Writing Skills Made Easy

To write effectively at university and beyond, it is necessary to possess both a general

knowledge about writing (we are excluding poetic writing from our discussion here)
and an understanding of the particular ways that writing is used. For our purposes, it
is sufficient to know that there are four broad types of writing. You may well be
required to demonstrate one or all of them in the coming months and years.

Argumentative - This is used when the writer wishes to discuss a controversial

subject. You might be asked to write like this when you have to persuade the reader to
your point of view, or justify your viewpoint on a certain issue.

Descriptive - This type of writing is used when the writer’s main purpose is to
describe something. You would use this type of writing if you are asked to ‘describe’
something in order to demonstrate your understanding of the issue (eg in an exam
question).

Expository - Expository writing is used when the writer hopes to interpret and
explain something. You can expect to use this type of writing for essays and
assignments in which you have to demonstrate your knowledge by analysing a certain
situation and showing how what you have learnt helps you know what to do in that
situation.

Narrative - This is generally used to relate a series of events or actions, or to

tell a story. While it is more common to use this type of writing for writing
biographies or fiction, you may also use it when writing a portfolio, a journal or a
report.

In the context of your studies and likely professional career, one of the primary tasks
of your writing will be to convey a level of understanding and meaning in a limited
number of words. This ability to write succinctly will depend on your knowledge of
the topic on which you are writing, the depth of treatment of the topic desired by your
audience and your command of the building blocks of language. These building
blocks are the grammatical tools of writing:

Language use
Sentence structure
Syntax
Punctuation
Spelling and
Paragraph formation.

Language use

Using appropriate language when writing is very important. While you are at
university, and in the early years after university, the audience you will be writing for
will usually have a clear understanding of the subject area and an equal understanding
of the manner in which the subject matter can and should be presented. It is vital that
you present your knowledge of a subject in the language expected by the audience.
Language is the range of word types you use in order to convey meaning. Language
comprises the parts of the speech - such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions,
pronouns, conjunctions and so forth - which allow you to arrange your thoughts so
that you express yourself in terms understandable to others. Such an explanation
provides a poor, sterile (and incomprehensible?) definition for a language as broad
and complex as English.

Language is the individual words and types of words. It is also what each word is
saying and how words and combinations of words (phrases) provide meaning.
Language is a collection of conventions regarding words and phrases, which allow
you to express and convey levels of meaning and insight about the subjects with
which you are dealing. Language use is closely tied to the subject matter about which
you are writing. In both a business and an academic context, the following
conventions should be observed.

 KIS – keep it simple. By planning what you are going to write, you will be able to
maintain a clear focus on the purpose for which you are writing. Use terms that
your readers will be able to understand and develop a logical approach to
addressing your subject matter.

 Maintain an objective perspective. Your readers need a piece of writing that is

logical and rational, even if you are conveying your own opinion. You need to
support your own ideas and opinions with references that demonstrate that other
experts in the field share your point of view, or offer arguments that support the
conclusions you draw.

 Do not overuse adjectives and metaphors. Business writing should get to the heart
of the matter without unnecessarily embellishing the writing.
 Use a formal and courteous tone that avoids the use of slang. Your writing is in
the context of a formal environment in which the establishment and maintenance
of relationships is important. Your writing should reflect an awareness of this
context.

Sentence Structure

In strict grammatical terms, a sentence is a group of words that express a complete

thought and that contain a subject (a doer of an action), a verb (doing word) and an
object (something/one to whom the doing is done). It is quite common for the object
of the sentence to be implied rather than stated (eg "We understand").

A well-structured sentence is one that commences with a capital letter, contains a

single idea, direction or expression, and concludes with a full stop. Quite simply, a
well-structured sentence is one that is short, clear and reaches the point directly. As
such, complex ideas are often best expressed by a sequence of short, simple sentences,
rather than by one long, complex sentence. There are four types of grammatical
construction for sentences in the English language. These are indicated in the table
below.
 FOUR TYPES OF SENTENCES

 The simple sentence has one subject, one verb and one object. (She
wrote the report).

 The compound sentence is a combination of two simple sentences,

joined by a comma or one of the coordinating conjunctions - for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so (Mnemonic = fanboys). (The employee worked well
and achieved praise from the manager. The confident manager left the
office after one hour but had to return again soon after.)

 The complex sentence is a combination of two or more simple sentences,

where one or more of these simpler sentences are known as a 'dependent
clause'. Its meaning is dependent on the 'main' or 'independent' clause
contained within the sentence. (When you have finished [dependent
clause] we will go to lunch [main clause]).

 The compound-complex sentence is a combination of compound and

complex sentences. (He had hoped to perform well in the task [dependant
clause] yet [conjunction] his lack of knowledge worked against him
[main clause]).

Each kind of sentence has its place in business writing, although it is obvious that the
longer and more complex a sentence is, the harder it will be to write correctly and the
harder it will be for the reader to understand the intended meaning. There are no laws
that apply in every situation of sentence construction, but there are several
conventions that may be used as a guide when writing sentences.

CONVENTIONS FOR SENTENCE STRUCTURE

 Distinguish one sentence from another. The time-honoured structure of a sentence

- commencing with a capital letter and concluding with a full stop - allows you to
do this. Don't use commas to end sentences!

 Wherever possible, avoid using conjunctions [for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
(=fanboys)] to begin sentences. Alternatives you may use are:
 And; as well as, in addition, with, along with, together with, also
 But; although, however, yet, nevertheless, still, notwithstanding
 Nor; neither
 Or; either, whether
 So; thus, therefore, because of, for this reason, hence
 Yet; however, nevertheless

 Another point regarding the use of conjunctions in sentences is to use a comma

before a conjunction whenever it is used to join two clauses in the sentence. A
useful memory aid which has been developed in this regard is called the Comma
Fanboys System (Bailey, 1976). The term Fanboys represents the first letter of
 each of the seven conjunctions. The word comma reminds you that a comma is
used before the conjunction.

 Although you may seek to use a single tense in any document you write (ie. past,
present or future) you may find that it will be necessary to change tenses within
sentences when reporting speech and questions. For example, "Kerry says that
Ingmar has worked all afternoon and will go home soon."

 In general, try to avoid breaking sentences into more than three parts when using
commas, brackets/parentheses and hyphens. Obviously, in some circumstances
this will not be possible, especially when listing or grouping points on the same
topic.

Topic, linking & concluding sentences

Three very special kinds of sentences with which you need to become 'expert' are
topic, linking and concluding sentences. These sentences, as their names suggest,
provide 'flags' and 'signposts' to your reader that you are introducing new topics and
ideas, moving between them and drawing them to their logical conclusions. Proper
handling of these kinds of sentence is critical for forming paragraphs and structuring
your documents with a high degree of coherence and 'user friendliness'.

The Topic Sentence introduces each paragraph by stating what is contained in that
paragraph. It should be broad enough to draw in the reader and sufficiently specific to
allow the reader to focus on the subject matter at hand. A topic sentence need not
necessarily be the first sentence in a paragraph. Sometimes it is the last. The location
of the topic sentence will depend upon how you choose to handle the basic
components which will normally comprise your paragraphs (see 'Paragraph
Formation'). In general, it could be stated that the topic sentence should present the
theme of each paragraph to the reader - regardless of its location.

Thus, when writing a topic sentence, ask yourself, 'What is the paragraph attempting
to do? Is the paragraph introducing the topic or some part of that topic? Is it dealing
with ideas, and/or concepts? Is the purpose of the paragraph to describe an example,
or to communicate information about a particular case?' When you know the answers
to such questions, your framing of a topic sentence becomes much easier - both for
you to write and for your reader to follow. Choose the keywords and phrases from the
answer you derive from this questioning process and include these in your topic
sentence.

Linking Sentences are those which form a bridge between one part of your document
and the next. By definition, a sentence should express a complete thought. Therefore,
you need to be able to join these smoothly, without obvious disjunctions. Linking
sentences should seek to preserve a sense of coherence and unity in the paragraph or
document.

Concluding Sentences When you reach the concluding paragraph of your document
you may need to indicate this to your reader in no uncertain terms. To achieve this,
use the stock phrases which generations of writers before you have employed. These
include: To conclude; in conclusion; in summary; in brief; so it has been
demonstrated etc. At the end of paragraphs within the body of the document however,
you will need to be more subtle. Remember that you must provide a link with the next
paragraph. Consequently, terms such as, 'thus', 'accordingly', 'furthermore', 'therefore',
'consequently', 'subsequently', 'as a result of' etc. are of greater use.

There are a number of techniques for making topic, linking and concluding sentences
stand out from the rest. Some of these ideas include using quotations, contrasts and
rhetorical questions. (Quotations are generally more useful for university assignments
than for business documents).

QUOTATIONS
 Use quotations to introduce a topic, link ideas and major points, and/or conclude
paragraphs and essays
 Ensure that your quotation(s) is relevant
 Use double inverted commas and be sure to use the exact wording
 Indicate the source of the quotation
 Quotations usually serve to illustrate a point you are making, and/or add authority
to your argument.

CONTRASTS
 By juxtaposing (ie. placing together) clauses and sentences that give contrasting
and/or contradictory images, you can highlight the breadth of your argument. For
example:
 "Paradoxically, a manager who wants to maximise control, productivity and
motivation needs to be highly skilled in listening to employees and hearing their
ideas and concerns."

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
 The use of rhetorical questions is particularly useful for questions requiring you to
debate a proposition. For example:
 "Why does Coles-Myer insist that employees wear uniforms? What purpose does
this practice serve?"
 A rhetorical question usually contains some seed of its own answer, either within
the question or in a nearby section of the document.

Syntax

The term 'syntax' refers to the patterns in which words are arranged to form sentences
and the general body of rules and conventions that govern these patterns of formation.
This is an area of sentence structure that can be incredibly confusing. It is so technical
that few lecturers have either the depth of formal grammatical knowledge to perform
this task confidently, nor the time in which to convey such knowledge owing to the
content-driven syllabuses with which they work.
In general, your lecturers will rely upon their informal knowledge of grammar -
gained through years of verbal and written practice - to convey to students a
knowledge of correct syntactic usages. In doing so their primary aim will be to teach
students how to promote clarity and convey meaning in their writing.

Punctuation

Current writing conventions emphasise a minimum use of intrusive punctuation marks

in sentences. So sentences should not be over-encumbered with commas, colons:
semi-colons; parentheses (brackets), slashes or hyphens.

Spelling

The advent of word processors and computers with sophisticated word processing
programs have made it easier than ever to produce high quality written documents.
Using a 'spellcheck' function to eradicate spelling errors from any documents you
write should be an automatic first step in editing your documents. Make sure you
habitually use this function. You should, however, be aware that the spellcheck
function will never identify every spelling error in your document. This is because
the spellchecker will not query words that are 'real' words in the wrong context. For
example, the word 'manger' occurs on average once an assignment in every first year
assignment I mark. The spellchecker lets it through, even though the correct word is
'manager'.

As you write more documents, you should increase your awareness of words such as
manger that may incorrectly appear in your document. By using the 'Replace' feature,
they can be effortlessly corrected in less than thirty seconds.

Another commonly occurring error is the use of the incorrect form of a word. For
example, using 'there' instead of 'their' when referring to a person's ownership of
something. These errors can best be noticed by carefully editing your document. It
should be apparent to you that despite the technology available, carefully checking
your documents is still a necessity if you are concerned to present high quality written
documents that reflect well on you and your organisation.

Paragraph formation

A paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences placed together because they

have a common, unified idea. The aim of the sentences comprising the paragraph is
to develop a single, main idea which will usually be presented in the first (topic)
sentence. As with sentence structure, there are few laws for paragraph formation
which cover all eventualities. If you remember that the fundamental aim in creating
paragraphs is to present a group of sentences around a unified idea, then there are a
number of conventions that can serve as your guide.

A paragraph serves to break up the body of any written document. Paragraphs make
the information you offer more manageable and easier to read and understand. A
paragraph signifies to the reader that you have finished with one stage in your
development of an idea or topic and are preparing your audience to move onto the
next. At the end of a paragraph readers may pause to reflect upon the information you
have provided and prepare themselves for the next step in your development or
treatment of the subject. In short, paragraphs offer a degree of user friendliness to the
reader.

There is no set length for a paragraph, although three sentences is considered a bare
'minimum', and up to 12 an acceptable 'maximum' wherein:

 The first - the topic sentence - will introduce the idea for which the paragraph is
written

 The second - middle or supporting - sentence(s) discuss the idea in some depth by
supplying details and providing relevant evidence

 The concluding sentence allows the writer to make a final statement or comment
about the idea by pointing to its importance or significance.

A CHECKLIST FOR PARAGRAPH FORMATION

 Signal the end of a paragraph by leaving a line between paragraphs

 Treat one idea - and no more than one idea - in each paragraph
 With introductory paragraphs, employ key words and phrases taken from the
question
 With concluding paragraphs, have a few standard phrases up your sleeve to
indicate in no uncertain terms to the reader that you have reached the conclusion.

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT AND ESSAY CONSTRUCTION

The Introductory Paragraph

…is potentially the most crucial section of an essay for conveying purpose and
meaning to a reader. It is here that you can impress upon your audience the quality of
your knowledge and the quality of your written skills. In the introductory paragraph
you are trying to narrow the reader's focus from the general field of subject matter to
the specific topic under examination.

The Middle Body or Supporting Paragraphs

…allow you to develop the question and present a body of knowledge for the topic
with which you are dealing. Remember, a well-written essay requires concise, logical
and sequential presentation of knowledge. This is the place where you must indicate
your command of such skills in relating events and ideas usually in a chronological
fashion. A sound plan of the essay topic is essential for presenting these skills. This is
where the marks are.

After the introductory paragraph, each of the middle paragraphs should support the
main argument. Each of the supporting paragraphs should commence with a topic
sentence which states in general terms what the paragraph is about. The supporting
sentences of each 'middle' paragraph should relate directly to the topic sentence for
each. The concluding sentence should seek to provide a final statement on the topic of
the paragraph and to lead onto the next paragraph.

The Concluding Paragraph

…should serve three basic purposes. Firstly, it should signify the end of the essay
(hence, the need for such stock phrases to commence this paragraph as; "To conclude',
'in conclusion', 'in summary', 'to summaries', etc.). Secondly, it needs to provide a
summary of the major points covered in your document. At this stage, further useful
phrases may be used to indicate the nature of this paragraph (ie. 'It has been
seen/indicated/illustrated/demonstrated' etc.) accompanied by a brief reiteration of
main points and a demonstration that the question has been answered. Finally, a
general statement about the topic which leaves the reader with a lasting impression of
your treatment of the subject is required. In general it is wise to highlight the
significance of the topic in the final sentence of the concluding paragraph.