Module 5: Unit –II

Process Control, Network Systems, and SCADA

1. Types of Processes:
Process control is the automated control of a process. Typical applications of process control
systems include automobile assembly, petrochemical production, oil refining, power
generation, and food processing.

A continuous process is one in which raw materials enter one end of the system and the
finished product comes out the other end of the system; the process itself runs continuously
as shown in Figure below.

In batch processing, there is no flow of product material from one section of the process to
another. Instead, a set amount of each of the inputs to the process is received in a batch, and
then some operation is performed on the batch to produce a product as shown in figure
below. Products produced using the batch process include food, beverages, pharmaceutical
products, paint, and fertilizer.
Discrete manufacturing is characterized by individual or separate unit production. Discrete
manufacturing systems typically deal with digital inputs to PLCs that cause motors and
robotic devices to be activated. The work piece is normally a discrete part that must be
handled on an individual basis.

Control configurations include individual, centralized, and distributed.

Individual control is used to control a single machine. This type of control does not normally
require communication with other controllers. For example an individual control application
for a cut to length operation.

Centralized control is used when several machines or processes are controlled by one central
controller. The control layout uses a single, large control system to control many diverse
manufacturing processes and operations.

The main features of centralized control can be summarized as follows:

 Each individual step in the manufacturing process is handled by a central control

system controller.
 No exchange of controller status or data is sent to other controllers.
 If the main controller fails, the whole process stops.

A distributive control system (DCS) is a network-based system. Distributive control involves

two or more PLCs communicating with each other to accomplish the complete control task,
Each PLC controls different processes locally and the PLCs are constantly exchanging
information through the communications link and reporting on the status of the process.

The main features of a distributive control system can be summarized as follows:

 Distributive control permits the distribution of the processing tasks among several
controllers.
 Each PLC controls its associated machine or process.
 High-speed communication among the computers is done through CAT-5 or CAT-6
twisted pair wires, single coaxial cables, fi ber optics, or the Ethernet.
 Distributive control drastically reduces fi eld wiring and heightens performance
because it places the controller and I/O close to the machine process being controlled.
 Depending on the process, one PLC failure would not necessarily halt the complete
process.
 DCS is supervised by a host computer that may perform monitoring/supervising
functions such as report generation and storage of data.

2. Structure of Control Systems:

In the case of a programmable controller, the process or machine is operated and supervised
under the control of the user program. The major components of a process control system
include the following:

Sensors

 Provide inputs from the process and from the external environment.
 Convert physical information such as pressure, temperature, flow rate, and position
into electrical signals.

Human Machine Interface (HMI)

 Allows human inputs through various types of programmed switches, controls, and
keypads to set up the starting conditions or alter the control of a process.
 HMIs allow operators to control, monitor, diagnose, and manage the application.
Depending on the requirements and complexity of the process, the operator may be
required to:
• Stop and start the process.
• Operate the controls and make the adjustments required for the process and
monitor its progress.
• Detect abnormal situations and undertake corrective action.

Signal Conditioning

 Involves converting input and output signals to a usable form.

 May include signal-conditioning techniques such as amplification, attenuation,
filtering, scaling, A/D and D/A converters.

Actuators

 Convert system output electrical signals into physical Action.

 Process actuators that include flow control valves, pumps, positioning drives, variable
speed drives, clutches, brakes, solenoids, stepping motors, and power relays.

Controller

 Makes the system’s decisions based on the input signals.

 Generates output signals that operate actuators to carry out the decisions.

3. On/Off Control
With on/off controllers the final control element is either on or off—one for the occasion
when the value of the measured variable is above the set-point and the other for the occasion
when the value is below the set-point. The controller will never keep the final control element
in an intermediate position.
Figure below shows a system using on/off control in which a liquid is heated by steam and its
control response. The operation of the process can be summarized as follows:

 If the liquid temperature goes below the set-point, the steam valve opens and
the steam is turned on.
 When the liquid temperature goes above the set-point, the steam valve closes
and the steam is shut off.
 The on/off cycle will continue as long as the system is operating.

4. PID Control

Proportional controllers are designed to eliminate the on/off control. They allow the final
control element to take intermediate positions between on and off depending on how much
the value of the measured variable has shifted from the desired value.

.
Proportional control is often used in conjunction with integral control and/or derivative
control.

Proportional plus integral (PI) control combines the characteristics of both types of control.
A step change in the set-point causes the controller to respond proportionally, followed by the
integral response, which is added to the proportional response. Because the integral mode
determines the output change as a function of time, the more integral action found in the
control, the faster the output changes.

Proportional plus derivative (PD) control is used in process control systems with errors that
change very rapidly. By adding derivative control to proportional control, we obtain a
controller output that responds to the error’s rate of change as well as to its magnitude.

PID control is a feedback control method that combines proportional, integral, and derivative
actions as shown in figure below. The proportional action provides smooth control without
hunting. The integral action automatically corrects offset. The derivative action responds
quickly to large external disturbances. The PID controller is the most widely used type of
process controller. When combined into a single control loop the proportional, integral and
derivative modes complement each other to reduce the system error to zero faster than any
other controller.

Type of Controller tuning

Depending on the characteristics of the deviation of the process variable from the set-point,
the tuning parameters interact to alter the controller’s output and produce changes in the
value of the process variable. In general, three methods of controller tuning are used:

1. Manual

 The operator estimates the tuning parameters required to give the desired controller
response.
 The proportional, integral, and derivative terms must be adjusted, or tuned,
individually to a particular system using a trial-and-error method.

2. Semiautomatic or Autotune

The controller takes care of calculating and setting PID parameters.

  Measures sensor output
 Calculates error, sum of error, rate of change of error
 Calculates desired power with PID equations
 Updates control output

3. Fully Automatic or Intelligent

 This method is also known in the industry as fuzzy logic control.

 The controller uses artificial intelligence to read just PID tuning parameters
continually as necessary.
 Rather than calculating an output with a formula, the fuzzy logic controller evaluates
rules. The first step is to “fuzzify” the error and change-in-error from continuous
variables into linguistic variables, like “negative large” or “positive small.” Simple if
then rules are evaluated to develop an output. The resulting output must be de-
fuzzified into a continuous variable such as valve position.

5. Motion Control

A motion control system provides precise positioning, velocity, and torque control for a wide
range of motion applications. A basic PLC motion control system consists of a controller, a
motion module, a servo drive, one or more motors with encoders, and the machinery being
controlled. The role of each control component can be summarized as follows:

Programmable Logic Controller

 The controller stores and executes the user program that controls the process.
 This program includes motion instructions that control axis movements.
 When the controller encounters a motion instruction it calculates the motion
commands for the axis.
 A motion command represents the desired position, velocity, or torque of the servo
motor at the particular time the calculations take place.

Motion Module

 The motion module receives motion commands from the controller and transforms
them into a compatible form the servo drive can understand.
 In addition it updates the controller with motor and drive information used to monitor
drive and motor performance.

Servo Drive
  The servo drive receives the signal provided by the motion module and translates this
signal into motor drive commands.
 These commands can include motor position, velocity, and/or torque.
 The servo drive provides power to the servo motors in response to the motion
commands.
 Motor power is supplied and controlled by the servo drive.
 The servo drive monitors the motor’s position and velocity by use of an encoder
mounted on the motor shaft. This feedback information is used within the servo drive
to ensure accurate motor motion.

Servo Motor

 The servo motors represent the axis being controlled.

 The servo motors receive electrical power from their servo drive which determines the
motor shaft velocity and position.
 The filler motor must accelerate the filler mechanism in the direction the bottles are
moving, match their speed, and track the bottles.
 After the bottles have been filled, the filler motor has to stop and reverse direction to
return the filler mechanism to the starting position to begin the process again.

6. Data Communications

Data communications refers to the different ways that PLC microprocessor-based systems
talk to each other and to other devices. The two general types of communications links that
can be established between the PLC and other devices are point-to-point links and network
links.

Figure below illustrates a point-to-point serial communications link. Serial communications

is used with devices such as printers, operator workstations, motor drives, bar code readers,
computers, or another PLC.

As control systems become more complex, they require more effective communications
schemes between the system components.
A local area network or LAN is a system that interconnects data communications components
within a limited geographical area, typically no more than one or two miles. Figure below
illustrates a LAN communication link. Network communications supports communication
among multiple PLCs and other devices.
PLC networks allow:

 Sharing of information such as the current state of status bits among PLCs that may
determine the action of one another.
 Monitoring of information from a central location.
 Programs to be uploaded or downloaded from a central location.
 Several PLCs to operate in unison to accomplish a common goal.

Transmission media are the cable through which data and control signals flow on a network.
The transmission media used in data communications systems include coaxial cable, twisted
pair, or fiber optics. Not all networks transmit information through cable. Wireless Wi-Fi
Ethernet networks, such as the DF1 Radio Modem, communicate through radio waves, which
are transmitted through the air.

There are three general levels of functionality of industrial networks.:

Device Level —The device level involves various sensor and actuator devices of machines
and processes. These may include devices such as sensors, switches, drives, motors, and
valves.

Control Level —The control level would be the networks industrial controllers are on. This
level may include controllers such as PLCs and robot controllers. Communications on the
control level includes sharing I/O and program data between controllers.

Information Level —The information level is a plant wide network typically composed of
the company’s business networks and computers. This level may include scheduling, sales,
management, and corporate wide information.

Types of Network Topolgy:

Network topology is the physical layout of devices on a network formed by the network
cables when nodes are attached.

1. Star topology:

The star topology illustrated in Figure below and its operation can be summarized as follows:

 A network controller switch or hub is connected to several PLC network nodes.

 Currently, most Ethernet networks use switches rather than hubs. A switch performs
the same basic function as a hub but effectively increases the speed, size, and data
handling capacity of the network.
  The configuration allows for bidirectional communication between switch/hub and
each PLC.
 All transmission must be between the switch/hub and the PLCs because the network
controller hub controls all communication.
 All transmissions must be sent to the switch/hub, which then sends them to the correct
PLC.
 One problem with the star topology is that if the switch/hub goes down, the entire
LAN is down.
 This type of system works best when information is transmitted primarily between the
main controller and remote PLCs. However, if most communication is to occur
between PLCs, the operation speed is affected.
 Also, the star system can use substantial amounts of communication conductors to
connect all remote PLCs to one central location.

2. Bus topology:

Bus topology, illustrated in Figure below, is a network configuration in which all stations are
connected in parallel with the communication medium and all stations receive information
from every other station on the network. The operation of a bus topology network can be
summarized as follows:

 Uses a single bus trunk cable to which individual PLC nodes are attached by a cable
drop that taps off the main cable.
 Each PLC is interfaced to the bus using a network interface module that is attached
using a drop cable or connector.
 Due to the nature of the bus technology, and the way the data are transmitted on the
network, each end of the bus must be terminated with a terminating resistor.
 As the data move along the total bus, each PLC node is listening for its own node
identify cation address and accepts only information sent to that address.
 Because of the simple linear layout, bus networks require less cable than all other
topologies.
 No single station controls the network and stations can communicate freely to one
another.
  Bus networks are very useful in distributive control systems, because each station or
node has equal independent control capability and can exchange information at any
given time.
 Another advantage of the bus network is that you can add or remove stations from the
network with a minimum amount of system reconfiguration.
 This network’s main disadvantage is that all the nodes rely on a common bus trunk
line, and a break in that common line can affect many nodes.

3. Master/Slave Network:

The master/slave network is one in which a master controller controls all communications
originating from other controllers. This configuration is illustrated in Figure and consists of
several slave controllers and one master controller. Its operation can be summarized as
follows:
 The master controller sends data to the slave controllers.
 When the master needs data from a slave, it will poll (address) the slave and wait for a
response.
 No communication takes place without the master initiating it.
 Direct communication among slave devices is not possible.
 Information to be transferred between slaves must be sent first to the network master
unit, which will, in turn, retransmit the message to the designated slave device.
 Master/slave networks use two pairs of conductors. One pair of wires is used for the
master to transmit data and the slave to receive them. On the other pair, the slaves
transmit and the master receives.
4. Peer to Peer Network

A peer-to-peer network has a distributive means of control, as opposed to a master/slave network in

which one node controls all communications originating from other nodes. The Allen-Bradley Data
Highway, shown in Figure 14-34 , is an example of a peer-to-peer network of programmable
controllers and computers linked together to form a data communication system. The operation of the
network can be summarized as follows:
 Peer-to-peer networks use the token passing media access method.
 Each device has the ability to request use of, and then take control of, the network for the
purpose of transmitting information to or requesting information from other network devices.
 Each device is identifi ed by an address.
 When the network is operating, the token passes from one device to the next sequentially.
 The device that is transmitting the token also knows the address of the next station that will
receive the token.
 Each device receives the packet information and uses it, if needed.
 Any additional information that the node has will be sent in a new packet.
There are two methods of transmitting PLC digital data: parallel and serial transmission.

In parallel data transmission, all bits of the binary data are transmitted simultaneously, as
illustrated in Figure below. Parallel transmission of data can be summarized as follows:

 Eight transmission lines are required to transmit the 8-bit binary number.
 Each bit requires its own separate data path and all bits of a word are transmitted at
the same time.
 Parallel data transmission is less common but faster than serial transmission.
 A common example of parallel data transmission is the connection between a
computer and a printer.

In serial transmission one bit of the binary data is transferred at a time, as illustrated in
Figure below. Serial transmission of data can be summarized as follows:

 In serial transmission, bits are sent sequentially on the same channel (wire) which
reduces costs for wire but also slows the speed of transmission.
 Serial data can be transmitted effectively over much greater distances than can
parallel data.
 Each data word in the serial transmission must be denoted with a known start bit
sequence followed by the data bits that contain the intelligence of the data
transmission and a stop bit.
 An extra bit, termed a parity bit, may be used to provide some error-detecting ability.

7. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

In some applications, in addition to its normal control functions, the PLC is responsible for
collecting data, performing the necessary processing, and structuring the data for generating
reports.
Data collection is simplified by using a SCADA . Exchanging data from the plant floor to a
supervisory computer allows data logging, data display, trending, downloading of recipes,
setting of selected parameters, and availability of general production data.

In a typical SCADA system, independent PLCs perform I/O control functions on field
devices while being supervised by a SCADA/HMI software package running on a host
computer, as illustrated in Figure below. Process control operators monitor PLC operation on
the host computer and send control commands to the PLCs if required.

Fig: Typical SCADA System

The great advantage of a SCADA system is that

 data are stored automatically in a form that can be retrieved for later analysis without
error or additional work.
 Measurements are made under processor control and then displayed onscreen and
stored to a hardcopy.
 Accurate measurements are easy to obtain, and
 there are no mechanical limitations to measurement speed.

Courtesy and Reference: “Programmable Logic Controller” Fourth Edition by Frank D

Petruzella publisher McGraw Hill.