DEVELOPMENTAL ASSIGNEMNT

Samrat Deb

Roll no. 1959

Msc Psychology 2019-20.

AIBAS

Submitted to: Dr. Purnima Thacker

Ethological, Theories of development:

Ethology is the study of animal and human behavior within an evolutionary context. The person
most identified with modern evolutionary theory is Darwin.

Human Ethology which is also human zoological science is a sub discipline of biology that studies
the biological bases of behaviour. The field is also referred to as comparative psychology (animal
psychology). Ethological theory attracts upon Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Human
ethologists conjointly incorporated ideas from psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud into their
analyses. Today, evolutionary psychologists uses traditional evolutionary theory as a guide for
understanding human behaviour patterns.

Ethological theory mainly it occurs in the environments in which a species has to adapt throughout
the course of its evolutionary history focuses on human and animal behaviour because it happens
in natural environments. Ethological theory employs representational observation and typically
uses natural experiments. Ethologists like experiments in natural settings which are conducted in
laboratories.

Key Concepts related to Ethology includes:-

 Fixed action patterns (natural, promote genetic composition - nut-opening in squirrels, nest
building in birds, human crying and smiling),
 Sign stimuli (releasers or triggers for mounted action patterns),
 The notion of learning (critical periods in development), and attachments.
 Ethology is a study of behavior based on two major principles, Behavior changes to attain
survival (sometimes said to be as an adaptive trait), behavioral traits area unit inheritable.

Darwin and the theory of evolution :-

 Introduction:

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was born into a distinguished English family. His grandfather,
Erasmus Darwin, was a renowned physician, poet, and philosopher. His father was also a
prominent physician. Young Darwin in contrast seemed headed for no greater heights.
Darwin studied medicine for a while and then began studying for the Anglican clergy at
Cambridge, but he was generally bored and his grades were also uneven. Still he made an
impression on some of his professors at Cambridge, especially those who shared his interests in
nature and wildlife. As Darwin examined fossils and variations among living species, he concluded
that the various species had a common ancestor and that newer species either had died out or had
changed to meet the requirements for their change in environments.

Darwin wanted to make sure the evidence supported his theory and didn’t publish it until 20 years
later after he first formulated it. In fact he only published it because he learned Alfred Wallace was
going to publish a similar theory. A year later, Darwin published his great work, “The Origin of
Species”. Darwin continued developing his theory for the rest of his life and despite the bitter
reactions it produced, he became widely recognized for his monumental achievements. When
Darwin dies, he was buried in Westminster Abbey, next to Isaac Newton.

 The Theory of Natural Selection

Darwin was not the first to propose a theory of evolution. In Darwin’s day, biologists had been
debating the views of Lamarck, who proposed that evolution occurred through the inheritance of
acquired characteristics.

In Darwin-Wallace theory, no new characteristics need be acquired during an individuals lifetime.

In essence Darwin’s theory is as follows; Among the members of a species, there is endless
variation, and among the various members only a fraction of those who are born, survive to
reproduce. Thus there is a “ struggle for existence” during which the fittest members of a species
live long enough to transmit their characteristics to the next generation. Over countless
generations, then, Nature “selects” those who can best adapt to their surroundings- hence the term
“natural selection” (Darwin, 1859, Chs 3 & 4).

Darwin asked us to consider the situation of wolves (1859, p.70). During seasons when prey is
scarce, the swiftest and strongest wolves have the best chance of survival. They are therefore more
likely that others to live long enough to reproduce and pass on their traits- today we should say
their genes- to the next generation. After many such seasons, the traits of speed and strength will
become increasingly prevalent in the population of the species. Evolution usually seems to occur
extremely slowly, revealing noticeable changes only after numerous generations. Consequently,
we do not usually get a chance to see evolution at work in any simple way. However biologists did
have such an opportunity in England in the mid- 1800s. Where the moths blended well with the
white trees making them harder to be preyed upon and the black moths were an easy target but
during the industrialization the black smoke from the factories contoured the atmosphere and the
reversed the adaptability where the black moths had better chances of survival and the white moths
didn’t.

Social Behaviour and reason:

Darwin’s terms “struggle for existence” and “survival of the fittest” conjure up images of the
individuals in violent combat. In one sense, such images directly reflect Darwin’s views; for males
of different species do compete for the females. Such competition ensure that the strongest male
will transmit their characteristics to the next generation. Darwin also wrote extensively on the
importance of social instincts for group survival. The animals that evolved danger signals and
aided their fellow members must have had better chances for survival than those who did not.
Similarly, those groups of early humans who banded together, cooperated and looked out for the
common good probably had a better, chance of surviving (Darwin, 1871, pp. 483, 500).

In humans, in addition a crucial factor was the development of reason. Since humans are physically
weaker and slower than many species, they relied on their intelligence and inventions to survive
( Darwin 1871, p.444 ).

 Evolution and Embryology

Darwin (1859, p.345) said that embryological findings fit well with the theory of evolution. In
particular, he noted that the embryos of most species are highly similar in their early forms,
perhaps revealing their descent form a common ancestor. The strongest argument of this kind was
made by Haeckel, who in the late 1860s proposed that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. That is,
the development of an individual organism (ontogeny) repeats in an abbreviated was the
evolutionary history of its species (phylogeny). The recapitulation argument has always seemed
somewhat fanciful but biologists still consider it a fair working model. For example, before
mammalian embryos take on their distinctive shapes, they resemble the young embryos of fish,
amphibians, reptiles and birds- in that order, the same order in which the species appeared on the
earth, as judged by fossil evidence (Waddington, 1962, p.99, Balinsky, 1981 pp,8 -10).
 Evaluation

Today Darwin is generally considered correct but incomplete. He was right in pointing out that
there is enormous variation within species and that species change because only some members
survive long enough to reproduce. However, it was only after the work of Mendel and the others
that we began to understand how genetic combinations and mutations produce variations and how
traits are transmitted. Thus, the science of genetics is helping to round out Darwin’s theory.

Darwin believed, as we have seen, that natural selection applies not only to physical characteristics
(such as colouring) but also to various kinds of behavior. Thus, Darwin was the first ethologist –
the name given to biologists who study animal behavior from an evolutionary perspective. We will
now review some of the ideas of modern ethologists and then look at the applications of these ideas
to the study of human development.

ATTACHMENT THEORY

Attachment could be a profound and lasting emotional bond that binds one person to another over
time and at home. It doesn’t need to be reciprocal. One person might have an attachment to a
personal that isn’t shared. Specific behaviors in children is categorized by the attachment, such as
seeking proximity to the attachment figure once upset or threatened (Bowlby, 1969). Responding
sensitively and appropriately to the child’s needs is included in attachment behavior in adults
towards their child. Such behavior seems universally across cultures. Attachment theory explains
however the parent-child relationship emerges and influences sequent development.

In psychology attachment theory developed with the influential work of John Bowlby (1958). In
the 1930’s in a Child Guidance Clinic in London John Bowlby worked as a psychiatrist where he
diagnosed many emotionally disturbed children. Due to this Bowlby experienced to consider the
importance of the child’s relationship with their mother in terms of their cognitive, social and
emotional development. Specifically, Bowlby formulated his attachment theory as it shaped his
belief about the relation between early infant separations with the mother and later maladjustment.

John Bowlby while working along with James Robertson (1952) observed that child experienced
intense distress when separated from his or her mother. This did not diminish the child’s anxiety
even when such children were fed by other caregivers. The dominant behavioral theory of
attachment were contradicted by these findings (Dollard and Miller, 1950) which was shown to
underestimate the child’s bond with their mother. The attachment due to behavioral theory stated
that the child becomes attached to the mother because she fed him as the infant.

Bowlby defined attachment by stating that it is the lasting psychological connectedness between
human beings. Bowlby (1958) proposed that attachment can be learned with the help of
evolutionary context in which the caregiver provides safety and security for the child. Attachment
is enhances the infant’s chance of survival therefore it is said to be adaptive in nature. This was
reflected in the workings of Lorenz (1935) and Harlow (1958). According to Bowlby when infants
are under stress or when they are threatened they have a universal need to seek close proximity
with their caregiver.

Most practitioner believe that attachment developed through the series of stages.

In 1964, Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson studied 60 babies at monthly intervals for the first
18 months of life which is also known as a longitudinal study. A regular pattern was identified in
the development of attachment, and this children were all observed in their own home. The infants
were visited monthly for around a year, their interactions with their caregivers were observed, and
they were interviewed. A diary was asked to keep by the mothers to check the evidence for the
development of attachment. Three measures were recorded as following:-

 Stranger Anxiety – Stranger anxiety occurred at arrival of a stranger.

 Separation Anxiety – Separation anxiety triggered when separated from their caregiver, the
degree of comfort needed on return.
 Social Referencing – Social referencing is when child looks at their caregiver to check how
they should respond to something new things (secure base).

Baby’s attachment development was discovered by following sequence. They are as follows:-

 Asocial (0 - 6 weeks)

Very young infants are asocial in several sort of stimuli, each social and non-social, produce a
better reaction, such as a smile.

 Indiscriminate Attachments (6 weeks to 7 months)

Most babies respond equally to any caregiver and they even enjoy human company non-
selectively. They get sad when an individual ignores to interact with them.

From 3 months infants easily get comfortable by a regular caregiver and smiles at familiar faces.

 Specific Attachment (7 - 9 months)

The baby seeks to particular individuals for security, comfort, and protection. It shows fear of
strangers (stranger fear) and unhappiness when separated from a special person (separation
anxiety) usually to the people they are attached to.

Some babies show stranger fear and separation anxiety oftentimes and intensely than others,
nonetheless, they’re seen as proof that the infants has formed an attachment. This has typically
developed by one year after birth.

 Multiple Attachment (10 months and onwards)

When the infants grows they become independent and forms several styles attachments. By 2 years
of age the most of infants have formed multiple attachments.

The results of the study indicated that attachments were not with the person who spend more time
with the baby but most likely to form with those who responded accurately to the baby's signals.
Intensely attached infants had mothers who interacted with their child and responded quickly to
their demands. Infants failed to interact with their mothers who were weakly attached to each other.

Modern Ethology: Lorenz and Tinbergen

 Biographical Introduction
Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) is often called the father of modern ethology. He did not
necessarily make more discoveries than other ethologists, but his bold, vivid and often
humorous writing style did much to call attention to his new field. Niko Tinbergen (1907-
1988) worked quietly in Lorenz’s shadow. Despite this, ethologists consider his work equally
substantial. His research was interrupted during World War II when the Germans put him in
prison camp for protesting the dismissal of Jewish professors at the university. After the war
he became a professor at Oxford. In 1973, Tinbergen and Lorenz along with a third eminent
ethologist, Karl Von Frisch , won the Nobel prize in physiology and medicine (Baerends et al.,
1975).
 Methodological approach

Ethologists are convinced that we can understand an animals behaviour only if we study in its
natural surroundings. Only in this way we can watch an animal’s behaviour pattern unfold and see
how they serve in the adaptation of the species. We cannot, for example, understand why birds
build nests where they do unless we see how such behaviour protects the species from predators
in the natural environment. Psychologists who only study animals in their laboratories miss out on
a great deal. In such captive situations, many species do not even reproduce and one frequently
has no opportunity to observe their nesting, mating, territorial or parental behavior.

When an ethologist studies a new species, his or her first step is simply to get to know the species
as well as possible. That is, the ethologist engages in naturalistic observation; the ethologist
observes an animal’s characteristic behavior and then compares the behavior with that of other
species. Only after ethologists have gathered a great deal of descriptive material do they attempt
experiments to test their ideas or try to formulate general laws.

 Instinctive Behaviour

Ethologists are interested in instincts. In everyday language, we casually refer to any unlearned
behavior an “instinctive” or as an “instinct” but ethologists consider instincts as a special class of
unlearned behavior. An instinct, in the first place, is released by a specific external stimulus. This
is the case, for example, in rescuing behavior of the chicken. The hen appears to respond every
time her chick is in danger, but a closer examination reveals that she is reacting to a very specific
stimulus that chick’s distress call. This point has been demonstrated in an experiment by Bruckner
(Tinbergen, 1951).

 Imprinting

In many instances an animal’s responsiveness to specific releasers in innate or inborn. In many

other instances, however, the animal is born with a gap in its knowledge. It is innately equipped
with all the behavior patterns of an instinct, but it lacks some information about the releasing
stimulus. This information is filled in during an early critical period in a process called imprinting.

For example, many species of young birds and mammals are born without a knowledge of the
stimulus that will release their following instinct. They might seem innately disposed to follow
their mother, but they actually follow her because she was the first object they saw and followed
during a specific time in infancy. When Greylag goslings were raised by Lorenz instead of by their
own mothers, they took him for their “mother”. They energetically followed him about in single
file wherever he went, ignoring other geese. They had imprinted on him ( Lorenz, 1935, p.124 ).

 Evaluation

Ethology has given us a number of new, interesting concepts and also new ways of looking at a
behavior. At the same time, it has drawn heavy fire from many psychologists, particularly from
American Psychologists who have criticized it for ignoring the role of learning and experience
( Riess, 1954; Schneirla, 1960). Such attacks, however, seem largely misdirected. For ethologists
do not, as it is often supposed, claim that behavior is entirely innate and that learning and
experience count for nothing. Imprinting, after all, is a kind of learning. It is a process by which
the stimulus properties of social releasers become filled in through experience. Imprinting is not,
to be sure, that kind of learning that Locke, Pavlov or Skinner talk about. It is a remarkably
permanent learning that occurs only during a maturationally determined critical period. Still it is a
kind of learning.

Criticisms about the Ethological Theory

 They need for more evidences

Questions concerning evidences about specific behaviours that ensures survival among species
and therefore the generalizations from behavioral patterns of humans likened to animal species
arose.

We have learned the answers to those queries. Some behaviors are just universal and usually vary
reckoning on the social context. Additionally, the increase of the construct of “social context” has
additionally brought things into completely different things.

 Theory of Ethology does not take development in consideration

True enough, the idea doesn't contemplate that life happens in numerous stages. As a result, no
massive changes of qualitative development area unit given attention to. Instead, the idea focuses
solely on the quantitative development.
 Critical period fails to explain everything

While the identification of the important amount is very important in infant development, it
presents some limitations. One among these limitations includes the shortage of rationalization on
why some humans become additional careful to a number of their experiences in their life.