Part 4

Open channel flow

Introduction
• Open channel
- a flow conduit having a free surface.
- a boundary exposed to the atmosphere
- almost always turbulent
- unaffected by surface tension
- pressure distribution within the fluid is hydrostatic
• Terminology
- Critical slope (Sc) : longitudinal slope such that uniform
flow occurs in a critical state
- flow area (A) : cross sectional area of the flow taken to the
direction of flow
- Froude number (Fr) : dimensionless ratio of the inertial
and gravitational forces
V : average velocity
g : gravitational acceleration
D : hydraulic depth
Fr = 1 : critical flow – inertial and gravitational forces in equilibrium
Fr < 1 : subcritical flow – gravitational forces are dominant
Fr > 1 : supercritical flow – inertial forces are dominant
- After throwing a rock into the flow, if ripples progress upstream of
the point of impact, the flow is subcritical. No progress upstream,
then supercritical

- Hydraulic depth(D) : ratio of the flow area(A) to the top width(T)

D = A/T
- Hydraulic radius(R) : ratio of the flow area(A) to the wetted
perimeter(P) R = A/P
- Kinetic energy correction factor(α) : real open channel flow is not
one-dimensional. The true kinetic energy at a cross section is
corrected by this factor over spatially averaged energy
- Momentum correction factor(β) : analogous to the kinetic energy
correction factor for momentum

Typical values of correction factors

- Prismatic channel : a constant cross-sectional shape and bottom

slope(So)
- Specific energy(E) : sum of flow depth and velocity head

y : flow depth
- Specific momentum(M) :

- Stage : elevation of the water surface relative to a datum. If the lowest

point of a channel section is taken as the datum, then the stage and
depth of flow are equal if the longitudinal slope is not steep
- Steady : the depth and velocity of flow at a location do not vary with
time. Unsteady flow means that the depth and velocity of flow at a
location vary with time
- Top width(T) : width of the channel section at the water surface
- Uniform flow : the depth, flow area, velocity at every section are
constant and energy grade line(Sf), water surface, and channel bottom
slope(So) are all parallel
- Superelevation (Δy) : the rise in the elevation of the water surface at
the outer channel boundary above the mean depth of flow in an
equivalent straight channel, because of centrifugal force in a curving
channel
- Wetted perimeter (P) : the length of the line that is the interface
between the fluid and the channel boundary
Channel section geometric properties
Energy principle
• Specific energy
- Bernoulli equation in open channel
H : total energy,
z : elevation of stream line above a datum
p : pressure
- Hydraulic grade line γ : fluid specific weight

- Specific energy of an open channel flow

Here assumed that the slope of the channel is small

 • Critical depth

Definition of
critical flow

Q : critical depths for non-rectangular cross section of channel?

In rectangular channel of width b and y=D

Subscript c indicates variable values at the critical point

When z is elevation of the channel bottom above a datum and y is flow depth,
the total energy at any cross section is,

Differentiating the total energy with respect to longitudinal distance

: energy slope : bottom slope

(-Sf) (-So)

Variation of the flow depth with longitudinal distance

in a channel of arbitrary shape
When So = 0 but channel width changes how the flow depths changes for different Fr’s?
• Compound section channels
- conveyance of the channel is defined as
φ is 1 for SI unit and 1.49 in English unit

- specific energy correction factor α is not equal to 1

where
• Momentum
- One-dimensional momentum equation in open channel
b/w sections 1 and 2

M is known as the specific momentum or force function

Note that the point of minimum specific momentum corresponds to the critical depth
of the flow
• Hydraulic jumps in rectangular channels
- two conjugate depths exist for a specific force
- in case of rectangular channel width b and Pf = 0

- downstream depth y2 is not the result of upstream conditions but is

the result of a downstream condition
- if the downstream control produces the depth y2, then a jump will
form
• Application of hydraulic jump
- Energy dissipation in flows over dams, weir, and other hydraulic
structures
- Maintenance of high water levels in channels for water distribution
purposes
- Increase of the discharge of a sluice gate by repelling the downstream
tailwater and thus increasing the effective head across the gate
- Reduction of uplift pressure under structures by raising the water
depth on the apron of the structure
- Mixing of chemicals used for water purification or wastewater
treatment
- Removal of air pocket from open-channel such as the existence of
supercritical flow

Hydraulic Jump demonstration movie clip https://youtu.be/v5gXfyViGIE

• When non-rectangular cross-section
- for circular sections

- for triangular channels

- for parabolic channels

 - for trapezoidal channels, a graphical method can be used in
terms of the parameter

- Critical depth yc for trapezoidal,

Fr1 is estimated by the following
semi-empirical equation

for 0.1 < Q/b2.5 < 0.4

For Q/b2.5 < 0.1, use equation for rectangular

1
channels
z
b
• Energy loss due to the hydraulic jump
- in a horizontal channel

- in rectangular sections

relative loss

efficiency
 Hydraulic jump length as a function of sequent depth
and upstream Froude number

1. Undular jump
2. Weak jump
3. Oscillating jump
4. Stable jump Fr
5. Strong jump a. Acceptable performance
b. extensive stilling basin and rough surface
Uniform Flow
By definition, uniform flows when
1) The depth, flow area, and velocity at every cross section
are constant
2) The energy grade line, water surface, and channel bottom
are all parallel
• Chezy and Manning equations

where V : average velocity of a uniform flow

C : a resistance coefficient
R : hydraulic radius
S : channel longitudinal slope
x, y : exponents
• Resistance in compound channel

P : wetted perimeter, R : hydraulic radius, A : cross section area

ne : equivalent roughness coefficient, ni : roughness coefficient at each section
Gradually varied flow with Sf ≠ 0
• Gradual variation of flow depth in the longitudinal direction

- for specified value of Q, Fr and Sf are functions of flow depth y

- Sf = So when y = yn by definition of uniform flow
- in wide channel (width ≈ wetted perimeter), Sf and Fr have a
strong inverse dependence on the flow area
- Both Fr and Sf decrease as y increases

- As y < yn , Sf > So , and as y > yn , Sf < So

- As y < yc , Fr > 1 , and as y > yc , Fr < 1
Flow profile types
Normal depth
Critical depth
Mild slope Sleep slope
Varied unsteady flow
• 1-D St. Venant equations
- continuity equation

- momentum equation

u : velocity in longitudinal direction

x : longitudinal coordinate
Sx : bed slope
Sf : friction slope
g : gravitational acceleration
y : flow depth

- Assumptions
1. Flow is one-dimensional
2. Streamline curvature is very small and vertical fluid accelerations are negligible
3. Flow resistance and turbulent losses are the same as for a steady uniform equilibrium flow
4. Bed slope is small
5. Water density is constant
6. Sediment motion is neglected ( the equations were developed for fixed boundary conditions)
Kinematic wave eq.
Diffusion wave equation
• Simplification of the St. Venant Equations
1. Kinematic wave equation
Assuming that the acceleration and inertial terms are negligible and free surface is parallel to
channel bottom

Combining the two equations,

2. Diffusion wave equation

Neglecting only the acceleration and inertial terms.
Once the diffusion wave equation is solved in terms of flow rates, the water depth is calculated
from the continuity equation.

Diffusion wave equation

• Numerical techniques example (finite difference scheme)
Rapidly varied unsteady flow
• Rapidly varied unsteady flow
- Curvature of the wave profile is large in the flow
- Change in the flow depth with time is rapid
- Vertical acceleration of water particles is significant relative to the total
acceleration
- The effect of boundary friction can be ignored
- Example of the rapidly varied unsteady flow
• dam breaks
• tidal bores
• surges
Steady continuity equation

Momentum equation

Observing moving with surge

Positive surge Negative surge