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CAT QUANT FORMULAS BOOK

 Table of Contents
Chapter No. Topic Page no.
1 Number System 3

2 Averages 14

3 Ratio Proportions 16

4 Mixture and Alligations 18

5 Linear, Quadratic and other Equations 19

6 Inequalities 23

7 Percentages 26

8 Profit and Loss 28

9 Simple and Compound Interest 30

10 Time, Speed & Distance 32

11 Time & Work 38

12 Clocks and Calendars 39

13 Functions 41

14 Progression and Series 45

15 Set Theory 49

16 Logarithm 50

17 Coordinate Geometry 52

18 Trigonometry 57

19 Geometry and Mensuration 63

20 Permutations and Combinations 85

21 Binomial Theorem 87

22 Probability 88

2
 Number System
Types of Numbers

Following are different types of numbers which we generally use in our calculations.

1. Natural Numbers: The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4.... are called natural numbers or positive
integers.

2. Whole Numbers: The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3.... are called whole numbers. Whole numbers
include ‘0’. Every natural number is a whole number, but the opposite is not true.

3. Integers: The numbers .... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .... are called integers. Every whole
number is an integer, but the opposite is not true.

4. Negative Integers: The numbers -1, -2, -3,.. are called negative integers.

5. Rational Numbers: Any number which is a positive or negative integer or fraction, or

zero is called a rational number. A rational number is one which can be expressed in the
𝑎
following format ⇒ , where b ≠ 0 and a & b are positive or negative integers. Every
𝑏
integer is a rational number but the converse is not true.

2 4 7
6. Positive Fractions: The numbers , , ….. are called positive fractions.
3 5 8

6 7 12
7. Negative Fractions: The numbers are − ,− .− …. called negative fractions.
8 19 47

REMEMBER THIS: Between any two different rational numbers a & b there always exists
𝑎+𝑏
a rational number calculated by taking the average of a and b i.e.
2

8. Irrational Numbers: A non-terminating non-recurring decimal number is known as an

irrational number. These numbers cannot be expressed in the form of a proper fraction
a/b where b ≠ 0. E.g. √2, √5, 𝜋 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

9. Even Numbers: The numbers which are divisible by 2 are called even numbers. E.g. -
4, 0, 2, 16 etc.

3
10. Odd Numbers: The numbers which are not divisible by 2 are odd numbers. E.g. -7, -
15, 5, 9 etc.

11. Prime Numbers: Those numbers, which are divisible only by themselves and 1, are
called prime numbers. In other words, a number, which has exactly two factors i.e. 1 and
itself, is called a prime number. E.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, etc. 2 is the only even prime number.

REMEMBER THIS: There are 25 prime numbers up to 100. These are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,
17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41,43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89 & 97.

12. Composite Number: A number, which has more than two factors, is called a
composite number. e.g. 9, 10, 15, 16, ... A composite number can be expressed as the
product of prime numbers in a unique way. e.g. 100 = 22 × 52. 1 is neither a composite
number nor a prime number.

13. Real Numbers: The above sets of natural numbers, integers, whole numbers, rational
numbers and irrational numbers constitute the set of real numbers. Every real number
can be represented by a point on a number line.

14. Perfect Numbers: If the sum of all the factors of a number excluding the number itself
happens to be equal to the number, then the number is called as perfect number. 6 is the
first perfect number. The factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3 & 6. Leaving 6, the sum of other factors
of 6 are equal to 6. The next three perfect numbers after 6 are 28, 496 and 8128.

4
Operations on Odd & Even Numbers

1. Addition or subtraction of any two odd numbers will always result in an even number or
zero. E.g. 1 + 3 = 4; 5 - 3 = 2.

2. Addition or subtraction of any two even numbers will always result in an even number or
zero. E.g. 2 + 4 = 6; 12 - 4 = 8.

3. Addition or subtraction of an odd number from an even number will result in an odd
number. E.g. 4 + 3 = 7; 10 - 3 = 7.

4. Addition or subtraction of an even number from an odd number will result in an odd
number. E.g. 3 + 4 = 7; 5 - 2 = 3.

5. Multiplication of two odd numbers will result in an odd number. E.g. 3 × 3 = 9.

6. Multiplication of two even numbers will result in an even number. E.g. 2 × 4 = 8.

7. Multiplication of an odd number by an even number or vice versa will result in an even
number. E.g. 3 × 2 = 6.

8. An odd number raised to an odd or an even power is always odd.

9. An even number raised to an odd or an even power is always even.

10. The standard form of writing a number is m × 10 n where m lies between 1 and 10 and n
8.9713
is an integer. e.g. 0.89713 ⇒ ⇒ 8.9713 × 10-1
101

11. If n is odd. n(n2 – 1) is divisible by 24. e.g. take n = 5 ⇒ 5*(52 – 1) = 120, which is
divisible by 24.

12. If n is odd prime number except 3, then n2 – 1 is divisible by 24.

13. If n is odd, 2n + 1 is divisible by 3.

14. If n is even, 2n – 1 is divisible by 3.

15. If n is odd, 2n + 1 is divisible by 5.

16. If n is even, 2n – 1 is divisible by 5.

5
 17. If n is odd, 52n + 1 is divisible by 13.

18. If n is even, 52n – 1 is divisible by 13

Tests of Divisibility

Divisibility rules are very helpful while

1. By 2 - A number is divisible by 2 when its units place is 0 or divisible by 2. E.g. 120, 138.

2. By 3 - A number is divisible by 3 when the sum of the digits of the number is divisible by
3. e.g. 15834 is divisible by 3 as the sum of its digits is 21 which is divisible by 3. Note
that if n is odd, then 2n + 1 is divisible by 3 and if n is even, then 2n - 1 is divisible by 3.

3. By 4 - A number is divisible by 4 when the last two digits of the number are 0s or are
divisible by 4. As 100 is divisible by 4, it is sufficient if the divisibility test is restricted to
the last two digits. e.g. 145896, 128, 18400.

4. By 5 - A number is divisible by 5, if its unit’s digit is 5 or 0. e.g. 895, 100.

5. By 6 - A number is divisible by 6, if it is divisible by both 2 and by 3. i.e. the number

should be an even number and the sum of its digits should be divisible by 3.

6. By 8 - A number is divisible by 8, if the last three digits of the number are 0s or are
divisible by 8. As 1000 is divisible by 8, it is sufficient if the divisibility test is restricted to
the last three digits e.g. 135128, 45000

7. By 9 - A number is divisible by 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. e.g.810, 92754.

8. By 11 - A number is divisible by 11, if the difference between the sum of the digits at
odd places and sum of the digits at even places of the number is either 0 or a multiple of
11. E.g.121, 65967. In the first case 1+1- 2 = 0. In the second case 6+9+7 = 22 and 5+6
= 11 and the difference is 11. Therefore, both these numbers are divisible by 11.

9. By 12 - A number is divisible by 12, if it is both divisible by 3 and by 4. i.e., the sum of

the digits should be divisible by 3 and the last two digits should be divisible by 4. E.g.
144, 8136.

6
10. By 15 - A number is divisible by 15, if it is divisible by both 5 and 3.

11. By 25 - 2358975 is divisible by 25 if the last two digits of 2358975 are divisible by 25 or
the last two digits are 0.

12. By 75 - A number is divisible by 75, if it is both divisible by 3 and by 25. i.e. the sum of
the digits should be divisible by 3 and the last two digits should be divisible by 25.

13. By 125 - A number is divisible by 125, if its last three right hand digits are divisible by
125 or the last three digits are 0s. e.g. 1254375, 12000

7
Properties of The Numbers

Following are some properties of the numbers which are helpful in solving the questions in the
examination.

1. The sum of 5 successive whole numbers is always divisible by 5.

2. The product of 3 consecutive natural numbers is divisible by 6.

3. The product of 3 consecutive natural numbers, the first of which is an even number is
divisible by 24.

4. The sum of a two-digit number and a number formed by reversing its digits is divisible by
11. E.g. 28 + 82 = 110, which is divisible by 11. At the same time, the difference between
those numbers will be divisible by 9. e.g. 82– 28 = 54, which is divisible by 9.

𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)
5. ∑𝒏 = , ∑𝒏𝟐 is the sum of first n natural numbers.
𝟐

𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)(𝟐𝒏+𝟏)
6. ∑𝒏𝟐 = , ∑𝒏𝟐 is the sum of first n perfect squares.
𝟔

𝒏𝟐 (𝒏+𝟏)𝟐
7. ∑𝒏𝟑 = , (∑𝒏)𝟐 , ∑𝒏𝟑 is the sum of first n perfect cubes.
𝟒

8
 8. xn + yn = (x + y) (xn-1 – xn-2y + xn-3y2 - …+ yn-1) when n is odd. Therefore, when n is odd,

xn + yn is divisible by x + y. e.g. 33 + 23 = 35 and is divisible by 5.

9. xn – yn = (x + y) (xn-1 - xn-2y + ... yn-1) when n is even. Therefore, when n is even, xn- yn is

divisible by x + y. e.g. 72 - 32 = 40, which is divisible by 10.

10. xn – yn = (x - y) (xn-1 + xn-2y + .... + yn-1) for both odd and even n. Therefore, xn – yn is

divisible by x - y. e.g. 94 – 24 = 6545 which is divisible by 7.

LCM & HCF

• In case of HCF, if some remainders are given, then first those remainders are subtracted
from the numbers given and then their HCF is calculated.

• Sometimes in case of HCF questions, the same required remainder is given and the
remainder is not given. In such questions, the answer is the HCF of the difference of the
numbers taken in pairs.

• In case of LCM, if a single remainder is given, then firstly the LCM is calculated and then
that single reminder is added in that.

• In case of LCM, if for different numbers different remainders are given, then the
difference between the number and its respective remainder will be equal. In that case,
firstly the LCM is calculated, then that common difference between the number and its
respective remainder is subtracted from that.

LCM and HCF of Fractions

LCM of numerators
LCM of fractions = ;
HCF of denominators

3 1 3(LCM of numerators)
E.g. LCM of and =
4 2 2(HCF of denominators)

9
 HCF of numerators
HCF of fractions = ;
LCM of denominators

3 1 1(HCF of numerators)
E.g. HCF of and =
4 2 4(LCM of denominators)

REMEMBER THIS: The product of the two fractions is always equal to the product of LCM and
HCF of the two fractions.

3 1 3 3 1 3
The product of the two fractions = x = . The product of the LCM and HCF = x =
4 2 8 2 4 8

Fractions
3 4 𝑝
Numbers of the form , are called fractions. A fraction can be written as where q ≠ 0.
4 5 𝑞

• If the numerator and the denominator of a fraction are multiplied / divided by the same
number, then the value of the fraction does not change.

𝑝
• For any positive proper fraction (p < q), the value of the fraction increases when both
𝑞
3
the denominator and numerator are added by the same positive number. e.g. = 0.75,
4
3+1 4
= = 0.8.
4+1 5

• For any positive proper fraction p/q (p<q), the value of the fraction decreases when both
3
the numerator and denominator are subtracted by the same positive number. E.g. =
4
3−1 2
0.75, = = 0.66.
4−1 3

𝑝
• For any positive improper fraction (p > q), the value of the fraction decreases when both
𝑞
5
the numerator and the denominator are added to the same positive. E .g. = 1.25, adding
4
5+1 6
1 to the numerator and the denominator, we get = = 1.20, which is less than 1.25.
4+1 5

10
 𝑝
• For any positive improper fraction (p > q), the value of the fraction increases when both
𝑞
5
the numerator and denominator are subtracted by the same positive number. E .g. =
4
5−1 4
1.25, by subtracting 1 from both the numerator and denominator we get, = = 1.33
4−1 3
> 1.25.

Types of Fractions
3 32
1. Common Fractions: Fractions such as , etc. are called common or vulgar
4 43
fractions.

2. Decimal Fractions: Fractions whose denominators are 10, 100, 1000…. are called
decimal fractions.

3. Proper Fraction: A fraction whose numerator is less than its denominator is known as
3
a proper fraction E.g. .
4

4. Improper Fraction: A fraction whose numerator is greater than its denominator is

4
known as an improper fraction. E.g.
3

5. Mixed Fractions: Fractions which consist of an integral part and a fractional part are
called mixed fractions. All improper fractions can be expressed as mixed fractions and
1 13
vice versa. E.g. 4 3 , 2 35 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

6. Recurring Decimals: A decimal in which a set of figures is repeated continually is

1
called a recurring or periodic or a circulating decimal. e.g. = 0.142857… the dots
7
indicate that the figure between 1 and 7 will repeat continuously.

Indices
In the expression, 𝑎𝑛 , a is called the base and n is called the index. E.g. 𝑎5 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 ×
𝑎 × 𝑎.

11
Law of Indices
Let m and n be positive integers, then

1. 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛

2. 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛

3. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
1
( ) 𝑚
4. 𝑎 𝑚 = √𝑎
1
5. 𝑎−𝑚 =
𝑎𝑚
𝑚
( ) 𝑛
6. 𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎 𝑚
7. 𝑎𝑜 = 1

REMEMBER THIS: if am = an, then m = n

if am = bm and m ≠0;

Then a =b if m is odd

Or a = ±b if m is Even

Remainder Theory
The basic remainder formula is:

Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder

If remainder = 0, then the number is perfectly divisible by the divisor and the divisor is a factor of
the number e.g. when 8 divides 40, the remainder is 0, it can be said that 8 is a factor of 40.

Fermat's little theorem

Fermat’s theorem is an important remainder theorem which can be used to find the remainder
easily.

12
Fermat’s theorem states that for any integer ‘a’ and prime number ‘p’, 𝑎𝑝 - a is always divisible
by ‘p’.

Also, if a is not divisible by p, i.e. if a and p are relatively prime, then 𝑎(𝑝−1) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝 = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝
which means the remainder is 1.

Example: When 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟔 is divided by 17, the remainder would be __:

Solution: Here, 7 is a prime number and 2, 17 are relatively prime.

Therefore, 216 𝑚𝑜𝑑 17 = 1.

2256 can be written as (216)16.

Since, 216 𝑚𝑜𝑑 17 = 1, (216)16 𝑚𝑜𝑑 17 = 1.

Thus, the remainder when 2256 is divided by 17 is 1.

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13
 Averages

Sum of Items
Average means Arithmetic mean of the items and it is =
Number of Items
n+1
When the difference between all the items is the same, then the average is equal to item,
2
where n is the total number of items.

• If x is added in all the items, then the average increases by x.

• If x is subtracted from all the items, then the average decreases by x.
• If every item is multiplied by x, then the average also gets multiplied by x.
• If every item is divided by x, then the average also gets divided by x.

𝑊1 𝑋1 +𝑊2 𝑋2 +⋯⋅𝑊𝑛 𝑋𝑛
1. Weighted Average =
𝑊1 +𝑊2 +⋯𝑊𝑛

(𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 ………..𝑎𝑛 )
2. Arithmetic Mean =
𝑛

3. Geometric Mean = 𝑛√𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 … … … . . 𝑎𝑛

𝑛
4. Harmonic Mean = 1 1 1
+ +⋯𝑥
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑛

For two numbers a and b

(a+b)
→ AM =
2

→ GM = √𝑎. 𝑏

2𝑎𝑏
→ HM =
𝑎+𝑏

REMEMBER THIS: AM ≥ GM ≥ HM is always true. They will be equal if all elements are
equal to each other. If I have just two values then GM2 = AM x HM

14
REMEMBER THIS: The sum of deviation (D) of each element with respect to the average is 0
→ 𝐷 = (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) + (𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) + (𝑥3 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) … . . +(𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = 0

𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
REMEMBER THIS: 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑥𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 +
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Median of a finite list of numbers can be found by arranging all the observations from lowest
value to highest value and picking the middle one.

Mode is the value that occurs most often.

15
 Ratio and Proportion
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
1. Compounded Ratio of two ratios and is ,
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑

2. Duplicate ratio of a : b is a2 : b2

3. Triplicate ratio of a : b is a3 : b3

4. Sub-duplicate ratio of a : b is √𝑎 : √𝑏

3 3
5. Sub-triplicate ratio of a : b is √𝑎 : √𝑏

6. Reciprocal ratio of a : b is b : a

Componendo and Dividendo

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
If = & 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 =
𝑏 𝑎 𝑎−𝑏 𝑐−𝑑

𝑎 𝑐
Four (non-zero) quantities of the same kind a, b, c, d are said to be in proportion if = .
𝑏 𝑑

The non-zero quantities of the same kind a, b, c, d.. are said to be in continued proportion i f
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= = .
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑

Proportion

𝑎 𝑐
a, b, c, d is said to be in proportion if =
𝑏 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
a, b, c, d is said to be in continued proportion if = =
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑

𝑎 𝑐 𝑒
REMEMBER THIS: If = = =k
𝑏 𝑑 𝑓
𝑎+𝑐+𝑒
⇒ =𝑘
𝑏+𝑑+𝑓
16
 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑞𝑐 + 𝑟𝑒
⇒ =𝑘
𝑝𝑏 + 𝑞𝑑 + 𝑟𝑓

𝑝𝑎𝑛 + 𝑞𝑐 𝑛 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑛
⇒ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑘𝑛
𝑝𝑏 + 𝑞𝑑 + 𝑟𝑓

Given two variables x and y, y is (directly) proportional to x (x and y vary directly, or x and y
are in direct variation) if there is a non-zero constant k such that y =kx. It is denoted by y 𝛼 x

Two variables are inversely proportional (or varying inversely, or in inverse variation, or in
inverse proportion or reciprocal proportion) if there exists a non-zero constant k such that y
𝑘
= .
𝑥

17
 Mixture and Alligation

Successive Replacement – Where a is the original quantity, b is the quantity that is

replaced and n is the number of times the replacement process is carried out,
then

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎−𝑏 𝑛

=( )
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎

Alligation – The ratio of the weights of the two items mixed will be inversely proportional to
the deviation of attributes of these two items from the average attribute of the resultant mixture

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑥2 − 𝑥

=
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑥1

Q. If P liters of a mixture contains x % ingredient. Find the quantity of ingredient to be added to increase it
to y.

Solution:

𝑦−𝑥
SHORTCUT FORMULA: Quantity of Ingredient to be added = P x
100−𝑦

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18
 Linear, Quadratic and Other Equations

Linear Equations
• A linear equation is an equation which gives straight line when plotted on a graph.

• Linear equations can be of one variable or two variable or three variable.

• Let a, b, c and d are constants and x, y and z are variables. A general form of single
variable linear equation is ax + b = 0.

• A general form of two variable linear equation is ax + by = c.

• A general form of three variable linear equation is ax + by + cz = d.

Equations with two variables:

• Consider two equations ax + by = c and mx + ny = p. Each of these equations

represent two lines on the x-y co-ordinate plane. The solution of these equations is
the point of intersection.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• If = ≠
then the slope of the two equations is equal and so they are parallel to
𝑚 𝑛 𝑝
each other. Hence, no point of intersection occurs. Therefore, no solution.

𝑎 𝑏
• If ≠ then the slope is different and so they intersect each other at a single point.
𝑚 𝑛
Hence, it has a single solution.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• If = = then the two lines are same, and they have infinite points common to each
𝑚 𝑛 𝑝
other. So, infinite solutions occur.

• If the system of equations has n variables with n-1 equations, then the solution is
indeterminate.

• If system of equations has n variables with n-1 equations with some additional

19
 conditions like the variables are integers, then the solution may be determinate

• If system of equations has n variables with n-1 equations, then some combination of
variables may be determinable.

• For example, if ax + by + cz = d and mx + ny + pz = q, if a, b, c are in Arithmetic

progression and m, n and p are in AP then the sum x + y + z is determinable.

Equations with three variables:

• Let the equations be a1x + b1y + c1z = d1, a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 and a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
.

Here we define the following matrices:

• If Determinant of D ≠ 0, then the equations have a unique solution.

• If Determinant of D = 0, and at least one but not all the determinants Dx, Dy or Dz is
zero, then no solution exists.

• If Determinant of D = 0, and all the three of the determinants Dx, Dy and Dz are
zero, then there are infinitely many solutions exists.
20
 • Determinant can be calculated by:

D = a1(b2c3 -c2b3) - b1(a2c3-c2a3) + c1(a2b3- b2a3)

Quadratic Equation

For a quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0, its roots

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
• 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 =
2𝑎
−𝑏
• Sum of roots = 𝛼 + 𝛽 =
𝑎
𝑐
• Product of roots = 𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎

Discriminant: 𝛥 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐

Condition Nature of Roots

𝜟<𝟎 Complex Conjugate
𝜟=𝟎 Real and equal
𝜟 > 𝟎 and a perfect square Rational and Unequal
𝜟 > 𝟎 and not a perfect square Irrational and unequal

21
REMEMBER THIS: If c = a, then roots are reciprocal of each other. If b =0, then roots are equal
in magnitude but opposite in sign. Provided a, b and c are rational,

→ If one root is p + iq, the other root will be p – iq

→ If one root is p +√𝒒 , the other root will be p – √𝒒

Cubic equation: ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0

𝑏
• Sum of the roots = -
𝑎
𝑐
• Sum of the product of the roots taken two at a time =
𝑎
𝑑
• Product of the roots = -𝑎

Biquadratic equation: ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0

𝑏
• Sum of the roots = -
𝑎
𝑐
• Sum of the product of the roots taken two at a time =
𝑎
𝑑
• Sum of the product of the roots taken three at a time = -
𝑎
𝑒
• Product of the roots =
𝑎

22
 Inequalities

If a > b and c > 0,

• a+c>b+c

• a-c>b-c

• ac > bc

𝑎 𝑏
• >
𝑐 𝑐

1 1
If a, b = 0, then an > bn and 𝑛
< , where n is positive.
𝑎 𝑏𝑛

𝑎+𝑥 𝑎
• a < b and x > 0, then >
𝑏+𝑥 𝑏

𝑎+𝑥 𝑎
• a > b and x > 0, then <
𝑏+𝑥 𝑏

Modular Inequalities

1. |x - y| = |y - x|
2. |x . y| = |x| . |y|
3. |x + y| < |x| + |y|
4. |x + y| > |x| - |y|

Quadratic Inequalities

• For (x – a) (x – b) > 0 & {a < b}

Range of x: (x < a) U (x > b)

• For (x – a) (x – b) < 0 & {a > b}

Range of x: a < x < b

For any set of positive numbers: AM ≥ GM ≥ HM

23
 (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ . +𝑎𝑛 ) 1
⇒ ≥ (𝑎1 . 𝑎2 … … . 𝑎𝑛 )2
𝑛

If a and b are positive quantities, then

𝑎+𝑏
≥ √𝑎𝑏
2

If a, b, c, d are positive quantities, then

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
• + + + ≥4
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎

• 𝑎4 + 𝑏 4 + 𝑐 4 + 𝑑 4 ≥ 4𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑

If a, b, c …. k are n positive quantities and m is a natural number, then

𝑎𝑚 + 𝑏 𝑚 + 𝑐 𝑚 … + 𝑘 𝑚 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐…+ 𝑘 𝑚
>( )
𝑛 𝑛

𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + ⋯+ 𝑘 𝑛
( ) > 𝑎. 𝑏. 𝑐. 𝑑 … . 𝑘
𝑛

REMEMBER THESE:

𝑎𝑚 +𝑏𝑚 𝑎+𝑏 𝑚
• >( ) [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 ≤ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 ≥ 1]
2 2

𝑎𝑚 +𝑏𝑚 𝑎+𝑏 𝑚
• <( ) [𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑚 < 1]
2 2

1 𝑛
• For any positive integer n, 2 ≤ (1 + 𝑛) ≤ 3

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐 𝑝 … will be greatest when = =
𝑚 𝑛 𝑝

• If a > b and both are natural numbers, then

24
 𝑎𝑏 < 𝑏 𝑎 { 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 32 > 23 & 42 = 24 }

• (𝑛!)2 ≥ 𝑛𝑛

• If the sum of two or more positive quantities is constant, their product is greatest when
they are equal and if their product is constant then their sum is the least when the
numbers are equal.

• If x + y = k, then xy is greatest when x = y

• If xy = k, then x + y is least when x = y

25
 Percentages
To increase a number by x %:
• If a number is increased by 10%, then it becomes 1.1 times of itself.
• If a number is increased by 20%, then it becomes 1.2 times of itself.
• If a number is increased by 30%, then it becomes 1.3 times of itself.
• If a number is increased by 40%, then it becomes 1.4 times of itself.

To decrease a number by x %:
• If a number is decreased by 10%, then it becomes 0.9 times of itself.
• If a number is decreased by 20%, then it becomes 0.8 times of itself.
• If a number is decreased by 30%, then it becomes 0.7 times of itself.
• If a number is decreased by 40%, then it becomes 0.6 times of itself.

Fraction %age Fraction %age

1/2 50% 1/9 11.11%
1/3 33.33% 1/10 10%
1/4 25% 1/11 9.09%
1/5 20% 1/12 8.33%
1/6 16.66% 1/13 7.69%
1/7 14.28% 1/14 7.14%
1/8 12.5% 1/15 6.66%

Salary/weight/income more
𝑹
If A’s income is R% more than B, then B’s income is less than that of A by 100 x
(𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝑹)

𝑹
If A’s income is R% less than B, then B’s income is more than that of A by 100 x
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝑹)

REMEMBER THIS:

If a number ‘x’ is successively increased by a%, b%, c%...

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• Final value = 𝑥 (1 + ) (1 + 100) (1 + 100)
100

26
If a number ‘x’ is successively decreased by a%, b%, c%...

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• Final value = 𝑥 (1 − ) (1 − 100) (1 − 100).
100

𝑎𝑏
The net change after two successive changes of a% and b% is (𝑎 + 𝑏 + ).
100

𝑹×𝟏𝟎𝟎
If the price is increased, the consumption should be decreased by
(𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝑹)
. If the price is
𝑹×𝟏𝟎𝟎
decreased, then consumption should be increased by
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝑹)

Increase and decrease by the same Percentage

If a number is increased by R% and then this number is decreased by R%, then in total there
𝑅2
would be .
100

27
 Profit and Loss
Cost Price: The price at which an article is purchased, is called its cost price,
abbreviated as C.P.

Selling Price: The price at which an article is sold, is called its selling price,
abbreviated as S.P.

Profit or Gain: If C.P is less than S.P., the seller is said to have a profit.

Loss: If S.P is less than C.P., the seller is said to have incurred a loss.

REMEMBER THIS: Loss or gain is always reckoned on C.P.

Important Formulae

1. Gain = (S.P) - (C.P)

𝑆𝑃−𝐶𝑃
2. Gain% = 𝑋 100
𝐶𝑃

3. Loss = (C.P) - (S.P)

𝐶𝑃−𝑆𝑃
4. Loss% = 𝑋 100
𝐶𝑃

(100+𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛)
5. S.P. = x CP
100
(100−𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠)
6. S.P. = x CP
100

(100)
7. C.P.= x SP
(100+𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛)

(100)
8. C.P. = x SP
(100−𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠)

In case false weights are used while selling,

28
 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Profit % =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒−𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒

Discount % = x 100
Selling Price

REMEMBER THIS: Effective Discount after successive discount of a% and b% is (𝑎 + 𝑏 −

𝑎𝑏
100
)%

𝑦
Effective Discount when you buy x goods and get y goods free is (
𝑥+𝑦
) 𝑋 100.

29
 Simple Interest & Compound Interest

𝑷×𝑹 × 𝑻
Simple Interest = ( ), where, P is the amount invested or borrowed, T is the time in
𝟏𝟎𝟎
years and R is the annual interest rate.

A = P + I, where, A is the amount payable or receivable at the end of period T, P is the principal
and I is the interest.

𝑟 𝑛
Compound Interest = 𝑃 (1 + ) −𝑃
100

𝑟 𝑛
Population formula P’ = 𝑃 (1 ± )
100

𝑟 𝑛
Depreciation formula = Initial Value x (1 − )
100

REMEMBER THIS: SI and CI are same for a certain sum of money (P) at a certain rate (r) per
𝑃𝑅 2
annum for the first year. The difference after a period of two years is given by .
100

Growth and Growth Rates

Absolute Growth = Final Value – Initial Value

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 −𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Growth rate for one year period = x100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 −𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Average annual growth rate (AAGR) = x 100
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
1
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) = ( ) - 1
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

REMEMBER THIS: If the time period is more than a year, CAGR < AAGR. This can be used for
approximating the value of CAGR instead of calculating it

30
Interest rate on monthly installment plans
𝟐𝟒 × 𝑰 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
R= , where R is the interest, I is the installment, N is the number of installments, F is the
𝑵(𝑭+𝑳)
principal left before the first installment and L is the principal left before last installment.

Equated Installment
𝑨 𝐑
𝑿= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒏 x
𝟏−(𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝑹) 𝟏𝟎𝟎

X is the equated installment, A is the amount borrowed, R is the rate of interest and n is the number
of years.

Q. A sum of Rs. A2 is borrowed for n years at r% per annum compounded annually. Instalment A is paid
towards loan. What is the Relation between A & r.

100 1
SHORTCUT FORMULA: A =
𝑟
[1 − 𝑟 𝑛
]
(1+ )
100

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 Time, Speed and Distance
The most important relationship between these three quantities, and possibly the only one which
needs to be known is,

Distance
Speed =
Time

Distance = Speed x Time

Distance
Time =
Speed

5 5
1 kmph = m/sec; => S kmph into m/sec => S x m/sec
18 18

18 18
1 m/sec = kmph; => S m/sec into Kmph => S x Kmph
5 5

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 … . 𝑑𝑛

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 … 𝑡𝑛

If the distance covered is constant then the average speed is Harmonic Mean of the values (S1,
S2, S3……Sn)

𝑛
⇒ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
1 1 1 1
+ + …
𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠3 𝑠𝑛

2𝑆1 𝑆2
⇒ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠)
𝑆1 + 𝑆2

If the time taken is constant then the average speed is Arithmetic Mean of the values (S1, S2,
S3……Sn)

𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 … . 𝑆𝑛
⇒ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑛
𝑆1 +𝑆2
⇒ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (for two speeds)
𝑛

32
REMEMBER THIS: Given that the distance between two points is constant, then
• If the speeds are in Arithmetic Progression, then the times taken are in Harmonic
Progression

• If the speeds are in Harmonic Progression, then the times taken are in Arithmetic
Progression

Relative Speed

• If two bodies are moving in the same direction at a speed of x and y respectively, then
their relative speed is the difference of the two speeds i.e. x-y.

• If two bodies are moving in the opposite directions at a speed of x and y respectively,
then their relative speed is x + y.

For Trains

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅

Time taken =
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅

• If the length of a train is L meters and the speed of the train is S m/s, then the time taken
L
by the train to pass a stationary man/pole is sec.
S
• If the length of the train is L1 and its speed is S m/s and the length of a platform
(stationary object of comparable length) is L2, then the time taken by the train to cross the
(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )
platform is sec.
𝑆
• If the lengths of two trains are L1 (faster) and L2 (slower) , and their speeds are S1 and S2
m/s respectively, then the time taken by the faster train to overtake the slower tra in is
𝐿1 +𝐿2 𝐿1 +𝐿2
sec, and the time taken for the trains to cross each other is sec.
𝑠1 +𝑠2 𝑆1 +𝑆2
• If the average speed of a train, without stoppages, is S 1 km/hr and the speed with
(𝑆1 −𝑆2 )
stoppages is S2, then Stoppage time (in min/hr) = x60.
𝑆1

33
Boats and Streams

If the speed of the boat in still water is say B kmph and if the speed at which the stream is
flowing is W kmph,

• When the boat is traveling with the stream the speed of the boat

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑡 + 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚

• When the boat is traveling against the stream the speed of the boat

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑡 − 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚

(𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 + 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑈𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚)
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑡 =
2

(𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 − 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑈𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚)
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑅𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 =
2

For Escalators,

The difference between escalator problems and boat problems is that escalator can go either up
or down.

Races

Concept of races include linear and circular races.

Linear

“Race” is a competition of speeds. All participants of a race are required to run a specific
distance; whoever does it in the minimum time will be the winner of the race.

When all participants reach the finishing point at the same instant of the time, the race is said to
end in a “Dead Heat”.

The various types of phrases used in the problems on races and their interpretations are as
follows:

34
 1. A gives B y meters: This means, both A and B start at the starting point at the same
instant of time, but while A reaches the finishing point, B is y meters behind. This
indicates that A is the winner of the race.

2. A gives B t minutes: This means, both A and B start at the starting point at the same
instant, but B takes t minutes more as compared to A to finish the race. Here also, A is
the winner.

3. A can give B a start of y meters: A starts from the starting point and B starts y meters
ahead, but still both A and B reach the finishing point at the same instant of time. So, the
race ends in a dead heat.

4. A can give B a start of t minutes: A starts t minutes after B starts from the starting
point, but still, both A and B reach the finishing point at the same instant of time. So,
again the race ends in a dead heat.

5. A gives B y meters and t minutes: A and B start at the starting point at the same
instant, but while A reaches the finishing point, B is behind by y meters and B takes t
minutes compared to A to complete the race. So, B covers remaining y meters in extra t
𝒚
minutes. This gives the speed of B as .
𝒕

Circular

• Two objects A and B moving along a circular path in the same direction, having started
simultaneously and from the same point traveling at speeds of a and b, will meet again
when the faster object has gained one full circle over the slower object, i.e. when the
relative speed |a-b| completes one full round. The two objects will again meet at the
starting point at a time, which is the LCM of the time taken for each of the objects
individually to complete one round.

CASE 1: Same direction

35
 • When two persons A, and B are running around a circular track of length L mts with
speeds of x, y m/s in the same direction
L
They meet each other at any point on the track is seconds
x−y
• If the length of a circular track is L m, and if A and B take x and y sec. respectively, to
complete one round, then both of them will meet at the starting point after LCM (x, y) sec.

L L
They meet each other at exactly at the starting point = ( )( ) seconds
x y

CASE 2: Opposite direction

• When two persons A, and B are running around a circular track of length L mts with
speeds of a, b m/s in opposite direction, they meet each other at any point on the track
L L L
is seconds. They meet each other at exactly at the starting point = ( )( ) seconds
a+b a b

CASE 3: When three persons A, B and C are running around a circular track of length L mts
with speeds of a, b and c m/s in the same direction, they meet each other at any point on the
L L
track is , seconds.
a−b b−c

36
Q. Karan and Arjun are running between A & B. If both start from point A, Karan beats Arjun by 20 m. If
Karan starts 10m behind A and Arjun starts from point A, Karan beats Arjun by 12 m. What is the distance
between points A & B?

Solution:

Let AB = d

Taking the first case,

Distance covered by Karan = d

Distance covered by Arjun = d – 20.

Second case,

Distance covered by Karan = d + 10

Distance covered by Arjun = d – 12

𝑑 𝑑+10
The ratio of speeds → = → d = 100
𝑑−20 𝑑−12

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37
 Time & Work
If a person can do a certain task in t hours, then in 1 hour he would do 1/t portion of the task. A
𝑎𝑏
does a job in ‘a’ hours and B does the same job in ‘b’ hours, together they will take hours.
𝑎+𝑏

A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours more than A and B combined whereas B does the same job
in ‘b’ hours more than A and B combined, then together they will take √𝑎𝑏 hours to finish the
job.

REMEMBER THIS: A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours, B does the same job in ‘b’ hours and C
𝑎𝑏𝑐
does the same job in ‘c’ hours, then together they will take hours.
𝑎𝑏+𝑏𝑐+𝑐𝑎

REMEMBER THIS: If A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours and A&B together do the job in ‘t’
𝑎𝑡
hours, the B alone will take hours.
𝑎−𝑡

If A does a particular job in ‘a’ hours, B does the same job in ‘b’ hours and ABC together do the
job in ‘t’ hours, then

𝑎𝑏𝑡
• C alone can do it in hours
𝑎𝑏−𝑎𝑡−𝑏𝑡

𝑏𝑡
• A and C together can do it in hours
𝑏−𝑡

𝑎𝑡
• B and C together can do it in hours
𝑎−𝑡

REMEMBER THIS: If the objective is to fill the tank, then the Inlet pipes do positive work
whereas the Outlet pipes do negative work. If the objective is to empty the tank, then the Outlet
pipes do positive work whereas the Inlet Pipes do negative work.

38
 Clocks and Calendar
Clocks

A clock is a complete circle having 360 degrees. It is divided into 12 equal parts i.e. each part is 360/12 =
30°. As the minute hand takes a complete round in one hour it covers 360° in 60 min. In 1 min. it covers
360/60 = 6°/ minute. Also, as the hour hand covers just one part out of the given 12 parts in one hour,
this implies it covers 30° in 60 min. i.e. ½° per minute. This implies that the relative speed of the minute
hand is 6 – ½° = 5 ½° degrees.

• Every hour, both the hands coincide once. In 12 hours, they will coincide 11 times. It happens
due to only one such incident between 12 and 1’o clock.

• The hands are in the same straight line when they are coincident or opposite to each other.

• When the two hands are at a right angle, they are fifteen-minute spaces apart. In one hour, they
will form two right angles and in twelve hours there are only twenty-two right angles. It happens
due to right angles formed by the minute and hour hand at 3’o clock and 9’o clock.

• When the hands are in opposite directions, they are 30-minute spaces apart.

• If a clock indicates 8.15, when the correct time is 8, it is said to be fifteen minutes too fast. On the
other hand, if it indicates 7.45, when the correct time is 8, it is said to be fifteen minutes too slow.

REMEMBER THIS: If both the hour hand and minute hand move at their normal speeds, then
5
both the hands meet after 6511 mins.

Calendar
In an ordinary year there are 365 days, which means 52 × 7 + 1, or 52 weeks and one day. This
additional day is called an odd day.

Further, every 100th year starting from 1st AD, is a non–leap year, but every 4th century year is a leap
year. So, any year divisible by 400 will be a leap year e.g.: 1200, 1600 and 2000. And the years 1800,
1900 will be non-leap years as they are divisible by 100, but not 400.

The concept of odd days is very important in calendars. In a century i.e. 100 years, there will be 24 leap
years and 76 non–leap years. This means that there will be 24 × 2 + 76 × 1= 124 odd days. Since, 7 odd
days make a week, to find out the net odd days, divide 124 by 7. The remainder is 5. This is the number
39
of odd days in a century. You may memorize the following points related to the concepts of calendars to
save time during the paper.

• 100 years give us 5 odd days as calculated above.

• 200 years give us 5 x 2 = 10 – 7 (one week) =3 odd days.
• 300 years give us 5 x 3 = 15 – 14 (two weeks) = 1 odd day.
• 400 years give us {5 x 4 + 1 (leap century)} –21} = 0 odd days.

Month of January gives us 31 – 28 = 3 odd days.

Month of February gives us 28 – 28 = 0 odd day in a normal year and 1 odd day in a leap year and so on
for all the other months.

In total first six months i.e. January to June give us 6 odd days in a normal year and 7 – 7 = 0 odd days
in a leap year. This is going to help, when you want to find a day, which is after 30th June.

In total first nine months i.e. January to September give us 0 odd day in a normal year and 1 odd day in a
leap year.

Now, if we start from 1st January 0001 AD,

for 0 odd day, the day will be Sunday; for 1 odd day, the day will be Monday; for 2 odd days, it will be
Tuesday; for 3 odd days, it will be Wednesday and so on.

40
 Functions
Domain: Set of real and finite values that the independent variable can take.

Range: Set of real and finite values that the dependent variable can have corresponding to the
values of the independent variable

Co-Domain: Set of real and finite values that the dependent variable can have.

REMEMBER THIS: Range is a subset of Co-Domain. Co-domain may or may not have values
which do not have a pre-image in the domain.

It is not a function if for some value in the domain, the relationship gives more than one value.
E.g.: f(x) = √𝑥 (At x = 4, f(x) could be both +2 and -2)

Domain cannot have any extra value i.e. the values at which the function does not exist.

One to One: Every element in the Domain has one and only one image in the Co-Domain.
Every element in Codomain has one and only one pre-image in the Domain.

Many to One: If at least two elements in Domain have the same image in the co-domain.

Onto Function: If for every element in the Co-Domain there is at least one pre-image in the
Domain. In this case, Range = Co-Domain

Into Function: If there is at least one element in the Co-Domain which does not have a pre-
image in the Domain. In this case, Range is a proper subset of Co-Domain.

Even Function: f(x) is even if and only if f(-x) = f(x) for all values of x. The graph of such a
function is symmetric about the Y-Axis

Odd Function: f(x) is odd if and only if f(-x) = - f(x) for all values of x. The graph is symmetric
about the origin

REMEMBER THIS: If f(x) is an odd function and f(0) exists f(0) = 0

41
Graphs

f(x) = |x|

If we consider –f(x), it gets mirrored in the X-Axis.

If we consider f(x+2), it shifts left by 2 units

42
If we consider f(x-2), it shifts right by 2 units.

If we consider f(x) + 2, it shifts up by 2 units.

If we consider f(x) – 2, it shifts down by 2 units.

43
If we consider f(2x) or 2f(x), the slope doubles and the rise and fall become much sharper than
earlier

𝑥
If we consider f(2) or ½ f(x), the slope halves and the rise and fall become much flatter than
earlier.

44
 Progression and Series

Progressions and Series

• Some of the questions in this section can be answered by ruling out wrong choices
among the options available. This method will both save time and improve accuracy.

• There are many shortcuts which will be of vital importance in answering this section.

• This formula sheet contains an exhaustive list of various formulas and shortcuts.

There are 3 standard types of progressions –

• Arithmetic Progression
• Geometric Progression
• Harmonic Progression

Arithmetic progression (A.P)

• If the sum or difference between any two consecutive terms is constant then the
terms are said to be in A.P. Ex. 2,5,8,11 or a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, …

• If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ is the common difference then the general ‘n’ term is
Tn= a + (n-1)d

𝑛
• Sum of first ‘n’ terms in A.P = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]

𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 – 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

• Number of terms in A.P = +1
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

Properties of A.P

If a, b, c, d, …. are in A.P and ‘k’ is a constant then

• a-k, b-k, c-k, …will also be in A.P

• ak, bk, ck, …will also be in A.P

45
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• , , will also be in A.P
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

Geometric Progression (G.P)

• If in a succession of numbers, the ratio of any term and the previous term is constant
then that numbers are said to be in Geometric Progression. Ex :1, 3, 9, 27 or a, ar, ar2,
ar3.

• The general expression of a G.P, Tn = arn-1 (where a is the first terms and ‘r’ is the
common ratio)

𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)

• Sum of ‘n’ terms in G.P, Sn = 1−𝑟
(𝑖𝑓 𝑟 < 1) 𝑜𝑟
𝑟−1
(𝑖𝑓 𝑟 > 1)

Properties of G.P

If a, b, c, d, …. are in G.P and ‘k’ is a constant then

• ak, bk, ck, …will also be in G.P

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• , , will also be in G.P
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

𝑎
• Sum of term of infinite series in G.P, 𝑆∞ = 1−𝑟 (−1 < 𝑟 < 1)

Harmonic Progression (H.P)

1 1 1
• If a, b, c, d, .….. are unequal numbers then they are said to be in H.P if , , , ……are
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
in A.P.

1
• The ‘n’ term in H.P is
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝐴.𝑃.

• If a, b, c, d are in H.P, then a+d > b+c & ad > bc

46
Arithmetic Geometric Series

• A series will be in arithmetic geometric series if each of its term is formed by product of
the corresponding terms of an A.P and G.P.

• The general form of A.G.P series is a, (a+d)r, (a+2d)r2

• Sum of ‘n’ terms of A.G.P series

𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛−1 ) [𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
𝑆𝑛 = + 𝑟𝑑 + 𝑟𝑛 (𝑟 ≠ 1)
1−𝑟 1−𝑟 1−𝑟

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 𝑑)]
2

Arithmetic-Geometric Series

Sum of infinite terms of A.G.P series

𝑎 1
𝑆∞ = + 𝑟𝑑 (𝑟 < 1)
1−𝑟 (1 − 𝑟)2

Standard Series

𝑛(𝑛+1)
• The sum of first ‘n’ natural number = 2
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
• The sum of squares of first ‘n’ natural numbers =
6
𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
• The sum of cubes of first ‘n’ natural numbers = ( )
2
• The sum of first ‘n’ odd natural numbers = n2
• The sum of first ‘n’ even natural numbers = n(n+1)
• In any series Tn = Sn – Sn-1

Arithmetic mean
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
• The arithmetic mean =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑎+𝑏
• If two number A and B are in A.P. then arithmetic mean =
2

Inserting ‘n’ means between two numbers a and b, the total terms will become n+2, a is the first
term and b is the last term
47
 𝑏−𝑎
• Then the common difference d =
𝑛+1
• The last term b = a+(n+1)d
• The final series is a, a+d, a+2d, ….

Geometric Mean
𝑛
• If a, b, c, … n terms are in G.P then G.M = √𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐 × … 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
• If two numbers a, b are in G.P then their G.M = √𝑎 × 𝑏

Inserting ‘n’ means between two quantities a and b with common ration ‘r’, then the number of
terms is n+2 and a, b are the first and last terms

𝑛+1
𝑏 √𝑏
• 𝑟 𝑛+1 = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎 𝑎

• The final series is a, ar, ar2

Harmonic Mean

If a, b, c, d,.. are the given numbers in H.P then the Harmonic mean of ‘n’ terms =

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
1 1 1
+ + +⋯
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

2𝑎𝑏
If two numbers a and b are in H.P. then the Harmonic mean =
𝑎+𝑏

Relationship between AM, GM and HM for two numbers a and b,

𝑎+𝑏
• 𝐴𝑀 =
2

• 𝐺. 𝑀 = √𝑎 × 𝑏

2𝑎𝑏
• 𝐻. 𝑀 = 𝑎+𝑏

• 𝐺. 𝑀 = √𝐴𝑀 × 𝐻𝑀

• 𝐴𝑀 ≥ 𝐺. 𝑀 ≥ 𝐻. 𝑀
48
 Set Theory
The number of elements in a set is called its cardinal number and is written as n(A). A set with
cardinal number 0 is called a null set while that with cardinal number ∞ is called an infinite set.

Set A is said to be a subset of Set B if each and every element of Set A is also contained in Set
B. Set A is said to be a proper subset of Set B if Set B has at least one element that is not
contained in Set A. A set with ‘n’ elements will have 2n subsets (2n – 1 proper subsets)

The Universal set is defined as the set of all possible objects under consideration.

Union of two sets is represented as A⋃B and consists of elements that are present in either
Set A or Set B or both.

Intersection of two sets is represented as A∩B and consists of elements that are present in
both Set A and Set B.
n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) — n(A ∩B)

Venn Diagram: A Venn diagram is used to visually represent the relationship between various
sets. What do each of the areas in the figure represent?

I – only A; II – A and B but not C; III – Only B; IV – A and C but not B; V – A and B and C; VI – B
and C but not A; VII – Only C

n(A ∪B ∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) — n(A∩B) — n(C∩A) - n(B∩C) + n(A∩B∩C)

REMEMBER THIS: Any set is a subset of itself, but not a proper subset. The empty set,
denoted by𝜙, is also a subset of any given set X. The empty set is always a proper subset,
except of itself. Every other set is then a subset of the universal set.

49
 Logarithm
1. 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑏) = 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑎) + 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑏)
𝑎
2. 𝐿𝑜𝑔 ( ) = 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑎) − 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑏)
𝑏

3. 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑎)
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑐 (𝑎)
4. 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑏 (𝑎) =
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑐 (𝑏)

5. 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 = 1
6. 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑏 1 = 0
7. 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥
8. 𝐿𝑛 𝑥 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥
𝑥
9. 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏

50
Characteristic and Mantissa of Common Logarithms:

The integral part of the common logarithm of a number x > 0 is called the Characteristic and the
fractional part is called the Mantissa.

E.g. the logarithm of 2 to the base 10 is 0.3010, where 0 is the characteristic and 3010 is the
mantissa. Any positive number ‘x’ can be written in the form x = a10 n, where 1 < a < 10 and n is
an integer. The number n is called the order of the number x. e.g. 30 can be written as 3*101
and similarly 300 can be written 3*102. The same rule applies to fractions as well where the
value of n will be negative.

The characteristic of the logarithm of the given number ‘x’ will be ‘n’ and the mantissa will be the
logarithm of ‘a’. Therefore, while log 2 = 0.3010, log 20 will be 1.3010 as ‘n’ in this case is ‘1’.

Thus, the value of the characteristic of the logarithm of a number will help determine the number
of integral digits the number has = characteristic + 1.

51
 Co-ordinate Geometry
• Distance between two points P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) is given by = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 − (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

• If a point R (x,y) divides P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) internally in the ratio of m:n, the
𝑚𝑥2 +𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 +𝑛𝑦1
coordinates of R i.e. (x,y) are given by = ,
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛

• If a point R (x,y) divides P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) externally in the ratio of m:n, the
𝑚𝑥2 −𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 −𝑛𝑦1
coordinates of R i.e. (x,y) are given by = ,
𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛

• Slope(m) of a line is the tangent of the angle made by the line with the positive direction
of the X-Axis.

𝑎
• For a general equation ax + by + c = 0; slope (m) = - .
𝑏

𝑦2 −𝑦1
• For a line joining two points, P(𝑥1 , 𝑦1) and Q(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), the slope (m) is =
𝑥2 −𝑥2

REMEMBER THIS: The X axis divides the line joining P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) in the ratio of y1 : y2.
The Y axis divides the line joining P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) in the ratio of x1 : x2

52
 • Equation of a line parallel to x-axis is y = a, where a is the intercept on y-axis.

• Equation of x-axis is y = 0.

• Equation of a line parallel to y-Axis is x = b, where b is the intercept on x-axis.

• Equation of y-axis is x = 0.

The intercept of a line is the distance between the point where it cuts the x-axis or y-axis and the
origin. Y Intercept is often denoted with the letter ‘c’.

Different Equations of a line

1. General equation of a line: ax + by + c = 0

2. Slope Intercept Form: Slope is m, y-intercept is c

• y = mx + c.

3. Slope Point Form: Slope is m, point is x1, y1

• y – y1 = m(x – x1)

4. Two Point Form: Two points are x1,y1 and x2,y2

𝑦 −𝑦
• y – y1 = [𝑥2 −𝑥1 ] (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2 1

5. Two Intercept Form: X-intercept is a, Y-intercept is b.

𝑥 𝑦
• + = 1 or bx + ay = ab
𝑎 𝑏

Acute angle between two lines a1x+b1y+c1 = 0 and a2x+b2y+c2 = 0 is given by,

| 𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1 𝑏2 |
Cos 𝜃 =
√(𝑎21 +𝑏21 )(𝑎22 +𝑏22 )
53
Acute angle between two lines with slope m1 and m2 is given by

𝑚1 − 𝑚2
tan 𝜃 = | |
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2

• For parallel lines, 𝜽 = 0°; m1 = m2

• For perpendicular lines, 𝜽 = 90°; m1 = m2 = -1

Distance of a point P (x1,y1) from a line ax + by + c = 0

𝒂𝒙𝟏 + 𝒃𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄
𝒅=| |
√𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

Distance of a point P (x1,y1) from origin,

𝒄
𝒅=| |
√𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

Distance between two parallel lines → ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is given by:

𝒄𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐
𝒅=| |
√𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

REMEMBER THIS: If we know three point A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3) of a parallelogram the
fourth point is given by (x1 + x3 – x2, y1 + y3 – y2)

54
Triangles

The vertices are P(x1,y1), Q(x2,y2) and R(x3, y3)

𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑥2 +𝑐𝑥3 𝑎𝑦1 +𝑏𝑦2 +𝑐𝑦3

• Incenter = { , }
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐

𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3 𝑦1 +𝑦2 +𝑦3

• Centroid = { , }
3 3

1
• Area = [x1(y2 – y3) + x2(y3 – y1) + x3(y1 – y2)]
2

Circumcenter: If "O" is the circumcenter, all the vertices of the triangle ABC are equidistant
from "O". So, to find the circumcenter we use the relationship OA = OB = OC. This gives two
simultaneous linear equation and their solution provides the coordinates of circumcenter.

REMEMBER THIS: Finding triangle area by the above formula is cumbersome. This problem
can be solved easily by shifting the one of the coordinates to (0,0).
1
The area of the triangle whose coordinates are (0,0), (x1,y1), (x2,y2) is [𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 ]
2

Circle

• General Equation of a Circle: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

• If the Centre is (-g, -f), then radius =√𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐

55
 • If the Centre is (h, k), then the radius is r is given by

√(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟

• If the center is at origin, then the radius(r) is given by → x2 + y2 = r2

Q. Find the maximum area that can be found by 4 line segments of length 1, 2, 3, 4.

Solution:

SHORTCUT USED: For any side length, cycle quadrilateral has the maximum area.
1+2+3+4
Semi-perimeter = =5
2

Area = √(5 − 1)(5 − 2)(5 − 3)(5 − 4)

= √24

For more such Questions and shortcuts, Join our Online CAT Coaching Course

56
 Trigonometry

Some Basic Identities:

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝐵
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝐶

𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐵𝐶
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝐶
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝐵
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐵𝐶
1
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
1
• 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
1
• 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1
2

• 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

• 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑒 𝑐 2 𝜃

57
Signs of T-ratios in Different Quadrants:

Range of Trigonometric-Ratios:

1. -1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 and – 1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1. Thus, | sin θ | ≤ 1 and | cos θ | ≤ 1.

2. The value of sin θ is never greater than 1 and never less than – 1.

3. The value of cos θ is never greater than 1 and never less than – 1.

4. cosec θ ≥ 1 and cosec θ ≤ -1.

58
 5. sec θ ≥ 1 and sec θ ≤ - 1.

6. tan θ may assume any value.

T-Ratios of Negative, Complementary, Supplementary Angles etc.

1. sin (- θ) = - sin θ, cos (- θ) = cos θ, tan (- θ) = - tan θ.

2. sin (90° - θ) = cos θ; cos (90° - θ) = sin θ; tan (90° - θ) = cot θ.

3. sin (90° + θ) = cos θ; cos (90° + θ) = - sin θ; tan (90° + θ) = - cot θ.

4. sin (180° - θ) = sin θ; cos (180° - θ) = - cos θ; tan (180° - θ) = - tan θ.

5. sin (180° + θ) = -sin θ; cos (180° + θ) = - cos θ; tan (180° + θ) = tan θ.

6. sin (360° - θ) = -sin θ, cos (360° - θ) = cos θ; tan (360° - θ) = - tan θ.

7. sin (360° + θ) = sin θ, cos (360° + θ) = cos θ, tan (360° + θ) = tan θ.

Addition & Subtraction Formulae

1. Sin (A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB

2. Cos (A + B) = cosA cosB - sinA sinB

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵
3. Tan (A + B) = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵

4. sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B

5. cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵
6. tan (A - B) = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵

7. 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A – B)

8. 2 sin A sin B = cos (A – B) – cos (A + B)

59
 9. 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) – sin (A – B)

10. 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)

11. sin2 x – sin2 y = sin (x + y) x sin (x - y)

12. cos2 x – sin2 y = cos (x + y) x cos (x – y)

(𝐂+𝐃) (𝐂−𝐃)
13. sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos
𝟐 𝟐

(𝐂+𝐃) (𝐂−𝐃)
14. sin C - sin D = 2 cos sin
𝟐 𝟐

(𝐂+𝐃) (𝐂−𝐃)
15. cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos
𝟐 𝟐

(𝐂+𝐃) (𝐂−𝐃)
16. cos C - cos D = -2 sin sin
𝟐 𝟐

T-Ratios of Multiple Angles

1. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

2. cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x = 2cos2 x -1 = 1 – 2sin2 x

3. 1 + cos 2x = 2cos2 x & 1 – cos 2x = 2sin2 x

4. sin 3x = 3sin x – 4sin3 x

5. cos 3x = 4cos3 x – 3cos x

2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
6. tan 2x =
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥−𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑥
7. tan 3x =
1−3 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
8. cos 2x =
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
9. sin 2x =
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

60
T-Ratios of Sub-multiple Angles

x x
1. sin x = 2 sin ( 2 ) cos ( 2 )

x x x x
2. cos x = cos2(2) - sin2(2) = 2 cos2(2) – 1 = 1 - 2 sin2(2)

𝑥
2 tan( )
2
3. tan x = 𝑥
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (2)

x
4. 1 – cos x = 2 sin2( )
2

x
5. 1 + cos x = 2 cos2(2)

𝑥
2 tan( )
2
6. sin x = 2 𝑥
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2)

𝑥
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( )
2
7. cos x = 2 𝑥
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2)

T-Ratios of Some Special Angles

√3−1
1. sin 15° = = cos 75°
2√2

√3+1
2. cos 15° = = sin 75°
2√2

√5−1
3. sin 18° = = cos 72°
4

√10+2√5
4. cos 18° = = sin 72°
4

√10−2√5
5. sin 36° = = cos 54°
4

61
 √5+1
6. cos 36° = = sin 54°
4
10 √2−√2
7. sin 22 2 =
2

10 √2+√2
8. cos 22 2 =
2

Trigonometric Rules

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 1

Sine Rule: = = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 2𝑅

𝑏2 +𝑐 2 −𝑎2 𝑎2 +𝑐 2 −𝑏2 𝑎2 +𝑏2 −𝑐 2

Cosine Rule: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 =
2𝑏𝑐 2𝑎𝑐 2𝑎𝑏

62
 Geometry & Mensuration

Lines and Angles

• Sum of the angles in a straight line is 180°.

• Vertically opposite angles are congruent (equal).

• If any point is equidistant from the endpoints of a segment, then it must lie on the
perpendicular bisector.

• When two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, corresponding angles

are equal, alternate angles are equal and co-interior angles are supplementary.
(All acute angles formed are equal and all obtuse angles are equal)

REMEMBER THIS: The ratio of intercepts formed by a transversal intersecting three parallel
lines is equal to the ratio of corresponding intercepts formed by any other
transversal.

𝑎 𝑐 𝑒
= =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑓

Triangles

• Sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180° and sum of exterior angles is 360°.

• Exterior Angle = Sum of remote interior angles.

63
 • Sum of two sides is always greater than the third side and the difference of two sides is
always lesser than the third side.

• Side opposite to the biggest angle is longest and the side opposite to the smallest angle
is the shortest.

Area of a triangle:

Area of a triangle can be calculated in different ways as mentioned below:

1
• = x Base x Height
2

1
• = x Product of sides x Sine of included angle
2

(a+b+c)
• = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) here s is the semi perimeter [s = ]
2

• = r x s [r is the inradius of incircle]

𝑎𝑏𝑐
• = [R is radius of circumcircle]
4𝑅

A Median of a triangle is a line segment joining a vertex to the midpoint of the opposing side.

64
 • The three medians intersect in a single point, called the Centroid of the triangle. Centroid
divides the median in the ratio of 2:1

An Altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to the opposite
side or an extension of the opposite side.

• The three altitudes intersect in a single point, called the Orthocenter of the triangle.

A Perpendicular Bisector is a line that forms a right angle with one of the triangle's sides and
intersects that side at its midpoint.

• The three perpendicular bisectors intersect in a single point, called the Circumcenter of
the triangle. It is the center of the circumcircle which passes through all the vertices of the
triangle.

An Angle Bisector is a line that divides the angle at one of the vertices in two equal parts.

• The three angle bisectors intersect in a single point, called the Incenter of the triangle. It
is the center of the incircle which touches all sides of a triangle.

REMEMBER THIS: Centroid and Incenter will always lie inside the triangle.

• For an acute angled triangle, the Circumcenter and the Orthocenter will lie inside the
triangle.

• For an obtuse angled triangle, the Circumcenter and the Orthocenter will lie outside the
triangle.

• For a right-angled triangle, the Circumcenter will lie at the midpoint of the hypotenuse
and the Orthocenter will lie at the vertex at which the angle is 90°.

The orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter always lie on the same line known as Euler Line.

• The orthocenter is twice as far from the centroid as the circumcenter is.

• If the triangle is Isosceles, then the incenter lies on the same line.

• If the triangle is equilateral, all four are the same point.

65
Theorems:

Mid-Point Theorem: The line joining the midpoint of any two sides is parallel to the third side
and is half the length of the third side.

𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
Basic Proportionality Theorem: If DE || BC, then =
𝐷𝐵 𝐸𝐶

Apollonius’ Theorem: 𝐴𝐵 2 + 𝐴𝐶 2 = 2(𝐴𝐷2 + 𝐵𝐷2 )

66
 𝐴𝐸 𝐵𝐴
Interior Angle Bisector Theorem: =
𝐸𝐷 𝐵𝐷

Special Triangles

Right Angled Triangle:

𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≈ 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐷 ≈ 𝛥𝐵𝐷𝐶

= AD*DC and AB*BC = BD*AC

67
Equilateral Triangle:

All angles are equal to 60°. All sides are equal also.

√3
• Height = × 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
2

√3
• Area = × 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 2
4

1
• Inradius = x Height
3

2
• Circumradius = x Height.
3

Isosceles Triangle:

Angles equal to opposite sides are equal.

𝑐
• Area = √4𝑎2 − 𝑐 2
4

68
30°- 60°- 90° Triangle

√3
• Area = × 𝑥2
2

45°- 45°- 90° Triangle

𝑥2
• Area =
2

30°- 30°- 120° Triangle

√3
• Area = × 𝑥2
4

69
Similarity of Triangles

Two triangles are similar if their corresponding angles are congruent and corresponding sides
are in proportion.

Tests of similarity: (AA / SSS / SAS) Congruency

For similar triangles, if the sides are in the ratio of a:b, then,

• Corresponding heights are in the ratio of a:b

• Corresponding medians are in the ratio of a:b

• Circumradii are in the ratio of a:b

• Inradii are in the ratio of a:b

• Perimeters are in the ratio of a:b

• Areas are in the ratio a2:b2

Congruency of Triangles

Two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides and angles are congruent.

70
Polygons

• Sum of interior angles = (n - 2) x 180° = (2n - 4) x 90°

• Sum of exterior angles = 360°

𝑛(𝑛−3)
• Number of diagonals = 𝑛 𝐶 𝑟 − 𝑛 =
2

• Number of triangles which can be formed by the vertices = 𝑛 𝐶 3

Regular Polygon:

If all sides and all angles are equal, it is a regular polygon.

• All regular polygons can be inscribed in or circumscribed about a circle.

• Area = ½ x Perimeter x Inradius {Inradius is the perpendicular from center to any side}

(𝑛−2)180𝑜 3600
• Each Interior Angle of a Polygon = ; Exterior =
𝑛 𝑛

Quadrilaterals:

Sum of the interior angles = Sum of the exterior angles = 360°

𝟏
Area for a quadrilateral is given by x d1 x d2 x Sin𝜽.
𝟐

71
Cyclic Quadrilateral

If all vertices of a quadrilateral lie on the circumference of a circle, it is known as a cyclic

quadrilateral.

Opposite angles are supplementary

𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑
• Area = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)(𝑠 − 𝑑) where s is the semi perimeter s = 2

Parallelogram

• Opposite sides are parallel and congruent.

• Opposite angles are congruent and consecutive angles are supplementary.

72
REMEMBER THIS: A parallelogram inscribed in a circle is always a Rectangle. A parallelogram
circumscribed about a circle is always a Rhombus.

• Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

• Perimeter = 2(Sum of adjacent sides);

• Area = Base x Height = AD x BE.

• Each diagonal divides a parallelogram in two triangles of equal area.

• Sum of squares of diagonals = Sum of squares of four sides

• 𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐵𝐷 2 = 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 + 𝐶𝐷 2 + 𝐷𝐴2

Rhombus

A parallelogram with all sides equal is a Rhombus. Its diagonals bisect at 90°.

1 𝑑 2
Perimeter = 4a; Area = x d1 x d2; Area = d × √𝑎2 − ( 2 )
2

73
Rectangle
A parallelogram with all angles equal (90°) is a Rectangle. Its diagonals are congruent.

• Perimeter = 2(𝑙 + 𝑏);

• Area = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑏

Square

A parallelogram with sides equal and all angles equal is a square. Its diagonals are congruent
and bisect at 90°.
Perimeter = 4𝑎; Area = 𝑎2 ; Diagonals = 𝑎√2

REMEMBER THIS: From all quadrilaterals with a given area, the square has the least
perimeter. For all quadrilaterals with a given perimeter, the square has the greatest area.

Kite

Two pairs of adjacent sides are congruent.

The longer diagonal bisects the shorter diagonal at 90°.

Product of Diagonals
Area =
2

74
Trapezium / Trapezoid

A quadrilateral with exactly one pair of sides parallel is known as a Trapezoid. The parallel sides
are known as bases and the non-parallel sides are known as lateral
sides.

1
Area = x (Sum of parallel sides) x Height
2

Median, the line joining the midpoints of lateral sides, is half the sum of parallel sides.

REMEMBER THIS: Sum of the squares of the length of the diagonals = Sum of squares of
lateral sides + 2 Product of bases.
⇒ 𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐵𝐷2 = 𝐴𝐷2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 + 2 × 𝐴𝐵 × 𝐶𝐷

Isosceles Trapezium

The non-parallel sides (lateral sides) are equal in length. Angles made by each parallel side with
the lateral sides are equal.

REMEMBER THIS: If a trapezium is inscribed in a circle, it has to be an isosceles trapezium. If

a circle can be inscribed in a trapezium, Sum of parallel sides = Sum of lateral sides.

75
Hexagon (Regular)

• Perimeter = 6a;

3√3
• Area = × 𝑎2
2

• Sum of Interior angles = 720°

• Each Interior Angle = 120°. Exterior = 60°

• Number of diagonals = 9 {3 big and 6 small}

• Length of big diagonals (3) = 2a

• Length of small diagonals (6) = √3𝑎

• Area of a Pentagon = 1.72 a2

• Area of an Octagon = 2(√2 + 1)𝑎2

REMEMBER THIS: A regular hexagon can be considered as a combination of six equilateral

triangles. All regular polygons can be considered as a combination of ‘n’ isosceles triangles.

76
Circles

Diameter = 2r; Circumference = 2𝜋𝑟; Area = 𝜋𝑟 2

Chords equidistant from the center of a circle are equal. A line from the center, perpendicular to
a chord, bisects the chord.

Equal chords subtend equal angles at the center. The diameter is the longest chord of a circle.

A chord /arc subtends equal angle at any point on the circumference and double of that at the
center.

Chords / Arcs of equal lengths subtend equal angles.

77
Chord AB divides the circle into two parts: Minor Arc AXB and Major Arc AYB

Measure of arc AXB = ∠AOB = 𝜃

𝜃
Length (arc AXB) = 360𝑜 × 2𝜋𝑟

𝜃
Area (sector OAXB) = 360𝑜 × 𝜋𝑟 2

Area of Minor Segment = Shaded Area in above figure

→ Area of Sector OAXB - Area of 𝛥OAB

𝜋𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
→ 𝑟 2 [360𝑜 − ]
2

Properties of Tangents, Secants and Chords

The radius and tangent are perpendicular to each other.

There can only be two tangents from an external point, which are equal in length
PA = PB

78
 1
PA x PB = PC x PD = 2 [ m(Arc AC) – m(Arc BD) ]

PA x PB = PC x PD

1
𝜃 = 2 [ m(Arc AC) + m(Arc BD) ]

PA x PB = PC2

1
𝜃 = 2 [ m(Arc AC) - m(Arc BC) ]

79
Alternate Segment Theorem

The angle made by the chord AB with the tangent at A (PQ) is equal to the angle that it
subtends on the opposite side of the circumference.
→ ∠BAQ = ∠ ACB

Common Tangents

80
Length of the Direct Common Tangent (DCT)

→ AD = BC =√𝑑 2 − (𝑟1 − 𝑟2)2

Length of the Transverse Common Tangent (TCT)

→ RT = SU = √𝑑2 − (𝑟1 − 𝑟2)2

REMEMBER THIS: The two centers (O and O’), point of intersection of DCTs (P) and point of
intersection of TCTs (Q) are collinear. Q divides OO’ in the ratio r1:r2 internally whereas P
divides OO’ in the ratio r1:r2 externally.

Solid Figures

81
REMEMBER THIS: There are 4 body diagonals in a cube / cuboid of length(√3 ×
𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √𝑙 2 + 𝑏 2 + ℎ2 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦

Frustum / Truncated Cone

It can be obtained by cutting a cone with a plane parallel to the circular base.

1
• Volume = 3 𝜋ℎ(𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑅𝑟)

• Lateral Surface Area = 𝜋(R+r) L

• Total Surface Area = 𝜋(R+r) L + 𝜋(𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 ), where L is the slant height of the frustum of
the cone and is given by L = √(𝑅 − 𝑟)2 + ℎ2

Prism

It is a solid figure with rectangular vertical faces and bases as congruent polygons (of n sides).

82
 • It will have ‘2n’ Vertices; ‘n+2’ Faces and ‘3n’ Sides / Edges.

• Lateral Surface Area = Perimeter x Height

• Total Surface Area = Perimeter x Height + 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒

• Volume = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 x Height

Pyramid

It is a figure in which the outer surfaces are triangular and converge at a point known as the
apex (A), which is aligned directly above the center of the base.

1
• Lateral Surface Area = x Perimeter x Slant Height
2
1
• Total Surface Area = x Perimeter x Slant Height + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
2
1
• Volume = x 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 x Height
3

REMEMBER THIS:
a
• If a sphere is inscribed in a cube of side a, the radius of the sphere will be . If a sphere is
2
√3𝑎
circumscribed about a cube of side a, the radius of the sphere will be .
2
• If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cylinder of radius ‘a’ and height h, its radius r
will be
h
→r= {If 2a > h}
2
83
 → r = a {If 2a < h}

• If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cone of radius r and slant height equal to 2r,
𝑟
then the radius of sphere = .
√3

2
• If a cube is inscribed in a hemisphere of radius r, then the edge of the cube = r × √3

84
 Permutation and Combination
When two tasks are performed in succession, i.e., they are connected by an 'AND', to find the
total number of ways of performing the two tasks, you must MULTIPLY the individual number of
ways. When only one of the two tasks are performed, i.e. the tasks are connected by an 'OR', to
find the total number of ways of performing the two tasks you must ADD the individual number
of ways.

Eg: In a shop there are ‘d’ doors and ‘w’ windows.

Case1: If a thief wants to enter via a door or window, he can do it in → (d+w) ways.

Case2: If a thief enters via a door and leaves via a window, he can do it in → (d x w) ways.

Linear arrangement of ‘r’ out of ‘n’ distinct item (nPr):

The first item in the line can be selected in 'n' ways AND the second in (n — 1) ways AND the
third in (n — 2) ways AND so on. So, the total number of ways of arranging 'r' items out of 'n' is

𝑛!
(𝑛)(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … . (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1) =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!

Circular arrangement of 'n' distinct items:

Fix the first item and then arrange all the other items linearly with respect to the first item. This
can be done in (n — 1)! ways.

(𝑛−1)!
REMEMBER THIS: In a necklace, it can be done in 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠.
2

Selection of r items out of ‘n’ distinct items (nCr): Arrange of r items out of n = select r items out
of n and then arrange those r items on r linear positions.

𝑛
𝑛𝑟 𝑝 𝑛!
𝑃𝑟 =𝑛 𝐶𝑟 × 𝑟! →𝑛 𝐶𝑟 = =
𝑟! 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!

85
Derangement: If 'n' things are arranged in a row, the number of ways in which they can, be
deranged so that none of them occupies its original place is

1 1 1 (−1)𝑛
𝑛! ( − + − ⋯ + )
0! 1! 2! 𝑛!

REMEMBER THIS: Number of ways of arranging 'n' items out of which `p' are alike, 'q' are alike,
𝑛!
'r' are alike in a line is given by =
𝑝!𝑞!𝑟!

Partitioning

𝒏+𝒓−𝟏
No Restrictions 𝑪𝒓−𝟏
‘n’ similar items in ‘r’ distinct
groups 𝒏−𝟏
No Group Empty 𝑪𝒓−𝟏

No Restrictions 𝒓𝒏
‘n’ distinct items in ‘r’ similar
groups Arrangement in a group is (𝒏 + 𝒓 − 𝟏)!
important (𝒓 − 𝟏)!

‘n’ distinct items in ‘r’

List the cases and find out the number of ways
distinct groups

‘n’ similar items in ‘r’ similar

List the cases and find out the number of ways
groups

Q. In how many ways can 4 boys & 5 girls be seated in a row such that no two boys sit
together?

Solution:

_G_G_G_G_G _

5 girls in 5! Ways and 4 boys in => 6P4 [selection not arrangement]

→ 6P4 x 5! = 43200

For more such Questions and shortcuts, Join our Online CAT Coaching Course

86
 Binomial Theorem
For some basic values:

• (a + b)0 = 1

• (a + b)1 = a + b

• (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

• (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

• (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

• (a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 +10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5

Theorem:
𝑛
𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ∑ ( ) 𝑎𝑘 𝑏 𝑛−𝑘
𝑘
𝑘=0

REMEMBER THIS:

1. There is one more term than the power of the exponent, n. That is, there are terms in the
expansion of (a + b)n.

2. In each term, the sum of the exponents is n, the power to which the binomial is raised.

3. The exponents of a start with n, the power of the binomial, and decrease to 0. The last
term has no factor of a. The first term has no factor of b, so powers of b start with 0 and
increase to n.

4. The coefficients start at 1 and increase through certain values about “half”-way and then
decrease through these same values back to 1.

5. To find the remainder when (x + y)n is divided by x, find the remainder when yn is
divided by x.

6. (1+x)n ≅ 1 + nx, when x<<1

87
 Probability
Experiment: Phenomenon where outcomes are un-certain. Single throw of a six-sided die is an
experiment.

Sample space: Set of all outcomes of the experiment. {1,2, 3,4, 5, 6} are the total outcomes of
rolling a six faced dice.

Event: A collection of outcomes; a subset of S. e.g: An event of occurrence of even number is

{2,4,6}.

Equally likely Events: If each outcome of an experiment has equal chance of occurrence then
we say, the outcomes are equally likely. Getting heads or tail are equally likely.

Exhaustive Events: A set of events is jointly or collectively exhaustive if at least one of the
events must occur. For example, when rolling a six-sided die, the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6
are collectively exhaustive, because they encompass the entire range of possible outcomes.

Another way to describe collectively exhaustive events, is that their union must cover all the
events within the entire sample space. For example, events A and B are said to be collectively
exhaustive if (A U B=S)

Probability: The ratio between the favorable outcomes to the total possible outcomes of an
experiment.

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

𝑃(𝐴) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

For Complimentary Events: P(A) + P(A’) = 1

For Exhaustive Events: P(A) + P(B) +P(C)… = 1

Addition Rule:
P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)

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 • For Mutually Exclusive Events P(A ∩ B) = 0
→ P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B)

𝐵 𝐴
• Multiplication Rule: P(A ∩ B) = P(A) P( )= P(B) P( )
𝐴 𝐵

𝐴 𝐵
• For Independent Events P( ) = P(B) and P( ) = P(B)
𝐵 𝐴
→ P (A ∩B) = P(A).P(B)

• P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A).P(B)

REMEMBER THIS: If the probability of an event occurring is p, then the probability of that event

occurring ‘r’ times in ‘n’ trials = 𝑛𝐶𝑟 × 𝑝𝑟 × (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑟

Odds
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑜𝑑𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑜𝑑𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

Conditional Probability

Conditional probability is used in case of events which are not independent. In the discussion of
probabilities all events can be classified into 2 categories: Dependent and Independent.

Independent events are those where the happening of one event does not affect the happening
of the other. For example, if an unbiased coin is thrown ‘n’ times then the probability of head
1
turning up in any of the attempts will be . It will not be dependent on the results of the previous
2
outcomes.

Dependent events, on the other hand, are the events in which the outcome of the second event
is dependent on the outcome of the first event.

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For example, if you have to draw two cards from a deck one after the other, then the probability
of second card being of a particular suit will depend on the which card was drawn in the first
attempt.

Conditional Probability

Let ‘A’ and ‘B’ be two events which are not independent then the probability of occurrence of B
given that A has already occurred is given by

P(A ⋂ B)
P(A|B) =
P(B)

Here, P(A ⋂ B) is nothing but the probability of occurrence of both A and B. We often use
Bayes theorem to solve problems on conditional probability.

Bayes theorem

P(B|A) ∗ P(A)
P(A|B) =
P(B)

Here, P(B|A) is the probability of occurrence of B given that A has already occurred. P(B) is the
probability of occurrence of B & P(A) is the probability of occurrence of A.

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