacterial infection in the
appendix (appendectomy).
m. Hemeroid / Hemorrhoids / Ambeyen
Hemorrhoids are swollen blood vessels
around or inside the anus.
The cause of the swelling is not known
for certain, but it is closely related to increased
pressure on blood vessels due to less eating
foods rich in fiber. Hemorrhoids including
disease is easily diagnosed by a doctor through
a rectal examination conditions. Usually the
doctor will prescribe medication to relieve
symptoms as well as facilitate the patient's bowel movements.
n. Gastroesophageal reflux (GERD)
Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (stomach acid) or also known as GERD
is a condition that occurs when stomach acid rises to the top of the esophagus due
to esophageal muscular ring can not close properly.
The esophagus or esophagus is the tube that connects the mouth to the
stomach. Esophageal ring works as a one-way valve which when we swallow
 27

food, this section will open and let food through to get to the stomach. After food
passes, esophageal rings, it automatically closes to prevent food and stomach acid
up into the esophagus.
GERD is usually easily diagnosed by doctors simply by asking the
perceived symptoms of sufferers in detail. Further tests are usually performed
when a patient suspected of suffering from other conditions such as irritable
bowel syndrome or peptic ulcers. In cases of severe GERD symptoms and
impervious to medicines, treatment is usually done through surgery.
o. Peptic ulcer
People often sit in the move and pregnant women often experience this
disorder Inflammation of the stomach wall to attack the mucous membranes that
line the stomach. Symptoms include difficulty breathing, dark-colored feces
mixed with blood, and headache. The cause may be allergic to food, alcohol, or
drugs, toxins or bacteria. The treatment is carried out in accordance with the
cause. Which is caused by bacteria the patient is given antibiotics.
p. wormy
There are several types of worms disease. Three who need to know that
roundworms, hookworms and pinworms.
1) roundworms
Caused by Ascaris roundworms or lumbriciadea. This worm eggs in through
food and drink contaminated or unclean.
Symptoms include stomach pains, diarrhea and bloating. Patients may also
experience symptoms such as throat and nose follow itchy. Sometimes he suffered
a seizure and tingling in the hands and feet. Frequent blinking eyes and raised the
white lining of the eye. Children often become fussy and crying.
The treatment is done by giving the right worm medicine by prescription.
The traditional recipe, bamboo shoots or seeds china petai can cure roundworm.
2) Hookworm
Worm disease is caused by hookworm. Hookworm eggs enter the body
through the skin, especially the feet and hands. This worm eggs live in the area
moist and warm.
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Symptoms that appear are stomach pains, diarrhea, and bloating. Often
accompanied by malaise and itching in the feet or hands. Treatment with
appropriate de-worming.
3) pinworms
How this worm eggs into the digestive system through food and drink is raw
and not clean. Children who have a habit of gnawing on fingers and playing in the
muddy-humid chance of getting the disease. Because pinworm eggs like being in
the water or land that is not clean.
Pinworm worm disease symptoms are itching in the anal canal or nostril. If
severe, the eyes of children who suffer from pinworms seemed a bit frothy.
The treatment is done by providing the appropriate worm medication and
the right dose or eating petai beans china as much as possible so that the worm is
dead and out with feces.
q. Disease Gallstones
Gallstone disease is an inflammation of the gallbladder or bile duct
obstruction due to a stone that comes from kolesterol.Batu efflorescence was
formed by a chemical imbalance in the gall bladder. Gallstones that do not clog
the bile duct will not cause any symptoms. But if it is clog, the sufferer can
experience severe abdominal pain that usually lasts between one and five hours
and appeared suddenly.
In addition to pain, gallstones can also cause inflammation followed by
symptoms of high fever and jaundice. Even in some cases, gallstones can irritate
the pancreas and causes symptoms of pain that can rise rapidly.
Gallstones that do not cause symptoms are not treated. Instead diagnosis and
treatment should be carried out if the symptoms are already feels quite disturbing.
gallstones can be diagnosed by ultrasound scanning. For treatment, the
recommended method is by surgical removal of the gallbladder through
laparoscopic surgery. In addition to simple, this procedure proved to be minimal
risk of complications.
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CHAPTER 3

COVER

3.1 Conclusion
Food digestion is the process of converting food of large size into smaller
size and smoother, and break down complex food molecules into simpler
molecules by using enzymes and digestive organs. This enzyme is produced by
the digestive organs and type depend on the food that will be digested by the
body. Digested nutrients will be absorbed by the body in a simpler form.
In this paper, it should be noted is that the functions of the digestive organ
itself is also mechanism of action. So when we understand well the mechanism,
then we will avoid some of the diseases that may arise from the diet and lifestyle
that one related to the digestive system itself.

3.2 Suggestions
It is expected that all readers and students can understand and know about
the digestive system and develop broader knowledge about how the digestive
system works.

29
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Campbell et al. 2008. Biology. Jakarta: Erland

Geneser. Finn. 1993. Textbook of Histology. Copenhagen: Munksgaard

Pack. Philip E. 2001. Anatomy and Physiology. New York: Hungry Minds

Surtiretna. Nina. 2006 Know Your Digestive System. Bandung: PT. Qiblah Main
Book

Wandy.2012. Human digestion. https://wandylee.wordpress.com Sasrawan,

human digestion Hedi.2012.System material.
http://hedisasrawan.blogspot.co.id

Admin. Digestion 2014.http: //staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/Bb1-Digesti.pdf

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