Ns

Networks Lab 2016-17
Part-A
Introduction to NS-2:
 Widely known as NS2, is simply an event driven simulation tool.
 Useful in studying the dynamic nature of communication networks.
 Simulation of wired as well as wireless network functions and protocols (e.g., routing algorithms, TCP,
UDP) can be done using NS2.
 In general, NS2 provides users with a way of specifying such network protocols and simulating their
corresponding behaviors.
Basic Architecture of NS2
Tcl scripting
• Tcl is a general purpose scripting language. [Interpreter]
• Tcl runs on most of the platforms such as Unix, Windows, and Mac.
• The strength of Tcl is its simplicity.
• It is not necessary to declare a data type for variable prior to the usage.
Basics of TCL
Syntax: command arg1 arg2 arg3
 Hello World!
puts stdout{Hello, World!}
Hello, World!
 Variables Command Substitution
set a 5 set len [string length foobar]
set b $a set len [expr [string length foobar] + 9]
Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 1

 Simple Arithmetic
expr 7.2 / 4
 Procedures
proc Diag {a b} {
set c [expr sqrt($a * $a + $b * $b)]
return $c }
puts ―Diagonal of a 3, 4 right triangle is [Diag 3 4]‖
Output: Diagonal of a 3, 4 right triangle is 5.0
 Loops
while{$i < $n} { for {set i 0} {$i < $n} {incr i} {
... ...
} }
Wired TCL Script Components
Create the event scheduler
Open new files & turn on the tracing
Create the nodes
Setup the links
Configure the traffic type (e.g., TCP, UDP, etc)
Set the time of traffic generation (e.g., CBR, FTP)
Terminate the simulation
NS Simulator Preliminaries.
1. Initialization and termination aspects of the ns simulator.
2. Definition of network nodes, links, queues and topology.
3. Definition of agents and of applications.
4. The nam visualization tool.
5. Tracing and random variables.
Initialization and Termination of TCL Script in NS-2

An ns simulation starts with the command
set ns [new Simulator]
Which is thus the first line in the tcl script? This line declares a new variable as using the set command, you can
call this variable as you wish, In general people declares it as ns because

it is an instance of the Simulator class, so an object the code[new Simulator] is indeed the installation of the class
Simulator using the reserved word new.
In order to have output files with data on the simulation (trace files) or files used for visualization (nam files), we
need to create the files using ―open‖ command:
#Open the Trace file set tracefile1 [open out.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tracefile1
#Open the NAM trace file

set namfile [open out.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $namfile
The above creates a dta trace file called ―out.tr‖ and a nam visualization trace file called
―out.nam‖.Within the tcl script,these files are not called explicitly by their names,but instead by pointers that are
declared above and called ―tracefile1‖ and ―namfile‖ respectively.Remark that they begins with a # symbol.The
second line open the file ―out.tr‖ to be used for writing,declared with the letter ―w‖.The third line uses a simulator
method called trace-all that have as parameter the name of the file where the traces will go.
The last line tells the simulator to record all simulation traces in NAM input format.It also gives the file
name that the trace will be written to later by the command $ns flush-trace.In our case,this will be the file pointed
at by the pointer ―$namfile‖,i.e the file ―out.tr‖.
The termination of the program is done using a ―finish‖ procedure.
#Define a „finish‟ procedure
Proc finish { } {
global ns tracefile1 namfile
$ns flush-trace
Close $tracefile1
Close $namfile
Exec nam out.nam &
Exit 0

The word proc declares a procedure in this case called finish and without arguments. The word global is
used to tell that we are using variables declared outside the procedure. The simulator method ―flush-trace” will
dump the traces on the respective files. The tcl command ―close” closes the trace files defined before and exec
executes the nam program for visualization. The command exit will ends the application and return the number 0
as status to the system. Zero is the default for a clean exit. Other values can be used to say that is a exit because
something fails.
At the end of ns program we should call the procedure ―finish‖ and specify at what time the termination
should occur. For example,
$ns at 125.0 “finish”
will be used to call ―finish‖ at time 125sec.Indeed,the at method of the simulator allows us to schedule events
explicitly.
The simulation can then begin using the command
$ns run
Definition of a network of links and nodes

The way to define a node is
set n0 [$ns node]
The node is created which is printed by the variable n0. When we shall refer to that node in the script we shall
thus write $n0.
Once we define several nodes, we can define the links that connect them. An example of a definition of a
link is:
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 10Mb 10ms DropTail
Which means that $n0 and $n2 are connected using a bi-directional link that has 10ms of propagation
delay and a capacity of 10Mb per sec for each direction.
To define a directional link instead of a bi-directional one, we should replace ―duplex-link‖ by ―simplex-
link‖.
In NS, an output queue of a node is implemented as a part of each link whose input is that node. The
definition of the link then includes the way to handle overflow at that queue. In our case, if the buffer capacity of
the output queue is exceeded then the last packet to arrive is dropped. Many alternative options exist, such as the
RED (Random Early Discard) mechanism, the FQ (Fair Queuing), the DRR (Deficit Round Robin), the
stochastic Fair Queuing (SFQ) and the CBQ (which including a priority and a round-robin scheduler).
In ns, an output queue of a node is implemented as a part of each link whose input is that node. We should
also define the buffer capacity of the queue related to each link. An example would be:
#set Queue Size of link (n0-n2) to 20
$ns queue-limit $n0 $n2 20
Agents and Applications

We need to define routing (sources, destinations) the agents (protocols) the application that use them.
FTP over TCP

TCP is a dynamic reliable congestion control protocol. It uses Acknowledgements created by the
destination to know whether packets are well received.
There are number variants of the TCP protocol, such as Tahoe, Reno, NewReno, Vegas. The type of agent
appears in the first line:
set tcp [new Agent/TCP]
The command $ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp defines the source node of the tcp connection.
The command
set sink [new Agent /TCPSink]
Defines the behavior of the destination node of TCP and assigns to it a pointer called sink.
#Setup a UDP connection

set udp [new Agent/UDP]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp
set null [new Agent/Null]
$ns attach-agent $n5 $null
$ns connect $udp $null
$udp set fid_2
#setup a CBR over UDP connection

The below shows the definition of a CBR application using a UDP agent
The command $ns attach-agent $n4 $sink defines the destination node. The command $ns connect $tcp
$sink finally makes the TCP connection between the source and destination nodes.

set cbr [new

Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr attach-agent $udp
$cbr set packetsize_ 100
$cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb
$cbr set random_ false
TCP has many parameters with initial fixed defaults values that can be changed if mentioned explicitly.
For example, the default TCP packet size has a size of 1000bytes.This can be changed to another value, say
552bytes, using the command $tcp set packetSize_ 552.
When we have several flows, we may wish to distinguish them so that we can identify them with different
colors in the visualization part. This is done by the command $tcp set fid_ 1 that assigns to the TCP connection a
flow identification of ―1‖.We shall later give the flow identification of ―2‖ to the UDP connection.
CBR over UDP

A UDP source and destination is defined in a similar way as in the case of TCP.
Instead of defining the rate in the command $cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb, one can define the time interval
between transmission of packets using the command.
$cbr set interval_ 0.005
The packet size can be set to some value using
$cbr set packetSize_ <packet size>
Scheduling Events
NS is a discrete event based simulation. The tcp script defines when event should occur. The initializing
command set ns [new Simulator] creates an event scheduler, and events are then scheduled using the format:
$ns at <time> <event>
The scheduler is started when running ns that is through the command $ns run.
The beginning and end of the FTP and CBR application can be done through the following command

$ns at 0.1 “$cbr start”
$ns at 1.0 “ $ftp start”
$ns at 124.0 “$ftp stop”
$ns at 124.5 “$cbr stop”
Structure of Trace Files

When tracing into an output ASCII file, the trace is organized in 12 fields as follows in fig shown below,
The meaning of the fields are:
Event Time From To PKT PKT Flags Fid Src Dest Seq Pkt
Node Node Type Size Addr Addr Num id
1. The first field is the event type. It is given by one of four possible symbols r, +, -, d which correspond
respectively to receive (at the output of the link), enqueued, dequeued and dropped.
2. The second field gives the time at which the event occurs.
3. Gives the input node of the link at which the event occurs.
4. Gives the output node of the link at which the event occurs.
5. Gives the packet type (eg CBR or TCP)
6. Gives the packet size
7. Some flags
8. This is the flow id (fid) of IPv6 that a user can set for each flow at the input OTcl script one can further use
this field for analysis purposes; it is also used when specifying stream color for the NAM display.
9. This is the source address given in the form of ―node.port‖.
10. This is the destination address, given in the same form.
11. This is the network layer protocol’s packet sequence number. Even though UDP implementations in a real
network do not use sequence number, ns keeps track of UDP packet sequence number for analysis purposes
12. The last field shows the Unique id of the packet.

XGRAPH
The xgraph program draws a graph on an x-display given data read from either data file or from standard
input if no files are specified. It can display upto 64 independent data sets using different colors and line styles
for each set. It annotates the graph with a title, axis labels, grid lines or tick marks, grid labels and a legend.
Syntax:
Xgraph [options] file-name
Options are listed here

/-bd <color> (Border)
This specifies the border color of the xgraph window.
/-bg <color> (Background)
This specifies the background color of the xgraph window.
/-fg<color> (Foreground)
This specifies the foreground color of the xgraph window.
/-lf <fontname> (LabelFont)
All axis labels and grid labels are drawn using this font.
/-t<string> (Title Text)
This string is centered at the top of the graph.
/-x <unit name> (XunitText)
This is the unit name for the x-axis. Its default is ―X‖.
/-y <unit name> (YunitText)
This is the unit name for the y-axis. Its default is ―Y‖.

Awk- An Advanced
awk is a programmable, pattern-matching, and processing tool available in UNIX. It

works equally well with text and numbers.
awk is not just a command, but a programming language too. In other words, awk utility is a pattern
scanning and processing language. It searches one or more files to see if they contain lines that match specified
patterns and then perform associated actions, such as writing the line to the standard output or incrementing a
counter each time it finds a match.
Syntax:
awk option ‘selection_criteria {action}’ file(s)
Here, selection_criteria filters input and select lines for the action component to act upon. The
selection_criteria is enclosed within single quotes and the action within the curly braces. Both the
selection_criteria and action forms an awk program.
Example: $ awk „/manager/ {print}‟ emp.lst
Variables
Awk allows the user to use variables of there choice. You can now print a serial number, using the
variable kount, and apply it those directors drawing a salary exceeding 6700:
$ awk –F”|” „$3 == “director” && $6 > 6700 {
kount =kount+1
printf “ %3f %20s %-12s %d\n”, kount,$2,$3,$6 }‟ empn.lst
THE –f OPTION: STORING awk PROGRAMS IN A FILE

You should holds large awk programs in separate file and provide them with the awk extension for easier
identification. Let’s first store the previous program in the file empawk.awk:
$ cat empawk.awk
Observe that this time we haven’t used quotes to enclose the awk program. You can now use awk with the
–f filename option to obtain the same output:
Awk –F”|” –f empawk.awk empn.lst

THE BEGIN AND END SECTIONS

Awk statements are usually applied to all lines selected by the address, and if there are no addresses, then
they are applied to every line of input. But, if you have to print something before processing the first line, for
example, a heading, then the BEGIN section can be used gainfully. Similarly, the end section useful in printing
some totals after processing is over.
The BEGIN and END sections are optional and take the form
BEGIN {action}
END {action}
These two sections, when present, are delimited by the body of the awk program. You can use them to
print a suitable heading at the beginning and the average salary at the end.
BUILT-IN VARIABLES
Awk has several built-in variables. They are all assigned automatically, though it is also possible for a
user to reassign some of them. You have already used NR, which signifies the record number of the current line.
We’ll now have a brief look at some of the other variable.
The FS Variable: as stated elsewhere, awk uses a contiguous string of spaces as the default field delimiter. FS
redefines this field separator, which in the sample database happens to be the |. When used at all, it must occur in
the BEGIN section so that the body of the program knows its value before it starts processing:
BEGIN {FS=”|”}
This is an alternative to the –F option which does the same thing.
The OFS Variable: when you used the print statement with comma-separated arguments, each argument was
separated from the other by a space. This is awk’s default output field separator, and can reassigned using the
variable OFS in the BEGIN section:
BEGIN { OFS=”~” }
When you reassign this variable with a ~ (tilde), awk will use this character for delimiting the print arguments.
This is a useful variable for creating lines with delimited fields.
The NF variable: NF comes in quite handy for cleaning up a database of lines that don’t contain the right number
of fields. By using it on a file, say emp.lst, you can locate those lines not having 6 fields, and which have crept in
due to faulty data entry:
$awk „BEGIN {FS = “|”}
NF! =6 {
Print “Record No “, NR, “has”, “fields”}‟ empx.lst

Networks Lab Part-A 2016-17
Experiment No: 1 THREE NODE POINT TO POINT NETWORK Date:
Aim: Simulate a three node point to point network with duplex links between them. Set queue size and vary the
bandwidth and find number of packets dropped.
Program:
set ns [new Simulator] # Letter S is capital

set nf [open PA1.nam w] # open a nam trace file in write mode
$ns namtrace-all $nf # nf nam filename
set tf [open PA1.tr w] # tf trace filename
$ns trace-all $tf
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace # clears trace file contents
close $nf
close $tf
exec nam PA1.nam &
exit 0
}
set n0 [$ns node] # creates 3 nodes
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 200Mb 10ms DropTail # establishing links

set udp0 [new Agent/UDP] # attaching transport layer protocols

$ns attach-agent $n0 $udp0
set cbr0 [new Application/Traffic/CBR] # attaching application layer protocols
$cbr0 set packetSize_ 500
$cbr0 set interval_ 0.005
$cbr0 attach-agent $udp0
set null0 [new Agent/Null] # creating sink(destination) node

$ns attach-agent $n3 $null0
$ns connect $udp0 $null0
$ns at 0.1 "$cbr0 start"

$ns at 1.0 "finish"
$ns run

AWK file: (Open a new editor using “vi command” and write awk file and save with “.awk” extension)
#immediately after BEGIN should open braces „{„
BEGIN{ c=0;}
{
if($1= ="d")
{ c++;
printf("%s\t%s\n",$5,$11);
}
}
END{ printf("The number of packets dropped =%d\n",c); }
Steps for execution:
 Open vi editor and type program. Program name should have the extension “ .tcl ”
[root@localhost ~]# vi lab1.tcl
 Save the program by pressing “ESC key” first, followed by “Shift and :” keys simultaneously and type “wq” and
press Enter key.
 Open vi editor and type awk program. Program name should have the extension “.awk ”
[root@localhost ~]# vi lab1.awk
 Save the program by pressing “ESC key” first, followed by “Shift and :” keys simultaneously and type “wq” and
press Enter key.
 Run the simulation program
[root@localhost~]# ns lab1.tcl
 Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.
 Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begins.
 After simulation is completed run awk file to see the output ,
[root@localhost~]# awk –f lab1.awk lab1.tr
 To see the trace file contents open the file as ,
[root@localhost~]# vi lab1.tr
Trace file contains 12 columns:

Event type, Event time, From Node, To Node, Packet Type, Packet Size, Flags (indicated by --------), Flow ID, Source
address, Destination address, Sequence ID, Packet ID
Contents of Trace File Topology Output
Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no12

Evaluation:

Experiment No: 2 FOUR NODE POINT TO POINT NETWORK Date:
Aim: Simulate a four node point to point network with the links connected as follows: n0 – n2, n1 – n2 and n2 –
n3. Apply TCP agent between n0 – n3 and UDP agent between n1 – n3. Apply relevant applications over TCP
and UDP agents changing the parameter and determine the number of packets sent by TCP / UDP.
Program:

set nf [open lab2.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf
set tf [open lab2.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tf
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
close $tf
exec nam lab2.nam &
exit 0
}
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set tcp0 [new Agent/TCP] # letters A,T,C,P are capital

$ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp0
set udp1 [new Agent/UDP] # letters A,U,D,P are capital
$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp1
set null0 [new Agent/Null] # letters A and N are capital
$ns attach-agent $n3 $null0
set sink0 [new Agent/TCPSink] # letters A,T,C,P,S are capital
$ns attach-agent $n3 $sink0
set ftp0 [new Application/FTP]
$ftp0 attach-agent $tcp0
set cbr1 [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr1 attach-agent $udp1
$ns connect $tcp0 $sink0
$ns connect $udp1 $null0
$ns at 0.1 "$cbr1 start"
$ns at 0.2 "$ftp0 start"
$ns at 0.5 "finish"
$ns run

BEGIN{
udp=0;
tcp=0;
}
{
if($1= = “r” && $5 = = “cbr”)
{
udp++;
}
else if($1 = = “r” && $5 = = “tcp”)
{ tcp++;
}
}
END{
printf(“Number of packets sent by TCP = %d\n”, tcp);
printf(“Number of packets sent by UDP=%d\n”,udp);
}
 Save the program by pressing “ESC key” first, followed by “Shift and :” keys simultaneously and type
“wq” and press Enter key.
o Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.
o Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begins.

Topology Output
Evaluation:

Experiment No: 3 TRANSMISSION OF PING MESSAGE Date:
Aim: Simulate the transmission of ping messages over a network topology consisting of 6 nodes and find the
number of packets dropped due to congestion.
Program:
set ns [ new Simulator ]

set nf [ open lab4.nam w ]
set tf [ open lab4.tr w ]
$ns trace-all $tf
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]

set p1 [new Agent/Ping] # letters A and P should be capital

$ns attach-agent $n0 $p1
$p1 set packetSize_ 50000
$p1 set interval_ 0.0001


$p3 set packetSize_ 30000
$p3 set interval_ 0.00001




Agent/Ping instproc recv {from rtt} {

$self instvar node_
puts "node [$node_ id]received answer from $from with round trip time $rtt msec"
}
# please provide space between $node_ and id. No space between $ and from. No space between and $ and
rtt */
$ns connect $p1 $p5

$ns connect $p3 $p4
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
close $tf
exec nam lab4.nam &
exit 0
}
$ns at 0.1 "$p1 send"


$ns at 3.0 "finish"
$ns run
BEGIN{
drop=0;
}
{
if($1= ="d" )
{
drop++;
}
}
END{
printf("Total number of %s packets dropped due to congestion =%d\n",$5,drop);
}

Steps for execution

1) Open vi editor and type program. Program name should have the extension “ .tcl ”
2) Save the program by pressing “ESC key” first, followed by “Shift and :” keys simultaneously and type
3) Open vi editor and type awk program. Program name should have the extension “.awk ”
5) Run the simulation program
i) Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.
ii) Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begins.
6) After simulation is completed run awk file to see the output ,
7) To see the trace file contents open the file as ,
Topology Output

Evaluation:

Experiment No: 4 ETHERNET LAN USING N-NODES Date:
Aim: Simulate an Ethernet LAN using „n‟ nodes, change error rate and data rate and compare throughput.
Program:

$ns trace-all $tf

$ns color 0 blue
set n0 [$ns node]

$n0 color "red"
set n1 [$ns node]
$n1 color "red"
set n2 [$ns node]
$n2 color "red"
set n3 [$ns node]
$n3 color "red"
set n4 [$ns node]
$n4 color "magenta"
set n5 [$ns node]
$n5 color "magenta"
set n6 [$ns node]
$n6 color "magenta"
set n7 [$ns node]
$n7 color "magenta"
$ns make-lan "$n0 $n1 $n2 $n3" 100Mb 300ms LL Queue/ DropTail Mac/802_3
$ns make-lan "$n4 $n5 $n6 $n7" 100Mb 300ms LL Queue/ DropTail Mac/802_3

$ns duplex-link-op $n3 $n4 color "green"
# set error rate. Here ErrorModel is a class and it is single word and space should not be given between
Error and Model
# lossmodel is a command and it is single word. Space should not be given between loss and model
set err [new ErrorModel]

$ns lossmodel $err $n3 $n4
$err set rate_ 0.1
# error rate should be changed for each output like 0.1,0.3,0.5…. */

set udp [new Agent/UDP]

$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp
set cbr [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr attach-agent $udp
$cbr set fid_ 0
$cbr set packetSize_ 1000
$cbr set interval_ 0.0001
set null [new Agent/Null]
$ns attach-agent $n7 $null
$ns connect $udp $null
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
close $tf
exec nam lab5.nam &
exit 0
}
$ns at 0.1 "$cbr start"

$ns at 3.0 "finish"
$ns run
BEGIN{
pkt=0;
time=0;
}
{
if($1= ="r" && $3= ="9" && $4= ="7"){
pkt = pkt + $6;
time =$2;
}
}
END {
printf("throughput:%fMbps",(( pkt / time) * (8 / 1000000)));
}


i) Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.
ii) Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begins.
Topology Output

Evaluation:

Experiment No: 5 ETHERNET LAN USING N-NODESWITH MULTIPLE TRAFFIC Date:
Aim: Simulate an Ethernet LAN using „n‟ nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and plot congestion window for
different source / destination.
Program:

set tf [open pgm7.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tf
set nf [open pgm7.nam w]
set n0 [$ns node]

$n0 color "magenta"
$n0 label "src1"
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
$n2 color "magenta"
$n2 label "src2"
set n3 [$ns node]
$n3 color "blue"
$n3 label "dest2"
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
$n5 color "blue"
$n5 label "dest1"
$ns make-lan "$n0 $n1 $n2 $n3 $n4" 100Mb 100ms LL Queue/ DropTail Mac/802_3 # should come in
single line
set tcp0 [new Agent/TCP]

$ftp0 set packetSize_ 500
$ftp0 set interval_ 0.0001
set sink5 [new Agent/TCPSink]

$ftp2 set packetSize_ 600
$ftp2 set interval_ 0.001


set file1 [open file1.tr w]

$tcp0 attach $file1
set file2 [open file2.tr w]
$tcp2 attach $file2
$tcp0 trace cwnd_ # must put underscore ( _ ) after cwnd and no space between them
$tcp2 trace cwnd_
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
close $tf
close $nf
exec nam pgm7.nam &
exit 0
}

$ns at 5 "$ftp0 stop"
$ns at 7 "$ftp0 start"
$ns at 16 "finish"
$ns run
cwnd:- means congestion window
BEGIN {
}
{
if($6= ="cwnd_") # don‟t leave space after writing cwnd_
printf("%f\t%f\t\n",$1,$7); # you must put \n in printf
}
END {
}


i. [root@localhost~]# awk –f lab7.awk file1.tr > a1
ii. [root@localhost~]# awk –f lab7.awk file2.tr > a2
iii. [root@localhost~]# xgraph a1 a2
7) Here we are using the congestion window trace files i.e. file1.tr and file2.tr and we are redirecting the
contents of those files to new files say a1 and a2 using output redirection operator (>).
Output Graph

Evaluation:

Experiment No: 6 SIMPLE ESS WITH WIRELESS LAN Date:
Aim: Simulate simple ESS and with transmitting nodes in wireless LAN by simulation and determine the
performance with respect to transmission of packets.
Program:

$ns trace-all $tf
set topo [new Topography]
$topo load_flatgrid 1000 1000
$ns namtrace-all-wireless $nf 1000 1000
$ns node-config -adhocRouting DSDV \

-llType LL \
-macType Mac/802_11 \
-ifqType Queue/DropTail \
-ifqLen 50 \
-phyType Phy/WirelessPhy \
-channelType Channel/WirelessChannel \
-prrootype Propagation/TwoRayGround \
-antType Antenna/OmniAntenna \
-topoInstance $topo \
-agentTrace ON \
-routerTrace ON
create-god 3
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
$n0 label "tcp0"

$n1 label "sink1/tcp1"
$n2 label "sink2"
$n0 set X_ 50
$n0 set Y_ 50
$n0 set Z_ 0
$n1 set X_ 100
$n1 set Y_ 100
$n1 set Z_ 0
$n2 set X_ 600
$n2 set Y_ 600
$n2 set Z_ 0
$ns at 0.1 "$n0 setdest 50 50 15"

$ns at 0.1 "$n1 setdest 100 100 25"
$ns at 0.1 "$n2 setdest 600 600 25"


$ns at 100 "$n1 setdest 550 550 15"
$ns at 190 "$n1 setdest 70 70 15"
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
exec nam lab8.nam &
close $tf
exit 0
}
$ns at 250 "finish"
$ns run
BEGIN{
count1=0
count2=0
pack1=0
pack2=0
time1=0
time2=0
}
{ if($1= ="r"&& $3= ="_1_" && $4= ="AGT")
{ count1++
pack1=pack1+$8
time1=$2 }
if($1= ="r" && $3= ="_2_" && $4= ="AGT")
{ count2++
pack2=pack2+$8
time2=$2 }
}
END{
printf("The Throughput from n0 to n1: %f Mbps \n”, ((count1*pack1*8)/(time1*1000000)));
printf("The Throughput from n1 to n2: %f Mbps", ((count2*pack2*8)/(time2*1000000)));
}

Steps for execution

o Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the snapshot.
o Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will begins.
Topology:
Node 1 and 2 are communicating Node 2 is moving towards node 3
Node 2 is coming back from node 3 towards node1 Trace File

Here “M” indicates mobile nodes, “AGT” indicates Agent Trace, “RTR” indicates Router Trace
Output:
Evaluation:

Networks Lab Part-B 2016-17
Experiment No: 1 Error Detecting Code Using CRC-CCITT (16-bit) Date:

Aim: C Program for ERROR detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16bit).
Whenever digital data is stored or interfaced, data corruption might occur. Since the beginning of
computer science, developers have been thinking of ways to deal with this type of problem. For serial data they
came up with the solution to attach a parity bit to each sent byte. This simple detection mechanism works if an
odd number of bits in a byte changes, but an even number of false bits in one byte will not be detected by the
parity check. To overcome this problem developers have searched for mathematical sound mechanisms to detect
multiple false bits. The CRC calculation or cyclic redundancy check was the result of this. Nowadays CRC
calculations are used in all types of communications. All packets sent over a network connection are checked
with a CRC. Also each data block on your hard disk has a CRC value attached to it. Modern computer world
cannot do without these CRC calculations. So let's see why they are so widely used. The answer is simple; they
are powerful, detect many types of errors and are extremely fast to calculate especially when dedicated hardware
chips are used.
The idea behind CRC calculation is to look at the data as one large binary number. This number is divided
by a certain value and the remainder of the calculation is called the CRC. Dividing in the CRC calculation at first
looks to cost a lot of computing power, but it can be performed very quickly if we use a method similar to the one
learned at school. We will as an example calculate the remainder for the character 'm'—which is 1101101 in
binary notation—by dividing it by 19 or 10011. Please note that 19 is an odd number. This is necessary as we
will see further on. Please refer to your schoolbooks as the binary calculation method here is not very different
from the decimal method you learned when you were young. It might only look a little bit strange. Also notations
differ between countries, but the method is similar.
With decimal calculations you can quickly check that 109 divided by 19 gives a quotient of 5 with 14 as
the remainder. But what we also see in the scheme is that every bit extra to check only costs one binary
comparison and in 50% of the cases one binary subtraction. You can easily increase the number of bits of the test
data string—for example to 56 bits if we use our example value "Lammert"—and the result can be calculated
with 56 binary comparisons and an average of 28 binary subtractions. This can be implemented in hardware
directly with only very few transistors involved. Also software algorithms can be very efficient.

All of the CRC formulas you will encounter are simply checksum algorithms based on modulo-2 binary
division where we ignore carry bits and in effect the subtraction will be equal to an exclusive or operation.
Though some differences exist in the specifics across different CRC formulas, the basic mathematical process is
always the same:
 The message bits are appended with c zero bits; this augmented message is the dividend
 A predetermined c+1-bit binary sequence, called the generator polynomial, is the divisor
 The checksum is the c-bit remainder that results from the division operation
Table 1 lists some of the most commonly used generator polynomials for 16- and 32-bit CRCs. Remember that
the width of the divisor is always one bit wider than the remainder. So, for example, you’d use a 17-bit generator
polynomial whenever a 16-bit checksum is required.
CRC-CCITT CRC-16 CRC-32
Checksu
16 bits 16 bits 32 bits
m Width
Generator
100010000001000 110000000000001 10000010011000001000111011011
Polynomi
01 01 0111
al
Table 1. International Standard CRC Polynomials
Error detection with CRC
Consider a message represented by the polynomial M(x)
Consider a generating polynomial G(x)
This is used to generate a CRC = C(x) to be appended to M(x).
Note this G(x) is prime.
Steps:
1. Multiply M(x) by highest power in G(x). i.e. Add So much zeros to M(x).
2. Divide the result by G(x). The remainder = C(x).
Special case: This won't work if bitstring =all zeros. We don't allow such an M(x).But M(x) bitstring
= 1 will work, for example. Can divide 1101 into 1000.
3. If: x div y gives remainder c
that means: x = n y + c
Hence (x-c) = n y
(x-c) div y gives remainder 0
Here (x-c) = (x+c)
Hence (x+c) div y gives remainder 0
4.
5.

4. Transmit: T(x) = M(x) + C(x)

5. Receiver end: Receive T(x). Divide by G(x), should have remainder 0.
Note if G(x) has order n - highest power is xn,
then G(x) will cover (n+1) bits
and the remainder will cover n bits.
i.e. Add n bits (Zeros) to message.
Some CRC polynomials that are actually used

Some CRC polynomials
 CRC-8:
x8+x2+x+1
o Used in: 802.16 (along with error correction).
 CRC-CCITT:
x16+x12+x5+1
o Used in: HDLC, SDLC, PPP default
 IBM-CRC-16 (ANSI):
x16+x15+x2+1
 802.3:
x32+x26+x23+x22 +x16+x12+x11+x10 +x8+x7+x5+x4+x2+x+1
Source Code:
#include<stdio.h>
int a[100],b[100],i,j,len,k,count=0;
//Generator Polynomial:g(x)=x^16+x^12+x^5+1
int gp[]={1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,};
int main()
{
void div();
system("clear");
printf("\nEnter the length of Data Frame :");
scanf("%d",&len);
printf("\nEnter the Message :");
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
//Append r(16) degree Zeros to Msg bits

for(i=0;i<16;i++)
a[len++]=0;
1.
2.

//Xr.M(x) (ie. Msg+16 Zeros)

for(i=0;i<len;i++)
b[i]=a[i];
//No of times to be divided ie. Msg Length

k=len-16;
div();
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
b[i]=b[i]â[i]; //MOD 2 Substraction
printf("\nData to be transmitted : ");
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
printf("%2d",b[i]);
printf("\n\nEnter the Reveived Data : ");

for(i=0;i<len;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
div();
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
if(a[i]!=0)
{
printf("\nERROR in Recived Data");
return 0;
}
printf("\nData Recived is ERROR FREE");
}
void div()
{
for(i=0;i<k;i++)
{
if(a[i]==gp[0])
{
for(j=i;j<17+i;j++)
a[j]=a[j]^gp[count++];
}
count=0;
}
}
Output:
[root@localhost ]# cc prg1.c
[root@localhost ]# ./a.out
Enter the length of Data Frame :4
Enter the Message :1 0 1 1
Data to be transmitted : 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1.
2.

Enter the Reveived Data : 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

ERROR in Recived Data
Remender is : 0000000100000000
Evaluation:
Department of ISE
Marks
Particulars Max. Marks
Obtained
Preparation 05
Performance 10
Viva-Voice 05
Result/Output 05
Total 25
Student Signature Staff Signature with
with Date Date

Experiment No: 2 Distance Vector Algorithm Date:

Aim: C Program for Distance Vector Algorithm to find suitable path for transmission
Distance Vector Algorithm is a decentralized routing algorithm that requires that each router simply
inform its neighbors of its routing table. For each network path, the receiving routers pick the neighbor
advertising the lowest cost, then add this entry into its routing table for re-advertisement. To find the shortest
path, Distance Vector Algorithm is based on one of two basic algorithms: the Bellman-Ford and the Dijkstra
algorithms.
Routers that use this algorithm have to maintain the distance tables (which is a one-dimension array -- "a
vector"), which tell the distances and shortest path to sending packets to each node in the network. The
information in the distance table is always upd by exchanging information with the neighboring nodes. The
number of data in the table equals to that of all nodes in networks (excluded itself). The columns of table
represent the directly attached neighbors whereas the rows represent all destinations in the network. Each data
contains the path for sending packets to each destination in the network and distance/or time to transmit on that
path (we call this as "cost"). The measurements in this algorithm are the number of hops, latency, the number of
outgoing packets, etc.
The starting assumption for distance-vector routing is each node knows the cost of the link of each of its
directly connected neighbors. Next, every node sends a configured message to its directly connected neighbors
containing its own distance table. Now, every node can learn and up its distance table with cost and next hops for
all nodes network. Repeat exchanging until no more information between the neighbors.
Consider a node A that is interested in routing to destination H via a directly attached neighbor J. Node
A's distance table entry, Dx(Y,Z) is the sum of the cost of the direct-one hop link between A and J, c(A,J), plus
neighboring J's currently known minimum-cost path (shortest path) from itself(J) to H. That is
Dx(H,J) = c(A,J) + minw{Dj(H,w)} The minw is taken over all the J's
This equation suggests that the form of neighbor-to-neighbor communication that will take place in the DV
algorithm - each node must know the cost of each of its neighbors' minimum-cost path to each destination.
Hence, whenever a node computes a new minimum cost to some destination, it must inform its neighbors of this
new minimum cost.

Figure (a) A subnet. (b) Input from A, I, H, K, and the new routing table for J.
Implementation Algorithm:
1. send my routing table to all my neighbors whenever my link table changes
2. when I get a routing table from a neighbor on port P with link metric M:
a. add L to each of the neighbor's metrics
b. for each entry (D, P', M') in the updated neighbor's table:
i. if I do not have an entry for D, add (D, P, M') to my routing table
ii. if I have an entry for D with metric M", add (D, P, M') to my routing table if M' < M"
3. if my routing table has changed, send all the new entries to all my neighbors.
Source Code:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void rout_table();
int d[10][10],via[10][10];
int i,j,k,l,m,n,g[10][10],temp[10][10],ch,cost;
int main()
{

system("clear");
printf("enter the value of no. of nodes\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
rout_table();
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
temp[i][j]=g[i][j];
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
via[i][j]=i;
while(1)
{
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
if(d[i][j])
for(k=0;k<n;k++)
if(g[i][j]+g[j][k]<g[i][k])
{
g[i][k]=g[i][j]+g[j][k];
via[i][k]=j;
}
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("table for router %c\n" ,i+97);
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
printf("%c:: %d via %c\n" ,j+97,
g[i][j],via[i][j]+97);
}
Break;
}
}
}
void rout_table()
{
printf("\nEnter the routing table : \n");
printf("\t|");
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
printf("%c\t",i+96);
printf("\n");
for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
printf("-------");
printf("\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("%c |",i+97);
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{

scanf("%d",&g[i][j]);
if(g[i][j]!=999)
d[i][j]=1;
}
}
}
Output:
enter the value of no. of nodes

4
Enter the routing table :
|a b c d
-----------------------------------
a |0 5 1 4
b |5 0 6 2
c |1 6 0 3
d |4 2 3 0
table for router a

a:: 0 via a
b:: 5 via a
c:: 1 via a
d:: 4 via a
table for router b

a:: 5 via b
b:: 0 via b
c:: 5 via d
d:: 2 via b
table for router c

a:: 1 via c
b:: 5 via d
c:: 0 via c
d:: 3 via c
table for router d

a:: 4 via d
b:: 2 via d
c:: 3 via d
d:: 0 via d
do you want to change the cost(1/0)

1
enter the vertices which you want to change the cost
13

enter the cost

2
table for router a
a:: 0 via a
b:: 5 via a
c:: 2 via a
d:: 4 via a
table for router b
a:: 5 via b
b:: 0 via b
c:: 5 via d
d:: 2 via b
table for router c
a:: 2 via c
b:: 5 via d
c:: 0 via c
d:: 3 via c
table for router d
a:: 4 via d
b:: 2 via b
c:: 3 via d
d:: 0 via d
do you want to change the cost(1/0)

0
Evaluation:
Department of ISE
Marks
Obtained
Preparation 05
Performance 10
Viva-Voice 05
Result/Output 05
Total 25
with Date Date

Experiment No: 3 Client-server socket programming Date:

Aim: Using TCP/IP Sockets, write a client-server program to make client sending the file name and the server to
send back the contents of the requested file if present.
Sockets are a protocol independent method of creating a connection between processes. Sockets can be either
 Connection based or connectionless: Is a connection established before communication or does each
packet describe the destination?
 Packet based or streams based: Are there message boundaries or is it one stream?
 Reliable or unreliable: Can messages be lost, duplicated, reordered, or corrupted?
Socket characteristics
Sockets are characterized by their domain, type and transport protocol. Common domains are:
 AF_UNIX: address format is UNIX pathname
 AF_INET: address format is host and port number
Common types are:
 virtual circuit: received in order transmitted and reliably
 datagram: arbitrary order, unreliable
Each socket type has one or more protocols. Ex:

 TCP/IP (virtual circuits)
 UDP (datagram)
Use of sockets:
 Connection–based sockets communicate client-server: the server waits for a connection from the client
 Connectionless sockets are peer-to-peer: each process is symmetric.
Socket APIs
 socket: creates a socket of a given domain, type, protocol (buy a phone)
 bind: assigns a name to the socket (get a telephone number)
 listen: specifies the number of pending connections that can be queued for a server socket. (call waiting
allowance)
 accept: server accepts a connection request from a client (answer phone)
 connect: client requests a connection request to a server (call)
 send, sendto: write to connection (speak)

 recv, recvfrom: read from connection (listen)
 shutdown: end the call
Connection-based communication
Server performs the following actions
 socket: create the socket
 bind: give the address of the socket on the server
 listen: specifies the maximum number of connection requests that can be pending for this process
 accept: establish the connection with a specific client
 send, recv: stream-based equivalents of read and write (repeated)
 shutdown: end reading or writing
 close: release kernel data structures
Client performs the following actions
 socket: create the socket
 connect: connect to a server
 send, recv: (repeated)
 shutdown
 close
TCP-based sockets

socket API
#include<sys/types.h>
#include<sys /socket.h>
int socket(int domain, int type, int protocol) ;
Returns a file descriptor (called a socket ID) if successful, -1 otherwise. Note that the socket returns a socket
descriptor which is the same as a file descriptor.
The domain is AF_INET.
The type argument can be:
 SOCK_STREAM: Establishes a virtual circuit for stream
 SOCK_DGRAM: Establishes a datagram for communication
 SOCK_SEQPACKET: Establishes a reliable, connection based, two way communication with maximum
message size. (This is not available on most machines.)
protocol is usually zero, so that type defines the connection within domain.
bind
#include <sys / types.h>
#include<sys / socket.h>
int bind(int sid, struct sockaddr *addrPtr, int len)
Where
 sid: is the socket id
 addrPtr: is a pointer to the address family dependent address structure
 len: is the size of *addrPtr
Associates a socket id with an address to which other processes can connect. In internet protocol the address is
[ipNumber, portNumber]
sockaddr
For the internet family:
struct sockaddr_in {
sa_family_t sin_family; // = AF INET
in_port_t sin_port; // is a port number
struct in_addr sin_addr; // an IP address
}

listen
#include <sys / socket.h>
int listen (int sid, int size) ;
Where size it the number of pending connection requests allowed (typically limited by Unix kernels to 5).
Returns the 0 on success, or -1 if failure.
accept
int accept(int sid ,struct sockaddr *addrPtr , int *lenPtr )
Returns the socketId and address of client connecting to socket.

if lenPtr or addrPtr equal zero, no address structure is returned.
lenPtr is the maximum size of address structure that can be called, returns the actual value.
Waits for an incoming request, and when received creates a socket for it.
send
int send(int sid ,const char *bufferPtr ,int len ,int flag)
Send a message. Returns the number of bytes sent or -1 if failure.
(Must be a bound socket).
flag is either
 0: default
 MSG OOB: Out-of-band high priority communication
recv
int recv ( int sid , char *bufferPtr , int len , int flags)
Receive up to len bytes in bufferPtr. Returns the number of bytes received or -1 on failure.
flags can be either

 0: default
 MSG OOB: out-of-bound message
 MSG PEEK: look at message without removing
Shutdown
int shutdown ( int sid , int how)
Disables sending (how=1 or how=2) or receiving (how=0 or how=2). Returns -1 on failure.
Connect
-this is the first of the client calls
int connect ( int sid , struct sockaddr *addrPtr , int len)
Specifies the destination to form a connection with (addrPtr), and returns a 0 if successful, -1 otherwise.
Port usage
Note that the initiator of communications needs a fixed port to target communications.
This means that some ports must be reserved for these ―well known‖ ports.
Port usage:
 0-1023: These ports can only be binded to by root
 1024-5000: well known ports
 5001-64K-1: ephemeral ports
Source Code:
Client Side:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<sys/socket.h>
#include<netinet/in.h>
#include<arpa/inet.h>
#include<fcntl.h>
#include<string.h>
#define SERV_TCP_PORT 6880
#define SERV_HOST_ADDR "127.0.0.1"
int main()
{ int sockfd;
struct sockaddr_in serv_addr,cli_addr;

char filename[100],buf[1000];
int n;
serv_addr.sin_family=AF_INET;
serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr(SERV_HOST_ADDR);
serv_addr.sin_port=htons(SERV_TCP_PORT);
if((sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM,0))<0)
printf("Client:cant open stream socket\n");
else
printf("Client:stream socket opened successfully\n");
if(connect(sockfd,(struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr,

sizeof(serv_addr))<0)
printf("Client:cant connect to server\n");
else
printf("Client:connected to server successfully\n");
printf("\n Enter the file name to be displayed :");
scanf("%s",filename);
write(sockfd,filename,strlen(filename));
printf("\n filename transfered to server\n");
n=read(sockfd,buf,1000);
if(n < 0)
printf("\n error reading from socket");
printf("\n Client : Displaying file content of %s\n",filename);
fputs(buf,stdout);
close(sockfd);
exit(0);
}
Output:
AT CLIENT SIDE
[root@localhost ]# cc tcpc.c
Data Sent
File Content....
Sockets are a mechanism for exchanging data between processes. These processes can either be on the same
machine, or on different machines connected via a network. Once a socket connection is established, data can be
sent in both directions until one of the endpoints closes the connection.
I needed to use sockets for a project I was working on, so I developed and refined a few C++ classes to
encapsulate the raw socket API calls. Generally, the application requesting the data is called the client, and the
application servicing the request is called the server. I created two primary classes, ClientSocket and
ServerSocket, that the client and server could use to exchange data.
SERVER SIDE:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<sys/socket.h>
#include<netinet/in.h>
#include<arpa/inet.h>

#include<fcntl.h>
#include<string.h>
#define SERV_TCP_PORT 6880
#define SERV_HOST_ADDR "127.0.0.1"
int main()
{ int sockfd,newsockfd,clilen;
struct sockaddr_in cli_addr,serv_addr;
char filename[25],buf[1000];
int n,m=0;
int fd;
if((sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM,0))<0)
printf("server:cant open stream socket\n");
else
printf("server:stream socket opened successfully\n");
serv_addr.sin_family=AF_INET;
serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr=htonl(INADDR_ANY);
serv_addr.sin_port=htons(SERV_TCP_PORT);
if((bind(sockfd,(struct sockaddr *)
&serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr)))<0)
printf("server:cant bind local address\n");
else
printf("server:bound to local address\n");
listen(sockfd,5);
printf("\n SERVER : Waiting for client...\n");
for(;;)
{
clilen=sizeof(cli_addr);
newsockfd=accept(sockfd,(struct sockaddr *) &cli_addr,&clilen);
if(newsockfd<0)
printf("server:accept error\n");
else
printf("server:accepted\n");
n=read(newsockfd,filename,25);
filename[n]='\0';
printf("\n SERVER : %s is found and ready to transfer
\n",filename);
fd=open(filename,O_RDONLY);
n=read(fd,buf,1000);
buf[n]='\0';
write(newsockfd,buf,n);
printf("\n transfer success\n");
close(newsockfd);
exit(0)
} }

Output:
[root@localhost ]# cc tcps.c
Received the file name : data.txt
File content sent
Evaluation:
Department of ISE
Marks
Obtained
Preparation 05
Performance 10
Viva-Voice 05
Result/Output 05
Total 25
with Date Date

Experiment No: 4 Client-Server Communication Using Message Queues or FIFO Date:

Aim: C Program for CLIENT SERVER communication using message Queues or FIFOs as IPC channels that
client sends the file name and the server to send back the contents of the requested file if present.
Message Queues
Message queues are one of the three different types of System V IPC mechanisms. This mechanism
enables processes to send information to each other asynchronously. The word asynchronous in the present
context signifies that the sender process continues with its execution without waiting for the receiver to receive or
acknowledge the information. On the other side, the receiver does not wait if no messages are there in the queue.
The queue being referred to here is the queue implemented and maintained by the kernel.
Let us now take a look at the system calls associated with this mechanism.
a. msgget: This, in a way similar to shmget, gets a message queue identifier. The format is
int msgget(ket_t key, int msgflg);
The first argument is a unique key, which can be generated by using ftok algorithm. The second argument
is the flag which can be IPC_CREAT, IPC_PRIVATE, or one of the other valid possibilities (see the man
page); the permissions (read and/or write) are logically ORed with the flags. msgget returns an identifier
associated with the key. This identifier can be used for further processing of the message queue associated
with the identifier.
b. msgctl: This controls the operations on the message queue. The format is
int msgctl(int msqid, int cmd, struct msqid_ds *buf);
Here msqid is the message queue identifier returned by msgget. The second argument is cmd, which
indicates which action is to be taken on the message queue. The third argument is a buffer of type struct
msqid_ds. Each message queue has this structure associated with it; it is composed of records for queues to
be identified by the kernel. This structure also defines the current status of the message queue. If one of the
cmds is IPC_SET, some fields in the msqid_ds structure (pointed by the third argument) will be set to the
specified values. See the man page for the details.
c. msgsnd: This is for sending messages. The format is
int msgsnd(int msqid, struct msgbuf *msgp, size_t msgsz, int msgflg);
The first argument is the message queue identifier returned by msgget. The second argument is a structure
that the calling process allocates. A call to msgsnd appends a copy of the message pointed to by msgp to the
message queue identified by msqid. The third argument is the size of the message text within the msgbuf
structure. The fourth argument is the flag that specify one of several actions to be taken as and when a
specific situation arises.

d. msgrcv: This is for receiving messages. The format is

ssize_t msgrcv(int msqid, struct msgbuf *msgp, size_t msgsz, long msgtyp, int msgflg);
Besides the four arguments mentioned above for msgsnd, we also have msgtyp, which specifies the type
of message requested.
FIFO :
FIFOs (first in, first out) are similar to the working of pipes. One major feature of pipe is that the data
flowing through the communication medium is transient, that is, data once read from the read descriptor cannot
be read again. Also, if we write data continuously into the write descriptor, then we will be able to read the data
only in the order in which the data was written. One can experiment with that by doing successive writes or reads
to the respective descriptors.
FIFOs also provide half-duplex flow of data just like pipes. The difference between fifos and pipes is that
the former is identified in the file system with a name, while the latter is not. That is, fifos are named pipes. Fifos
are identified by an access point which is a file within the file system, whereas pipes are identified by an access
point which is simply an allotted inode. Another major difference between fifos and pipes is that fifos last
throughout the life-cycle of the system, while pipes last only during the life-cycle of the process in which they
were created. To make it more clear, fifos exist beyond the life of the process. Since they are identified by the file
system, they remain in the hierarchy until explicitly removed using unlink, but pipes are inherited only by related
processes, that is, processes which are descendants of a single process.
Source Code:
#SERVER*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<fcntl.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<sys/stat.h>
#include<unistd.h>
int main()
{ char filename[100],buf[300],buf1[300];
int num,num2,n,filesize,fl,fd,fd2;
mknod("fifo1",S_IFIFO | 0666,0);
printf("\n Server Online\n");
fd=open("fifo1",O_RDONLY);
printf("Client Online! Waiting for request...\n\n");
while(1)
{ num = read(fd,filename,100);
filename[num]='\0';
fl=open(filename,O_RDONLY);

printf("\n Sever: %s is found!\n transferring the contents\n",filename);

filesize=lseek(fl,0,2);
printf("\n File size is %d\n",filesize);
lseek(fl,0,0);
n=read(fl,buf1,filesize);
buf1[n]='\0';
fd2=open("fifo2",O_WRONLY);
write(fd2,buf1,strlen(buf1));
printf("\n SERVER :Transfer completed\n");
exit(1);
}
unlink("fifo1");
unlink("fifo2");
}
Output:
AT SERVER SIDE
[root@localhost ]# cc prg6s.c
SERVER online!
CLIENT online!
Waiting for request....SERVER: /Test.txt found!
Transfering the contents...
SERVER transfer Completed!
SERVER transfer Completed!
CLIENT SIDE:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<fcntl.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<sys/stat.h>
#include<unistd.h>
int main()
{ char filename[100],buf[300];
int num,num2,fl,fd,fd2;
fd=open("fifo1",O_WRONLY);
printf("CLient Online! \n CLIENT enter the path...\n\n");
scanf("%s",filename);
write(fd,filename,strlen(filename));
printf("\n waiting for reply...\n");
fd2=open("fifo2",O_RDONLY);

num2=read(fd2,buf,300);
buf[num2]='\0';
printf("\n File received ..the contents are...\n");
fputs(buf,stdout);
unlink("fifo1");
unlink("fifo2");
exit(1);
}
Output:
AT CLIENT SIDE
[root@localhost]# cc prg6c.c
[root@localhost]# ./a.out
Waiting for SERVER...
SERVER online!
CLIENT: Enter the path: /Test.txt
Wating for reply...
File recieved! Displaying the contents:
Sockets are a mechanism for exchanging data between processes. These processes can either be on the same
machine, or on different machines connected via a network. Once a socket connection is established, data can be
sent in both directions until one of the endpoints closes the connection.
I needed to use sockets for a project I was working on, so I developed and refined a few C++ classes to
encapsulate the raw socket API calls. Generally, the application requesting the data is called the client, and the
application servicing the request is called the server. I created two primary classes, C ZlientSocket and
ServerSocket, that the client and server could use to exchange data.
[root@localhost ]#
Evaluation:
Department of ISE
Marks
Obtained
Preparation 05
Performance 10
Viva-Voice 05
Result/Output 05
Total 25
with Date Date

Experiment No: 5 RSA Algorithm to Encrypt and Decrypt the Data Date:
Aim: C Program for Simple RSA Algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data
The RSA algorithm can be used for both public key encryption and digital signatures. Its security is based
on the difficulty of factoring large integers.
The RSA algorithm's efficiency requires a fast method for performing the modular exponentiation
operation. A less efficient, conventional method includes raising a number (the input) to a power (the secret or
public key of the algorithm, denoted e and d, respectively) and taking the remainder of the division with N. A
straight-forward implementation performs these two steps of the operation sequentially: first, raise it to the power
and second, apply modulo.
A very simple example of RSA encryption
This is an extremely simple example using numbers you can work out on a pocket calculator (those of
you over the age of 35 can probably even do it by hand on paper).
1. Select primes p = 11, q = 3.
2. n = pq = 11.3 = 33
phi = (p-1)(q-1) = 10.2 = 20
3. Choose e=3
Check gcd(e, p-1) = gcd(3, 10) = 1 (i.e. 3 and 10 have no common factors except 1),
and check gcd(e, q-1) = gcd(3, 2) = 1
therefore gcd(e, phi) = gcd(e, (p-1)(q-1)) = gcd(3, 20) = 1
4. Compute d such that ed ≡ 1 (mod phi)
i.e. compute d = e^-1 mod phi = 3^-1 mod 20
i.e. find a value for d such that phi divides (ed-1)
i.e. find d such that 20 divides 3d-1.
Simple testing (d = 1, 2, ...) gives d = 7
Check: ed-1 = 3.7 - 1 = 20, which is divisible by phi.
5. Public key = (n, e) = (33, 3)
Private key = (n, d) = (33, 7).
This is actually the smallest possible value for the modulus n for which the RSA algorithm works.
Now say we want to encrypt the message m = 7,
c = mê mod n = 7^3 mod 33 = 343 mod 33 = 13.
Hence the ciphertext c = 13.
To check decryption we compute
m' = c^d mod n = 13^7 mod 33 = 7.

Note that we don't have to calculate the full value of 13 to the power 7 here. We can make use of the fact
that a = bc mod n = (b mod n).(c mod n) mod n so we can break down a potentially large number into its
components and combine the results of easier, smaller calculations to calculate the final value.
One way of calculating m' is as follows:-
m' = 13^7 mod 33 = 13^(3+3+1) mod 33 = 13^3.13^3.13 mod 33
= (13^3 mod 33).(13^3 mod 33).(13 mod 33) mod 33
= (2197 mod 33).(2197 mod 33).(13 mod 33) mod 33
= 19.19.13 mod 33 = 4693 mod 33
= 7.
Now if we calculate the cipher text c for all the possible values of m (0 to 32), we get
m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
c 0 1 8 27 31 26 18 13 17 3 10 11 12 19 5 9 4
m 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
c 29 24 28 14 21 22 23 30 16 20 15 7 2 6 25 32
Note that all 33 values of m (0 to 32) map to a unique code c in the same range in a sort of random
manner. In this case we have nine values of m that map to the same value of c - these are known as unconcealed
messages. m = 0 and 1 will always do this for any N, no matter how large. But in practice, higher values shouldn't
be a problem when we use large values for N.
If we wanted to use this system to keep secrets, we could let A=2, B=3, ..., Z=27. (We specifically avoid 0
and 1 here for the reason given above). Thus the plaintext message "HELLOWORLD" would be represented by
the set of integers m1, m2, ...
{9,6,13,13,16,24,16,19,13,5}
Using our table above, we obtain ciphertext integers c1, c2, ...
{3,18,19,19,4,30,4,28,19,26}
Note that this example is no more secure than using a simple Caesar substitution cipher, but it serves to
illustrate a simple example of the mechanics of RSA encryption.
Remember that calculating mê mod n is easy, but calculating the inverse c^-e mod n is very difficult,
well, for large n's anyway. However, if we can factor n into its prime factors p and q, the solution becomes easy
again, even for large n's. Obviously, if we can get hold of the secret exponent d, the solution is easy, too.

Key Generation Algorithm

1. Generate two large random primes, p and q, of approximately equal size such that their product n = pq
is of the required bit length, e.g. 1024 bits. [See note 1].
2. Compute n = pq and (φ) phi = (p-1)(q-1).
3. Choose an integer e, 1 < e < phi, such that gcd(e, phi) = 1. [See note 2].
4. Compute the secret exponent d, 1 < d < phi, such that
ed ≡ 1 (mod phi). [See note 3].
5. The public key is (n, e) and the private key is (n, d). The values of p, q, and phi should also be kept
secret.
 n is known as the modulus.
 e is known as the public exponent or encryption exponent.
 d is known as the secret exponent or decryption exponent.
Encryption
Sender A does the following:-
1. Obtains the recipient B's public key (n, e).
2. Represents the plaintext message as a positive integer m [see note 4].
3. Computes the ciphertext c = mê mod n.
4. Sends the ciphertext c to B.
Decryption
Recipient B does the following:-
1. Uses his private key (n, d) to compute m = c^d mod n.
2. Extracts the plaintext from the integer representative m.
Source Code:
#include<math.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int gcd(long m,long n)

{
while(n!=0)
{
long r=m%n;
m=n;
n=r;
}
return m;
}

int rsa(char message[50])

{ long p=0,q=0,n=0,e=0,d=0,phi=0;
long nummes[100]={0};
long encrypted[100]={0},decrypted[100]={0};
long i=0,j=0,nofelem=0;
printf("\nenter value of p and q\n");

scanf("%d%d",&p,&q);
n=p*q;
phi=(p-1)*(q-1);
for(i=2;i<phi;i++)
if(gcd(i,phi)==1) break;
e=i;
for(i=2;i<phi;i++)
if((e*i-1)%phi==0)break;
d=i;
for(i=0;i<strlen(message);i++)
nummes[i]=message[i]-96;
nofelem=strlen(message);
for(i=0;i<nofelem;i++)
{
encrypted[i]=1;
for(j=0;j<e;j++)
encrypted[i] =(encrypted[i]*nummes[i])%n;
}
printf("\n Encrypted message\n");
{
printf(" %ld ",encrypted[i]);
printf("%c",(char)(encrypted[i])+96);
}
{
decrypted[i]=1;
for(j=0;j<d;j++)
decrypted[i]=(decrypted[i]*encrypted[i])%n;
}
printf("\n Decrypted message\n ");

printf("%c",(char)(decrypted[i]+96));
return 0;
}

int main()
{ char msg[];
clrscr();
printf("Enter The Message To Be Encrypted\n");
scanf("%s",msg);
rsa(msg);
return 0;
}
Enter the text:

hello
Enter the value of P and Q :
5
7
Encrypted Text is: 8 h 10 j 17 q 17 q 15 o
Decrypted Text is: hello
Evaluation:
Department of ISE
Marks
Obtained
Preparation 05
Performance 10
Viva-Voice 05
Result/Output 05
Total 25
with Date Date

Experiment No: 6 Congestion Control Using Leaky Bucket Algorithm Date:

Aim: C Program for Congestion control using Leaky Bucket Algorithm
The main concept of the leaky bucket algorithm is that the output data flow remains constant despite the
variant input traffic, such as the water flow in a bucket with a small hole at the bottom. In case the bucket
contains water (or packets) then the output flow follows a constant rate, while if the bucket is full any additional
load will be lost because of spillover. In a similar way if the bucket is empty the output will be zero.
From network perspective, leaky bucket consists of a finite queue (bucket) where all the incoming packets are
stored in case there is space in the queue, otherwise the packets are discarded. In order to regulate the output
flow, leaky bucket transmits one packet from the queue in a fixed time (e.g. at every clock tick). In the
following figure we can notice the main rationale of leaky bucket algorithm, for both the two approaches (e.g.
leaky bucket with water (a) and with packets (b)).
Figure: The leaky bucket traffic shaping algorithm

While leaky bucket eliminates completely bursty traffic by regulating the incoming data flow its main
drawback is that it drops packets if the bucket is full. Also, it doesn’t take into account the idle process of the
sender which means that if the host doesn’t transmit data for some time the bucket becomes empty without
permitting the transmission of any packet.

Implementation Algorithm:
Steps:
1. Read The Data For Packets
2. Read The Queue Size
3. Divide the Data into Packets
4. Assign the random Propagation delays for each packets to input into the bucket (input_packet).
5. wlile((Clock++<5*total_packets)and
(out_packets< total_paclets))
a. if (clock == input_packet)
i. insert into Queue
b. if (clock % 5 == 0 )
i. Remove paclet from Queue
6. End
Source Code:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<strings.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int min(int x,int y)
{
if(x<y)
return x;
else
return y;
}
int main()
{
int drop=0,mini,nsec,cap,count=0,i,inp[25],process;
syste("clear");
printf("Enter The Bucket Size\n");
scanf("%d",&cap);
printf("Enter The Operation Rate\n");
scanf("%d",&process);
printf("Enter The No. Of Seconds You Want To Stimulate\n");
scanf("%d",&nsec);
for(i=0;i<nsec;i++)
{
printf("Enter The Size Of The Packet Entering At %dsec\n",i+1);
scanf("%d",&inp[i]);
}
printf("\nSecond|Packet Recieved|Packet Sent|PacketLeft|Packet Dropped|\n");

printf("--------------------------------------------------------------\n");
for(i=0;i<nsec;i++)
{
count+=inp[i];
if(count>cap)
{
drop=count-cap;
count=cap;
}
printf("%d",i+1);
printf("\t%d",inp[i]);
mini=min(count,process);
printf("\t\t%d",mini);
count=count-mini;
printf("\t\t%d",count);
printf("\t\t%d\n",drop);
drop=0;
}
for(;count!=0;i++)
{
if(count>cap)
{
drop=count-cap;
count=cap;
}
printf("%d",i+1);
printf("\t0");
mini=min(count,process);
printf("\t\t%d",mini);
count=count-mini;
printf("\t\t%d",count);
printf("\t\t%d\n",drop);
}
}
Output:
Compile and run
$ cc –o Congestion Congestion.c
$ ./Congestion
Enter The Bucket Size
5
Enter The Operation Rate
2
Enter The No. Of Seconds You Want To Stimulate
3
Enter The Size Of The Packet Entering At 1 sec
5
4


3
Second|Packet Recieved|Packet Sent|Packet Left|Packet Dropped|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 5 2 3 0
2 4 2 3 2
3 3 2 3 1
4 0 2 1 0
5 0 1 0 0
Evaluation:
Department of ISE
Marks
Obtained
Preparation 05
Performance 10
Viva-Voice 05
Result/Output 05
Total 25
with Date Date

VIVA QUESTION AND ANSWER

1) What is a Link?
A link refers to the connectivity between two devices. It includes the type of cables and protocols used in order
for one device to be able to communicate with the other.
2) What are the layers of the OSI reference model?
There are 7 OSI layers: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer, Session Layer,
Presentation Layer and Application Layer.
3) What is backbone network?
A backbone network is a centralized infrastructure that is designed to distribute different routes and data to
various networks. It also handles management of bandwidth and various channels.
4) What is a LAN?
LAN is short for Local Area Network. It refers to the connection between computers and other network devices
that are located within a small physical location.
5) What is a node?
A node refers to a point or joint where a connection takes place. It can be computer or device that is part of a
network. Two or more nodes are needed in order to form a network connection.
6) What are routers?
Routers can connect two or more network segments. These are intelligent network devices that store
information in its routing table such as paths, hops and bottlenecks. With this info, they are able to determine
the best path for data transfer. Routers operate at the OSI Network Layer.
7) What is point to point link?
It refers to a direct connection between two computers on a network. A point to point connection does not
need any other network devices other than connecting a cable to the NIC cards of both computers.
8) What is anonymous FTP?
Anonymous FTP is a way of granting user access to files in public servers. Users that are allowed access to data
in these servers do not need to identify themselves, but instead log in as an anonymous guest.
9) What is subnet mask?
A subnet mask is combined with an IP address in order to identify two parts: the extended network address and
the host address. Like an IP address, a subnet mask is made up of 32 bits.
10) What is the maximum length allowed for a UTP cable?
A single segment of UTP cable has an allowable length of 90 to 100 meters. This limitation can be overcome by
using repeaters and switches.
11) What is data encapsulation?
Data encapsulation is the process of breaking down information into smaller manageable chunks before it is
transmitted across the network. It is also in this process that the source and destination addresses are attached
into the headers, along with parity checks.
12) Describe Network Topology
Network Topology refers to the layout of a computer network. It shows how devices and cables are physically
laid out, as well as how they connect to one another.
13) What is VPN?
VPN means Virtual Private Network, a technology that allows a secure tunnel to be created across a network
such as the Internet. For example, VPNs allow you to establish a secure dialup connection to a remote server.
14) Briefly describe NAT.
NAT is Network Address Translation. This is a protocol that provides a way for multiple computers on a common
network to share single connection to the Internet.
15) What is the job of the Network Layer under the OSI reference model?
The Network layer is responsible for data routing, packet switching and control of network congestion. Routers
operate under this layer.
16) How does a network topology affect your decision in setting up a network?
Network topology dictates what media you must use to interconnect devices. It also serves as basis on what
materials, connector and terminations that is applicable for the setup.
17) What is RIP?
RIP, short for Routing Information Protocol is used by routers to send data from one network to another. It
efficiently manages routing data by broadcasting its routing table to all other routers within the network. It
determines the network distance in units of hops.
18) What are different ways of securing a computer network?
There are several ways to do this. Install reliable and updated anti-virus program on all computers. Make sure
firewalls are setup and configured properly. User authentication will also help a lot. All of these combined
would make a highly secured network.
19) What is NIC?
NIC is short for Network Interface Card. This is a peripheral card that is attached to a PC in order to connect to a
network. Every NIC has its own MAC address that identifies the PC on the network.
20) What is WAN?
WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is an interconnection of computers and devices that are geographically
dispersed. It connects networks that are located in different regions and countries.
21) What is the importance of the OSI Physical Layer?
The physical layer does the conversion from data bits to electrical signal, and vice versa. This is where network
devices and cable types are considered and setup.
22) How many layers are there under TCP/IP?
There are four layers: the Network Layer, Internet Layer, Transport Layer and Application Layer.
23) What are proxy servers and how do they protect computer networks?
Proxy servers primarily prevent external users who identifying the IP addresses of an internal network. Without
knowledge of the correct IP address, even the physical location of the network cannot be identified. Proxy
servers can make a network virtually invisible to external users.
24) What is the function of the OSI Session Layer?
This layer provides the protocols and means for two devices on the network to communicate with each other by
holding a session. This includes setting up the session, managing information exchange during the session, and
tear-down process upon termination of the session.
25) What is the importance of implementing a Fault Tolerance System? Are there
limitations?
A fault tolerance system ensures continuous data availability. This is done by eliminating a single point of
failure. However, this type of system would not be able to protect data in some cases, such as in accidental
deletions.
26) What does 10Base-T mean?
The 10 refers to the data transfer rate, in this case is 10Mbps. The word Base refers to base band, as oppose to
broad band. T means twisted pair, which is the cable used for that network.
27) What is a private IP address?
Private IP addresses are assigned for use on intranets. These addresses are used for internal networks and are
not routable on external public networks. These ensures that no conflicts are present among internal networks
while at the same time the same range of private IP addresses are reusable for multiple intranets since they do
not "see" each other.
28) What is NOS?
NOS, or Network Operating System, is specialized software whose main task is to provide network connectivity
to a computer in order for it to be able to communicate with other computers and connected devices.
29) What is DoS?
DoS, or Denial-of-Service attack, is an attempt to prevent users from being able to access the internet or any
other network services. Such attacks may come in different forms and are done by a group of perpetuators. One
common method of doing this is to overload the system server so it cannot anymore process legitimate traffic
and will be forced to reset.
30) What is OSI and what role does it play in computer networks?
OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) serves as a reference model for data communication. It is made up of 7 layers,
with each layer defining a particular aspect on how network devices connect and communicate with one
another. One layer may deal with the physical media used, while another layer dictates how data is actually
transmitted across the network.
31) What is the purpose of cables being shielded and having twisted pairs?
The main purpose of this is to prevent crosstalk. Crosstalks are electromagnetic interferences or noise that can
affect data being transmitted across cables.
32) What is the advantage of address sharing?
By using address translation instead of routing, address sharing provides an inherent security benefit. That's
because host PCs on the Internet can only see the public IP address of the external interface on the computer
that provides address translation and not the private IP addresses on the internal network.
33) What are MAC addresses?
MAC, or Media Access Control, uniquely identifies a device on the network. It is also known as physical address
or Ethernet address. A MAC address is made up of 6-byte parts.
34) What is the equivalent layer or layers of the TCP/IP Application layer in terms of OSI reference model?
The TCP/IP Application layer actually has three counterparts on the OSI model: the Session layer, Presentation
Layer and Application Layer.
35) How can you identify the IP class of a given IP address?
By looking at the first octet of any given IP address, you can identify whether it's Class A, B or C. If the first octet
begins with a 0 bit, that address is Class A. If it begins with bits 10 then that address is a Class B address. If it
begins with 110, then it's a Class C network.
36) What is the main purpose of OSPF?
OSPF, or Open Shortest Path First, is a link-state routing protocol that uses routing tables to determine the best
possible path for data exchange.
37) What are firewalls?
Firewalls serve to protect an internal network from external attacks. These external threats can be hackers who
want to steal data or computer viruses that can wipe out data in an instant. It also prevents other users from
external networks from gaining access to the private network.
38) Describe star topology
Star topology consists of a central hub that connects to nodes. This is one of the easiest to setup and maintain.
39) What are gateways?
Gateways provide connectivity between two or more network segments. It is usually a computer that runs the
gateway software and provides translation services. This translation is a key in allowing different systems to
communicate on the network.
40) What is the disadvantage of a star topology?
One major disadvantage of star topology is that once the central hub or switch get damaged, the entire network
becomes unusable.
41) What is SLIP?
SLIP, or Serial Line Interface Protocol, is actually an old protocol developed during the early UNIX days. This is
one of the protocols that are used for remote access.
42) Give some examples of private network addresses.
10.0.0.0 with a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0
172.16.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.240.0.0
192.168.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.255.0.0
43) What is tracert?
Tracert is a Windows utility program that can used to trace the route taken by data from the router to the
destination network. It also shows the number of hops taken during the entire transmission route.
44) What are the functions of a network administrator?
A network administrator has many responsibilities that can be summarize into 3 key functions: installation of a
network, configuration of network settings, and maintenance/troubleshooting of networks.
45) Describe at one disadvantage of a peer to peer network.
When you are accessing the resources that are shared by one of the workstations on the network, that
workstation takes a performance hit.
46) What is Hybrid Network?
A hybrid network is a network setup that makes use of both client-server and peer-to-peer architecture.
47) What is DHCP?
DHCP is short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Its main task is to automatically assign an IP address to
devices across the network. It first checks for the next available address not yet taken by any device, then
assigns this to a network device.
48) What is the main job of the ARP?
The main task of ARP or Address Resolution Protocol is to map a known IP address to a MAC layer address.
49) What is TCP/IP?
TCP/IP is short for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. This is a set of protocol layers that is
designed to make data exchange possible on different types of computer networks, also known as
heterogeneous network.
50) How can you manage a network using a router?
Routers have built in console that lets you configure different settings, like security and data logging. You can
assign restrictions to computers, such as what resources it is allowed access, or what particular time of the day
they can browse the internet. You can even put restrictions on what websites are not viewable across the entire
network.
51) What protocol can be applied when you want to transfer files between different platforms, such between
UNIX systems and Windows servers?
Use FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfers between such different servers. This is possible because FTP is
platform independent.
52) What is the use of a default gateway?
Default gateways provide means for the local networks to connect to the external network. The default
gateway for connecting to the external network is usually the address of the external router port.
53) One way of securing a network is through the use of passwords. What can be considered as good
passwords?
Good passwords are made up of not just letters, but by combining letters and numbers. A password that
combines uppercase and lowercase letters is favorable than one that uses all upper case or all lower case
letters. Passwords must be not words that can easily be guessed by hackers, such as dates, names, favorites,
etc. Longer passwords are also better than short ones.
54) What is the proper termination rate for UTP cables?
The proper termination for unshielded twisted pair network cable is 100 ohms.
55) What is netstat?
Netstat is a command line utility program. It provides useful information about the current TCP/IP settings of a
connection.
56) What is the number of network IDs in a Class C network?
For a Class C network, the number of usable Network ID bits is 21. The number of possible network IDs is 2
raised to 21 or 2,097,152. The number of host IDs per network ID is 2 raised to 8 minus 2, or 254.
57) What happens when you use cables longer than the prescribed length?
Cables that are too long would result in signal loss. This means that data transmission and reception would be
affected, because the signal degrades over length.
58) What common software problems can lead to network defects?
Software related problems can be any or a combination of the following:
- client server problems
- application conflicts
- error in configuration
- protocol mismatch
- security issues
- user policy and rights issues
59) What is ICMP?
ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol. It provides messaging and communication for protocols within the
TCP/IP stack. This is also the protocol that manages error messages that are used by network tools such as
PING.
60) What is Ping?
Ping is a utility program that allows you to check connectivity between network devices on the network. You
can ping a device by using its IP address or device name, such as a computer name.
61) What is peer to peer?
Peer to peer are networks that does not reply on a server. All PCs on this network act as individual workstations.
62) What is DNS?
DNS is Domain Name System. The main function of this network service is to provide host names to TCP/IP
address resolution.
63) What advantages does fiber optics have over other media?
One major advantage of fiber optics is that is it less susceptible to electrical interference. It also supports higher
bandwidth, meaning more data can be transmitted and received. Signal degrading is also very minimal over
long distances.
64) What is the difference between a hub and a switch?
A hub acts as a multiport repeater. However, as more and more devices connect to it, it would not be able to
efficiently manage the volume of traffic that passes through it. A switch provides a better alternative that can
improve the performance especially when high traffic volume is expected across all ports.
65) What are the different network protocols that are supported by Windows RRAS services?
There are three main network protocols supported: NetBEUI, TCP/IP, and IPX.
66) What are the maximum networks and hosts in a class A, B and C network?
For Class A, there are 126 possible networks and 16,777,214 hosts
For Class B, there are 16,384 possible networks and 65,534 hosts
For Class C, there are 2,097,152 possible networks and 254 hosts
67) What is the standard color sequence of a straight-through cable?
orange/white, orange, green/white, blue, blue/white, green, brown/white, brown.
68) What protocols fall under the Application layer of the TCP/IP stack?
The following are the protocols under TCP/IP Application layer: FTP, TFTP, Telnet and SMTP.
69) You need to connect two computers for file sharing. Is it possible to do this without using a hub or router?
Yes, you can connect two computers together using only one cable. A crossover type cable can be use in this
scenario. In this setup, the data transmit pin of one cable is connected to the data receive pin of the other
cable, and vice versa.
70) What is ipconfig?
Ipconfig is a utility program that is commonly used to identify the addresses information of a computer on a
network. It can show the physical address as well as the IP address.
71) What is the difference between a straight-through and crossover cable?
A straight-through cable is used to connect computers to a switch, hub or router. A crossover cable is used to
connect two similar devices together, such as a PC to PC or Hub to hub.
72) What is client/server?
Client/server is a type of network wherein one or more computers act as servers. Servers provide a centralized
repository of resources such as printers and files. Clients refers to workstation that access the server.
73) Describe networking.
Networking refers to the inter connection between computers and peripherals for data communication.
Networking can be done using wired cabling or through wireless link.
74) When you move the NIC cards from one PC to another PC, does the MAC address gets transferred as well?
Yes, that's because MAC addresses are hard-wired into the NIC circuitry, not the PC. This also means that a PC
can have a different MAC address when the NIC card was replace by another one.
75) Explain clustering support
Clustering support refers to the ability of a network operating system to connect multiple servers in a fault-
tolerant group. The main purpose of this is the in the event that one server fails, all processing will continue on
with the next server in the cluster.
76) In a network that contains two servers and twenty workstations, where is the best place to install an
Anti-virus program?
An anti-virus program must be installed on all servers and workstations to ensure protection. That's because
individual users can access any workstation and introduce a computer virus when plugging in their removable
hard drives or flash drives.
77) Describe Ethernet.
Ethernet is one of the popular networking technologies used these days. It was developed during the early
1970s and is based on specifications as stated in the IEEE. Ethernet is used in local area networks.
78) What are some drawbacks of implementing a ring topology?
In case one workstation on the network suffers a malfunction, it can bring down the entire network. Another
drawback is that when there are adjustments and reconfigurations needed to be performed on a particular part
of the network, the entire network has to be temporarily brought down as well.
79) What is the difference between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA?
CSMA/CD, or Collision Detect, retransmits data frames whenever a collision occurred. CSMA/CA, or Collision
Avoidance, will first broadcast intent to send prior to data transmission.
80) What is SMTP?
SMTP is short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol deals with all Internal mail, and provides the
necessary mail delivery services on the TCP/IP protocol stack.
81) What is multicast routing?
Multicast routing is a targeted form of broadcasting that sends message to a selected group of user, instead of
sending it to all users on a subnet.
82) What is the importance of Encryption on a network?
Encryption is the process of translating information into a code that is unreadable by the user. It is then
translated back or decrypted back to its normal readable format using a secret key or password. Encryption help
ensure that information that is intercepted halfway would remain unreadable because the user has to have the
correct password or key for it.
83) How are IP addresses arranged and displayed?
IP addresses are displayed as a series of four decimal numbers that are separated by period or dots. Another
term for this arrangement is the dotted decimal format. An example is 192.168.101.2
84) Explain the importance of authentication.
Authentication is the process of verifying a user's credentials before he can log into the network. It is normally
performed using a username and password. This provides a secure means of limiting the access from unwanted
intruders on the network.
85) What do mean by tunnel mode?
This is a mode of data exchange wherein two communicating computers do not use IPSec themselves. Instead,
the gateway that is connecting their LANs to the transit network creates a virtual tunnel that uses the IPSec
protocol to secure all communication that passes through it.
86) What are the different technologies involved in establishing WAN links?
Analog connections - using conventional telephone lines; Digital connections - using digitalgrade telephone
lines; switched connections - using multiple sets of links between sender and receiver to move data.
87) What is one advantage of mesh topology?
In the event that one link fails, there will always be another available. Mesh topology is actually one of the most
fault-tolerant network topology.
88) When troubleshooting computer network problems, what common hardware-related
problems can occur?
A large percentage of a network is made up of hardware. Problems in these areas can range from
malfunctioning hard drives, broken NICs and even hardware startups. Incorrectly hardware configuration is also
one of those culprits to look into.
89) What can be done to fix signal attenuation problems?
A common way of dealing with such a problem is to use repeaters and hub, because it will help regenerate the
signal and therefore prevent signal loss. Checking if cables are properly terminated is also a must.
90) How does dynamic host configuration protocol aid in network administration?
Instead of having to visit each client computer to configure a static IP address, the network administrator can
apply dynamic host configuration protocol to create a pool of IP addresses known as scopes that can be
dynamically assigned to clients.
91) Explain profile in terms of networking concept?
Profiles are the configuration settings made for each user. A profile may be created that puts a user in a group,
for example.
92) What is sneakernet?
Sneakernet is believed to be the earliest form of networking wherein data is physically transported using
removable media, such as disk, tapes.
93) What is the role of IEEE in computer networking?
IEEE, or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, is an organization composed of engineers that
issues and manages standards for electrical and electronic devices. This includes networking devices, network
interfaces, cablings and connectors.
94) What protocols fall under the TCP/IP Internet Layer?
There are 4 protocols that are being managed by this layer. These are ICMP, IGMP, IP and ARP.
95) When it comes to networking, what are rights?
Rights refer to the authorized permission to perform specific actions on the network. Each user on the network
can be assigned individual rights, depending on what must be allowed for that user.
96) What is one basic requirement for establishing VLANs?
A VLAN requires dedicated equipment on each end of the connection that allows messages entering the
Internet to be encrypted, as well as for authenticating users.
97) What is IPv6?
IPv6 , or Internet Protocol version 6, was developed to replace IPv4. At present, IPv4 is being used to control
internet traffic, butis expected to get saturated in the near future. IPv6 was designed to overcome this
limitation.
98) What is RSA algorithm?
RSA is short for Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm. It is the most commonly used public key encryption
algorithm in use today.
99) What is mesh topology?
Mesh topology is a setup wherein each device is connected directly to every other device on the network.
Consequently, it requires that each device have at least two network connections.
REFERENCE
1. Communication Networks: Fundamental Concepts and Key Architectures - Alberto Leon,

Garcia and Indra Widjaja, 3rd Edition, Tata McGraw- Hill, 2004.
2. Data and Computer Communication, William Stallings, 8th tEdition, Pearson Education, 2007.
3. Computer Networks: A Systems Approach - Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S. David, 4th Edition,
Elsevier, 2007.
4. Introduction to Data Communications and Networking – Wayne Tomasi, Pearson Education,
2005.
5. Communication Networks – Fundamental Concepts and Key architectures – Alberto Leon-
Garcia and Indra Widjaja:, 2rd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2004
6. Computer and Communication Networks – Nader F. Mir:, Pearson Education, 2007.
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Networks Lab 2016-17

Basic Architecture of NS2

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 1

Initialization and Termination of TCL Script in NS-2

set ns [new Simulator]

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 2

$ns trace-all $tracefile1

#Open the NAM trace file

$ns namtrace-all $namfile

global ns tracefile1 namfile

Exec nam out.nam &

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 3

Definition of a network of links and nodes

set n0 [$ns node]

$ns queue-limit $n0 $n2 20

Agents and Applications

FTP over TCP

set tcp [new Agent/TCP]

#Setup a UDP connection

$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp

set null [new Agent/Null]

$ns attach-agent $n5 $null

$ns connect $udp $null

$udp set fid_2

#setup a CBR over UDP connection

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 5

set cbr [new

$cbr attach-agent $udp

$cbr set packetsize_ 100

$cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb

$cbr set random_ false

CBR over UDP

$cbr set interval_ 0.005

The packet size can be set to some value using

$cbr set packetSize_ <packet size>

$ns at <time> <event>

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 6

$ns at 0.1 “$cbr start”

$ns at 1.0 “ $ftp start”

$ns at 124.0 “$ftp stop”

$ns at 124.5 “$cbr stop”

Structure of Trace Files

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 7

Options are listed here

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 8

awk is a programmable, pattern-matching, and processing tool available in UNIX. It

THE –f OPTION: STORING awk PROGRAMS IN A FILE

Awk –F”|” –f empawk.awk empn.lst

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 9

THE BEGIN AND END SECTIONS

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 10

Experiment No: 1 THREE NODE POINT TO POINT NETWORK Date:

set ns [new Simulator] # Letter S is capital

$ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 200Mb 10ms DropTail # establishing links

set udp0 [new Agent/UDP] # attaching transport layer protocols

set null0 [new Agent/Null] # creating sink(destination) node

$ns at 0.1 "$cbr0 start"

Dept of ISE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 11