Lime piles, which essentially consist of holes in the ground filled with lime,

have been used for two distinct purposes for the treatment of clay soils in situ.
The first concerns the treatment of soft soils to improve their bearing capacity
and in this case uses relatively large diameter quicklime piles at close
spacings. The result is a significant reduction in the water content of the soil,
causing densification and concomitant increases in its strength and stiffness.
The second application is in the stabilisation of failing slopes, for which both
quicklime and lime slurry piles have been used with the intention of causing
ion migration and subsequent lime–clay reactions in the surrounding soil.

Lime columns method is a variation of deep soil mixing, in which unslaked quicklime is used instead
of cement or mixed with cement. The lime columns are suitable at best for stabilization of deep soft
clay deposits. A pozzolanic reaction takes place between the lime and the clay minerals resulting in
substantial increase in the strength and reduction in the plasticity of the native material.
 The heat generated by hydration of the quicklime also reduces the water content of the clayey soils,
resulting in accelerated consolidation and strength gain. Lime columns can be used for load
support, stabilization of natural and cut slopes, and as an excavation support system.

Soft clays and silts can be stabilized by addition and in situ mixing of quick lime, cement or a
combination of both. The in-situ mixing produces a significant ground improvement in soil shear
strength by a number of positive effects including:

 Heat of the exothermic reaction of lime and/or cement with soil water reduces soil moisture content
thus increasing strength.
 Clay chemistry ion exchange from sodium to calcium causes particles to aggregate increasing
permeability.
 Cementitious effect of calcium in lime.

Q) Lime stabilization
Ans; - Principle of Lime-Soil Stabilization
The principle involved in lime-soil stabilization is the exchange of ions
between lime and soil when added. When clayey soil is treated with
lime, Cation exchange takes place between them which increases
plastic limit and reduces plasticity index which finally results in increase
in stability of soil. If clay contains gravel in it, then lime acts as binding
material for clayey gravel.

Lime-Soil stabilized mix are useful to construct sub-base and base

course for pavement. Lime treated soil is more suitable for warm
regions where temperature is very high and for colder regions it is not
suitable.

lime soil stabilization is suitable for soils like clay, silty clay, clayey
gravel etc. and is not suitable for granular soil or sandy soil.

Factors Affecting Lime-Soil Stabilization

 Factors affecting lime-soil stabilization are as follows:

1. Soil Type
2. Lime Type
3. Lime Content
4. Compaction
5. Curing
6. Additives
1. Soil Type
o The type of soil used in stabilization should be of reactive type soil.
Which means the soil should react with lime content when added.
o To reacts with lime, the soil should contain pozzolan content in good
amount.
o When lime is added to pozzolanic soil in presence of water, calcium
hydroxide from lime reacts with siliceous and aluminous materials of
soil and form a mix with cementitious properties. This reaction is called
pozzolanic reaction.
o This reaction will increase the strength of lime-soil mix and strength
gain is gradually increased with age since pozzolanic reaction continues
for very longer periods.
2. Lime Type
o Quicklime (CaO) is more effective than hydraulic lime (Ca(OH)2) but
however, there is only slight difference in the final results.
o If Quick lime is using, care should be taken by workmen otherwise skin
burns etc. may occur.
o So, in most of the cases hydraulic lime is used either in dry powder
form or by mixing water.
 3. Lime Content
o When lime content is added to soil in presence of water, plastic limit
increases thereby plasticity index decreases.
o When lime content is added further, after certain point the plastic limit
starts decreasing. This point is termed as lime fixation point.
o To obtain desirable stability, plasticity index should be very low or zero
which means make the clay or soil as non-plastic material.
o Adding proper quantity of lime also increases shrinkage limit.
o Swelling can also be minimized by increasing lime content in the soil.

4. Compaction
o To obtain greater strength of lime-soil mix, density of mix should be
greater.
o Lime-Soil mix should be compacted at optimum moisture content
(OMC), at which soil gets maximum compacted density.
5. Curing
o Curing is also an important factor in achieving good stabilized lime-soil
mix.
o Proper curing must be provided for the mix especially during initial
stages where rate of strength gain is rapid.
o But this strength gain is dependent of temperature of that area, for low
temperature regions rate of strength gain is very less. For freezing
zones it is almost zero.
o Humidity also effects curing and rate of strength gain of lime-soil mix.
6. Additives
o Additives are the materials which are added to improve lime-soil mix to
improve its strength.
o Some additives generally used are Portland cement, fly ash, surkhi etc.
o If fly ash is available as a waste product, then it is most recommended
additive since it gives desirable strength at economical rates.
o Chemical additives like sodium metasilicate, sodium sulphate, sodium
hydroxide etc. are also available.

Q) Lime fixation point?

o Ans; - When lime content is added to soil in presence of water, plastic
limit increases thereby plasticity index decreases.
o When lime content is added further, after certain point the plastic limit
starts decreasing. This point is termed as lime fixation point.

WHAT THEY ARE:

Micropiles are high-performance, high-capacity drilled deep

foundation elements typically between 5–12 inches in
diameter that can extend to depths of 200 feet and achieve
working loads of over 200 tons. Micropiles are comprised of
high-strength steel casing, rebar and grout.

Or
Micropile is a small diameter, typically less than 300mm, drilled and
grouted non-displacement pile which is heavily reinforced and carries
most of its loading on the high capacity steel reinforcement. The four
methods of grouting micropiles are:

 Grout placed under gravity conditions

 Pressure grouting through the casing
 Post grouting using single or multiple stages
 Grouting during drilling using high capacity steel threaded hollow-
bar members

HOW THEY WORK:

Micropiles transfer the structural load through unsuitable soil

layers to competent foundation soils. The loads are
transferred from the foundation through the steel and grout of
the micropile and shed to surrounding rock or soil via high
values of friction.

WHY YOU NEED THEM:

Micropiles are generally used when there are difficult ground

conditions, such as natural or man-made obstructions,
sensitive ground with adjacent structures, limited access/low
headroom and/or karstic geology. They are commonly used to
replace deteriorating foundation systems, for the renovation
of structures, to support structures affected by adjacent
construction, for seismic retrofitting or in-situ reinforcement
including embankment, slope and landslide stabilization.

Functions of Geosynthetics
Separation: The geosynthetic, placed between two dissimilar materials,
maintains the integrity and functionality of the two materials. It may also involve
providing long-term stress relief. Key design properties to perform this function
include those used to characterize the survivability of the geosynthetic during
installation. For example, geotextiles are used to prevent road base materials
from penetrating into soft underlying soft subgrade soils, thus maintaining design
thickness and roadway integrity. Separators also help to prevent fine-grained
subgrade soils from being pumped into permeable granular road bases.
geotextiles, geofoam, Geocells,

Filtration: The geosynthetic allows liquid flow across its plane, while retaining
fine particles on its upstream side. Key design properties to fulfill this function
include the geosynthetic permittivity (cross-plane hydraulic conductivity per unit
thickness) and measures of the geosynthetic pore-size distribution (e.g. apparent
opening size).
The geosynthetic acts similar to a sand filter by allowing water to move through
the soil while retaining all upstream soil particles. For example, geotextiles are
used to prevent soils from migrating into drainage aggregate or pipes while
maintaining flow through the system. Geotextiles are also used below rip rap and
other armour materials in coastal and river bank protection systems to prevent
soil erosion.
Geotextile, Geocomposite

Reinforcement: The geosynthetic develops tensile forces intended to

maintain or improve the stability of the soil geosynthetic composite. A
key design property to carry out this function is the geosynthetic tensile
strength.
The geosynthetic acts as a reinforcement element within a soil mass or in
combination with the soil to produce a composite that has improved strength and
deformation properties over the unreinforced soil. For example, geogrids are
used to add tensile strength to a soil mass in order to create vertical or near-
vertical changes in grade (reinforced soil walls).

Reinforcement enables embankments to be constructed over very soft

foundations and to build embankment side slopes at steeper angles than would
be possible with unreinforced soil. Geosynthetics (usually geogrids) have also
been used to bridge over voids that may develop below load bearing granular
layers (roads and railways) or below cover systems in landfill applications.

Geogrid, Geocomposite, Geotextile, Geocell,

Drainage: The geosynthetic allows liquid (or gas) flow within the
plane of its structure. A key design property to quantify this function is
the geosynthetic transmissivity (in-plane hydraulic conductivity
integrated over thickness).
The geosynthetic acts as a drain to carry fluid flows through less permeable soils.
For example, geotextiles are used to dissipate pore water pressures at the base of
roadway embankments. For higher flows, geocomposite drains have been
developed. These materials have been used as pavement edge drains, slope
interceptor drains, and abutment and retaining wall drains. Prefabricated vertical
drains (PVDs) have been used to accelerate consolidation of soft cohesive
foundation soils below embankments and preload fills.

Geotextile, Geonet, Geocomposite, Geopipe,

Hydraulic/Gas Barrier: The geosynthetic minimizes the cross-plane

flow, providing containment of liquids or gasses. Key design properties
to fulfill this function include those used to characterize the long-term
durability of the geosynthetic material.
The geosynthetic acts as a relatively impermeable barrier to fluids or gases. For
example, geomembranes, thin film geotextile composites, geosynthetic clay liners
(GCLs) and field-coated geotextiles are used as fluid barriers to impede flow of
liquid or gas. This function is also used in asphalt pavement overlays,
encapsulation of swelling soils and waste containment.

Geomembrane, Geosynthetic clay liners, Geocomposite

Protection: The geosynthetic provides a cushion above or below other

material (e.g. a geomembrane) in order to minimize damage during
placement of overlying materials. Key design properties to quantify this
function include those used to characterize the puncture resistance of
the geosynthetic material. Preventing or limiting of local damage to a given
element or material by the use of a geotextile or a geotextile-related product.

Nonwoven geotextiles, geonets, geocomposites

Surface Erosion Control
The geosynthetic acts to reduce soil erosion caused by rainfall impact and surface
water runoff. For example, temporary geosynthetic blankets and permanent
lightweight geosynthetic mats are placed over the otherwise exposed soil surface
on slopes. Geotextile silt fences are used to remove suspended particles from
sediment-laden runoff water. Some erosion control mats are manufactured using
biodegradable fibres.

Root anchorage using geomats, geocells, biomats, bionets

five roadway applications: (1) mitigation of reflective cracking in asphalt overlays;

(2) separation; (3) stabilization of road base; (4) stabilization of road subgrade;
and (5) lateral drainage
A sand drain is basically a hole drilled in a cohesive soil and filled with sand.
Since the sand has larger particle size, its permeability is much higher, thus
water will flow through it much more easily. As shown above, an array (it’s
actually a two-dimensional array) of sand drains is installed, and a load is
applied on top of the drains. The load shown above is an embankment, such
as is used on a highway, and an additional, or surcharge, load is used to
speed up the drainage process. The excess water is collected at the top and
directed away from the jobsite.

Wick drains, also called Prefabricated Vertical Drains, are installed in soft soils in order to
accelerate consolidation of the soil by providing additional drainage paths for pore water to escape.
 Other names and variations of this technique are: deep drains, sand drains, sand wicks, band
drains, pre-fabricated band-shaped drains. Wick drains thus enables ground improvement by
consolidation of soil layers.

Deep deposits of soft cohesive soil can take a long time to consolidate even when pre-loaded. The
low permeability of these soils and the long drainage path lengths produce slow rates of
consolidation. The time for consolidation to occur is a function of the square of the length of the
drainage path. By reducing the drainage path length, excess pore water pressures can reduce more
quickly, allowing a significant reduction in time required for consolidation.

Installation of Wick drains:

Drainage paths are shortened by the insertion of a vertical wick drain into the ground. The pattern
and depth of wick are determined by the consolidation properties of the soil and the desired time for
consolidation to occur. Wick drains are installed by pushing a mandrel, or stitcher, through the fine-
grained, soft soil layer.

The wicks can be installed by vibratory, dynamic or static means using a purpose built rig fitted with
a slender mandrel which carries the drain into the ground without damage.

Typically drains are installed at 1.5 to 3m centers, and depths in excess of 35m can be achieved
using special equipment. A single drain should not act as a pile, inhibiting consolidation. It should
have about the same stiffness as the surrounding soil mass.

Applications

 Speed consolidation of embankments

 Drainage of silty soils and marine sediments
 Remove water from underneath preloads
 Consolidation of tailings deposits

GROUND ANCHORS

Ground anchors consisting of cables or rods connected to a bearing plate are often used
for the stabilization of steep slopes or slopes consisting of softer soils, as well as the
enhancement of embankment or foundation soil capacity, or to prevent excessive
erosion and landslides. The use of steel ground anchors is often constrained by overall
durability in placement (due to weight), and the difficulty in maintaining tension levels
in the anchor. Anchor systems fabricated from fiber reinforced composite materials
show a number of benefits compared to conventional systems for the following reasons:

 Enhanced durability including resistance to corrosion and resistance to alkalis

and solutions in soils increase their life and greatly reduce the need for
maintenance, thereby decreasing life-cycle costs.
  Lighter weight results in easier transportation of cables to site, and increases the
efficiency of handling and placement.
 Enhanced tensile strength coupled with lighter weight and enhanced mechanical
properties results in greater safety during installation in areas with limited
clearance.

In most cases, it is possible to use conventional jacking systems and still realize greater
flexibility in placement and tensioning in difficult ground formations.

Composite ground anchors generically consist of three parts:

1. The anchorage is generally a stainless steel sheath with an anchor nut/plate

through which the composite cable is run. The anchorage is usually filled with a
non-shrink expansive cement mortar that ensures fixity and no slippage. The
anchorage also is used to fasten the system to the outside structure.
2. The cable can consist of multiple rods that are separate or braided together, or a
single rod.
3. A sheath or sleeve made from polyethylene or PVC that is fitted around the free
anchor length of the cables.

OR
Ground anchors, sometimes known as earth anchors, are versatile devices used to hold,
restrain and support buildings, engineered slopes and other structures, either permanently
or temporarily. They come in a wide range of sizes and capacities, up to 70 m in length, with
a capacity of more than 3,000 kN. They can be lightweight, corrosion-resistant anchors that
can be installed from ground level, either by hand or using portable equipment, depending
on size and ground conditions or they can be heavy duty using bespoke drilling equipment.
Self-drilling anchors can be used in any ground condition using lightweight versatile drill
rigs. This technique is relatively faster to install than conventional pre-drilled anchors and
saves time and cost on site. They offer a popular technique for anchoring a wide range
of structures into place.

oR

Ground Anchor
A prestressed grouted ground anchor is a structural element installed in soil or rock that is used
to transmit an applied tensile load into the ground. Grouted ground anchors, referenced simply
 as ground anchors, are installed in grout filled drill holes. Grouted ground anchors are also referred
to as “tiebacks”. The basic components of a grouted ground anchor include the:
1. anchorage;
2. free stressing (unbonded) length;
3. bond length.

Types of Ground Anchors

A- Straight shaft gravity-grouted ground anchors

Straight shaft gravity-grouted ground anchors are typically installed in rock and very stiff to
hard cohesive soil deposits using either rotary drilling or hollow-stem auger methods. Tremie
(gravity displacement) methods are used to grout the anchor in a straight shaft borehole.

B- Straight shaft pressure-grouted ground anchors

Straight shaft pressure-grouted ground anchors are most suitable for coarse granular soils and
weak fissured rock. This anchor type is also used in fine grained cohesionless soils. With this type
of anchor, grout is injected into the bond zone under pressures greater than 0.35 MPa.

C- Post-grouted ground anchors

Post-grouted ground anchors use delayed multiple grout injections to enlarge the grout body
of straight shafted gravity grouted ground anchors.

D- Underreamed anchors

Underreamed anchors consist of tremie grouted boreholes that include a series of enlargement bells or
underreams. This type of anchor may be used in firm to hard cohesive deposits.

Advantages
a. Execute excavations neatly to create large construction plan without using props in order to make
mechanized excavation.
b. Keep excavation walls sustainable, make very deep excavations without depending on the basement
structure.
c. Anchors combine with soft retaining walls to redistribute the intemal forces of wall structure, so this can
reduce the size, depth of steel bars in retaining walls.
Disadvantages
a. It is necessary to use specifed equipment, exprienced professional engineers.
b. It is difficult to apply anchors in weak soil and to implement anchors with great depth.
c. Anchor execution would affect the land of surrounding construction works, which must be accepted by
their owners.

CALCIUM CHLORIDE AS A DUST CONTROL AGENT

Calcium chloride has two characteristics that enable it to be useful for dust
control applications. First, it is hygroscopic. In other words, it attracts moisture
from the atmosphere and surrounding environment and resists evaporation as it
works to remain in its natural liquid state. Second, calcium chloride is
deliquescent, which means the solid form can dissolve into a liquid by absorbing
moisture from the atmosphere and surroundings. When calcium chloride is
spread on low-volume unpaved roads in the spring, its moisture-attraction ability
works to keep the surface damp and to keep dust down, usually throughout the
summer. Calcium chloride has other properties that contribute to the
improvement and performance of unpaved roads. For example, compared with
plain water, calcium chloride has a stronger moisture film, higher surface tension,
lower vapor pressure, and lower freezing point. The combination of these
properties enables the chemical to keep unpaved surfaces damp and to keep
fines, or tiny dust particles, in place. Additionally, calcium chloride actually helps
bind the aggregate particles together and, as a result, the surface becomes
compacted by traffic. Over time, calcium chloride slowly penetrates the surface
by several inches, which creates a stabilizing effect to the road. The longer
calcium chloride is used, the more stability that is achieved. Finally, the chemical's
lower freezing point helps unpaved roads resist frost heave in late fall and early
winter.
Benefits
As a rule, one car making one pass on 1 mi of untreated, unpaved road everyday
can generate 1 ton of dust in 1 year. When the road is treated with a dust
suppressant. however. it retains a high percentage of the fines it would otherwise
lose as dust

Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is a hygroscopic salt that draws moisture from the air
to form a solution in road gravel that keeps road surfaces constantly damp,
even in hot, dry conditions. The moisture helps to bind particles together to
create a hard and compact road surface. Because it penetrates several inches
into the road base, calcium chloride also contributes to overall road surface
stability. It depresses the freezing point of the moisture in the road surface, to
help minimize frost heave damage in the winter.
CaCl2 Provides Additional Concentration-Related Savings – Lower application rates for
calcium chloride can also translate into transportation, man hour and equipment cost-savings,
as well as reduced impact on the environment.
How calcium chloride controls dust

Calcium chloride helps control dust because it is a hygroscopic material. This

means it attracts moisture from the atmosphere and environment. When calcium
chloride is spread on an unpaved surface, it keeps it damp thus keeping dust
down.

What’s more, calcium chloride resists evaporation. This means it continues

drawing moisture from its surroundings – and to keep dust down – for long
periods – even on hot, dry days

Dust Control

1. Blade and shape the surface to a straight line slope of ½” to 12” – a type “A”
crown. This will permit water to drain off it properly and thereby eliminate
ponding.
2. Apply a 38% solution of LIQUIDOW calcium chloride to the road surface at
the rate of 0.27 gallons per square yard. Or apply 1.69 pounds of
DOWFLAKE XTRA or 1.32 pounds of PELADOW per square yard.
3. Dust control is usually maintained throughout the summer with minimal
attention. However, for best results a second treatment is recommended in
late summer or early fall. Follow the application rates given in Step 2.
Reblade, if necessary, according to Step 1.

Magnesium Chloride
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is also a hygro scopic salt. It is most commonly
supplied in liquid form at a concentration of about 30%. Liquid magnesium
chloride and liquid calcium chloride exhibit similar water attraction properties.
However, under hot, dry conditions, CaCl2 remains liquid, while MgCl2 does
not, resulting in lower dust suppression capabilities under these conditions.
Application rates and environmental profiles of the two materials are very
similar.
Comparing the Effectiveness of CaCl2 and MgCl2
Calcium chloride and magnesium chloride are often the two dust suppressant
materials considered by road authorities. While, calcium chloride and
magnesium chloride are similar materials, differences in the concentration of
active ingredients in commercially available products can make a significant
difference in how efficiently and economically they can be used to control
dust.