Lecture #7: Agriculture Is The Raising of Plants and Animals For Food. Between 1945 and The Mid 1980's, The

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Lecture #7

USE OF LAND

There are many environmental concerns in the matter of land use. Pollution, pollution issues,
preservation of our biological resources, mineral and energy requirements, and production of
food are all related to use of land. Humans use an estimated 32% or 4.7 billion hectares of all the
world’s total land area for agriculture. 30% of the total land area is rock, ice, tundra or desert
unsuitable for long-term human use. 37% of the land surface remains as natural ecosystems.

Agriculture is the raising of plants and animals for food. Between 1945 and the mid 1980’s, the
overriding aim of agricultural policy was to increase production resulting in mechanisation, use
of artificial chemicals, animal and plant breeding, genetic engineering and monocropping. A
plant that is cultivated is protected from natural competition with other plants and from plant
eating animals and over time may become quite different from their ancestors and are said to be
domesticated.

Agriculture can be divided into two types:

‫׀‬ High input or industrialised agriculture – mostly practised by developed countries and relies
on large inputs of energy in the form of fossil fuels to produce and run machinery, to irrigate
crops and produce chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides.

‫׀‬ Subsistence agriculture – practised mostly by farmers in developing countries: the production
of enough food to feed oneself and one’s family with left over to sell or reserve for hard
times. This also requires a large input of energy but instead from humans rather than fossil
fuels.

Modern agriculture involves the use of mechanisation i.e. the use of machinery to replace manual
labour. Productivity was increased by the use of larger and more effective implements such as
deeper cutting ploughs. Harvesting could now be done in a fraction of the time previously taken.

Mechanisation led to increasing use of monoculture – large areas of land dedicated to a single
crop. Monocultures may increase the risk of pest epidemics leading to increased use of
pesticides and to deficiencies in particular soil nutrients thus increasing the use of fertilizers.
Mechanisation led to farm specialisation i.e. farmer using most of his land for production of one
crop.

Farmyard manure is replaced by compound fertilisers supplying nitrogen, phosphorus and


potassium (N,P,K). A wide array of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides were developed
which has had many benefits as well as drawbacks. Demand for higher yields in rearing of
animals has also led to the use of hormones designed to increase growth in animals, or to
increase milk production. The use of antibiotics as growth promoters and to treat diseases such
as Salmonella is also a concern.

Modern agriculture also uses genetic engineering where useful genes can be transferred from one
organism to the next. Concerns are that genetically altered organisms might mutate
(spontaneously change during copying), producing changed organisms which might cause
unforeseen effects. Introduction of genetically altered organisms into an ecosystem may disturb
natural population balances.

SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is the movement of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil, from one
place to another. The two main agents of erosion are flowing water and wind. Some soil erosion
is natural process. However, human activities such as farming, logging, construction etc. can
speed up soil erosion and destroy in a few decades what nature took thousands of years to
produce.

Soil erosion is increased by large-scale mechanised operations causing a decline in soil fertility.
Sediments lost due to erosion may damage water quality and is the largest source of water
pollution. Sediment laden water is cloudy and tastes bad and may cause the death of aquatic
organisms. Losing topsoil makes a soil less fertile and less able to hold water. Soil, especially
topsoil is classified as a renewable resource because natural processes continuously generate it.
If topsoil erodes faster than it forms on a piece of land, the soil then becomes a non-renewable
resource. Annual erosion rates for farmers throughout the world are 7-100 times the natural
renewal rate.

Soil Contamination by Excess Salts and Water

18% of the world’s cropland is now irrigated, producing about one-third of the world’s food.
Irrigated land can produce crop yields that are two to three times greater than those from rain
watering. Irrigation water contains dissolved salts. In dry climates, much of the water
evaporates, leaving its salts in the topsoil. The accumulation of these salts is called salinisation
and it stunts crop growth, lowers yields and eventually kills crop plants and ruins the land. At
least 1/10th of the world’s irrigated lands suffer from severe salinisation, while 30% has been
moderately salinised.

Salts can be flushed out of soil by applying much more irrigation water than is needed for crop
growth. This practice increases pumping and crop-production costs, and it wastes enormous
amounts of water. Heavily salinised soil can be renewed by taking land out of production for
two to five years, installing an underground network of perforated drainage pipes, and flushing
the soil with large quantities of low-salt water.

Waterlogging: Farmers often apply large amounts of irrigation water to leach salts deeper
into the soil. Without adequate drainage, however, water accumulates underground, gradually
raising the water table. Saline water then envelops the roots of plants and kills them. 10% of all
irrigated land, worldwide, suffers from waterlogging.

Desertification: can occur on lands used for grazing. When overgrazing occurs in
combination with an extended period of drought, once fertile rangeland can be converted into a
desert.

Solutions – Soil Conservation

Soil conservation involves reducing soil erosion and preventing and restoring soil fertility.
Conservation-tillage farming: To reduce erosion, many farmers are trying conservation- tillage
farming (also called minimum tillage or no-till farming). The soil is disturbed as little as
possible while planting crops. Special tillers break up and loosen the subsurface soil without
turning over the topsoil, previous crop residues or any cover vegetation. Special planting
machines inject seeds, fertilizers and weed killers into slits made in the unploughed soil. This
saves fuel, cuts cost, and holds more water in the soil, prevents compaction of the soil, and
allows more crops to be grown during a season (multiple cropping).
Terracing can be used to reduce soil erosion on steep slopes, each of which is converted into a
series of broad, nearly level terraces that run across the land contour. Terracing retains water for
crops at each level and reduces soil erosion by controlling runoff.
Contour farming reduces soil erosion by 30-50% on gently sloping land. Rows are planted
along the contour of the land thus helping to hold slow and slow the runoff of water.
Strip cropping is where a row crop such as corn is alternated in strips with another crop such as
grass that completely covers the soil, thus reducing erosion. The strips of cover trap soil that
erodes from the row crop, catch and reduce water runoff, and help prevent the spread of pests
and plant diseases. This may help to restore soil fertility if nitrogen-fixing legumes such as
soybeans are planted in some of the strips.
Alley cropping or Agroforestry is a form of intercropping in which several plants are planted in
strips or alleys between trees and shrubs that can provide fruit or fuelwood. The trees provide
shade, which reduces water loss. Tree and shrub trimmings can be used as mulch for the crops or
fodder for livestock.
Windbreaks or shelterbeds can reduce wind erosion where long rows of trees are planted so
that they partially block the wind.

Maintaining and Restoring Soil Fertility


Fertilisers partially restore plant nutrients lost by erosion, crop harvesting and leaching. Farmers
can use either organic fertiliser from plant and animal materials or commercial inorganic
fertiliser produced from various minerals. Three basic types of organic fertiliser are animal
manure, green manure and compost.

Animal manure includes the dung and urine of cattle, horses, poultry and other farm animals. It
improves soil structure, adds organic nitrogen, and stimulates beneficial soil bacteria and fungi.
Green manure is fresh or growing green vegetation ploughed into the soil to increase the
organic matter and humus available to the next crop.
Compost is a rich natural fertiliser and soil conditioner that aerates soil, improves its ability to
hold water and nutrients, helps prevent soil erosion and prevents nutrients from being wasted in
landfills.
Farmers and landowners can produce compost by piling alternate layers of nitrogen rich wastes
(such as grass clippings, weeds and vegetable kitchen wastes), carbon rich wastes (dead leaves,
straw, sawdust) and topsoil.
Crop rotation is another method for conserving soil nutrients. Crops such as corn, deplete the
soil of nitrogen while legumes add nitrogen to the soil. Farmers can rotate these crops on a
yearly basis.

Today, many farmers rely on the use of commercial inorganic fertilizers containing nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium (N,P,K). Other plant nutrients may be present in trace amounts.
Commercial inorganic fertilizers are responsible for a 40% increase in food production
worldwide.
However, there are disadvantages.

 They do not add humus to the soil, therefore, the ability to hold water will decrease leading
to soil compaction.
 They decrease the soil porosity thus lowering the oxygen content of the soil
 Most provide the plant with only three of the 20-odd nutrients needed by plants
 Producing, transporting and applying inorganic fertilizers require large amounts of energy in
the form of fossil fuels.
 They cause eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) of water bodies when they are washed away.

PESTICIDES

Pesticides kill insects and include herbicides, nematicides, insecticides and fungicides. A pest is
any organism that occurs where it is not wanted or in populations that are large enough to cause
damage.

Problems associated with pesticides:

i) Persistence – They do not break down rapidly in the environment. When they are no
longer being used, they still remain in the environment, become dispersed and less
concentrated but more widespread.
ii) Mobility in the environment – when sprayed the pesticide may drift in the wind and be
inhaled or ingested if they remain on food. Pesticides may enter streams, rivers or
ground water supplies. They do not remain where they are sprayed but move through the
soil, water and air.
iii) Bioaccumulation or Biomagnification in organisms – if the pesticide is not broken down
or excreted by an organism, it becomes stored, usually in fatty tissues. Over time the
organism may accumulate high concentrations of pesticide. Organisms at higher trophic
levels on the food web tend to have greater concentrations of bioaccumulated pesticides
stored in their bodies than those lower on the food webs.
iv) Kills non-target species – they often kill useful insects and sometimes birds and mammals
as well as the target pest. Killing the natural predator of the pest may cause huge
outbreaks. New pests can be created as a result.
v) Development of Genetic resistance – they often have to be sprayed at the right time in the
pest’s life span if they are to work. Pests that are not killed when the pesticide is
inappropriately applied may develop genetic resistance. Pests invariably evolve resistance
to any pesticide that is used on them frequently in large quantities. This often occurs
rapidly making the pesticide useless.
vi) Risk to Human Health – Short-term exposure to high levels of pesticides can result in
harm to organs and even death. Long-term exposure can lead to cancer. Exposure to
trace amounts can disrupt the human hormone system.

Alternatives to pesticides

i) Agricultural Methods; Tillage of land making the pest more visible to predators such as
birds; proper timing of planting, fertilising and irrigating which promotes healthy plants
that are able to resist pests.
ii) Biological controls – this involves the use of naturally occurring disease organisms,
parasites or predators to control the pest.
iii) Genetic control – this involves sterilising some members of the pest population or to
breed crop plants and domesticated animals so that they can resist pests.
iv) Use of hormones and pheromones – using natural substances produced by organisms to
trap and kill the pest. Hormones can be used to disrupt the life cycle of the pest while
pheromones can be used to lure and trap the pest.
v) Quarantine – Governments attempt to prevent the importation of foreign pests and
disease by practising quarantine, or restriction of exotic plant and animal material that
might harbour pests. Infected crop or animals may be burned.

Integrated Pest Management

Many pests cannot be controlled effectively with a single technique: a combination of methods
is often more effective. Integrated pest management (IPM) combines the use of biological,
cultural and chemical controls that are tailored to the conditions and crops of an individual farm.
Non-chemical controls are used as much as possible and pesticides are used sparingly and only
when other methods fail. IPM allows control of pests with a minimum of environmental
disturbance. It involves proper management of pests and education of farmers.

IMPROPER PLANNING AND EFFECTS ON LAND USE (JAMAICA)

 Long Mountain Development – over the Mona Reservoir; major source of water in
Kingston. Effects of run-off, loss of watershed area, seepage through the limestone rock
into the reservoir.
 Causeway – now a major informal housing development – effects on traffic flow, public
health, human safety, fishing grounds.
 Hellshire Beach – another informal housing development; loss of a major recreational
area, effects on human health (increase in risk of diseases e.g. cholera, dysentery), beach
erosion, increased pollution, overfishing.
 Housing Developments along Marcus Garvey Drive – situated in area zoned as
industrial area; now a major informal settlement (Callaloo Bed, etc); effects on human
health and safety (e.g. recent fire at PetroJam).
 Eastwood Park Gardens – increasing commercialisation; loss of property values,
increase in noise pollution
 Blue Lagoon, Portland – housing developments in watershed area; increased siltation of
lagoon, increased pollution
 Proposed Highway 2000 Development – Effect on attractions such as YS falls; loss of
biodiversity in Cockpit country due to road construction.

Development Guidelines
All development applications are submitted for approval to the Town Country Planning
Authority, through their local Parish Council and then forwarded to the relevant authorities
including the NRCA and the Environmental Control Division (ECD). The NRCA, the
government environmental agency, may require an environmental impact assessment (EIA) to be
considered along with the development plan for the Authority’s approval. The ECD of the
Ministry of Health imposes guidelines for air, water and soil standards to be maintained for
construction.

Town and Country Planning Act (1987)


This act governs the development and land use (excluding agriculture) in specified areas, through
Development Orders, local planning authorities, development planning processes and Tree
Preservation Orders. Under this Act the Town Planning Department is the agency responsible for
the review of any plans involving development. The Act allows for specified conditions to be
stipulated and imposed on any approved plans. The planning decision is based upon several
factors, including;
 The location of the development;
 The land use and zoning;
 The nature of the industrial process to be carried out;
 The effect of the proposal on amenities, traffic, etc.
Lecture #8

MINERALS

Minerals are elements or compounds of elements, of precise chemical composition, that occur
naturally in the Earth’s crust. Rocks are aggregates, or mixtures of minerals and have varied
composition. An ore is rock that contains a large proportion of a particular mineral, making it
profitable for mining or extraction. High-grade ores contain relatively large amounts of
particular minerals while low-grade ores contain lesser amounts.

Metals are minerals e.g. iron, aluminium and copper, which are malleable, lustrous and good
conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metallic minerals lack these characteristics e.g. sand,
stone, salt and phosphates.

Mineral reserves are mineral deposits that have been identified and are currently profitable to
extract. Mineral resources are deposits of low-grade ores. These are potential sources of mineral
but are currently unprofitable to extract. A combination of a mineral’s reserve and resources is
called its total resources or its world reserve base.

Extraction and Refining

After a particular mineral deposit is located, the mineral is extracted from the ground by mining.
The method used is dependent on depth of the deposit. Minerals close to the surface are
extracted by surface mining while deeper deposits are extracted by subsurface mining.

Surface mining – minerals are extracted near the surface- Two types; open pit and strip mining
‫ ׀‬Open pit is where a giant hole is dug known as quarries eg. for iron, copper, stone and
gravel
‫ ׀‬Strip mining is where a trench is dug to extract minerals. A new trench is dug parallel
to the old one.

Subsurface mining – minerals are too deep to be removed by surface mining and are extracted
by shaft mine or slope mine.
‫ ׀‬Shaft mine – a direct vertical shaft to the vein of the ore. The ore is broken up
underground and then sent up the shaft in buckets.
‫ ׀‬Slope mine- a slanting passage that makes it possible to haul the broken ore out of the
mine in cars and not buckets.

The mineral is processed or refined by concentrating it and removing impurities. The purified
mineral is used to make the product.

Processing Minerals
‫ ׀‬This involves smelting – melting the ore at high temperatures to help separate
impurities from the molten metal.
‫׀‬ If air pollution control devices are not installed, many dangerous gases are emitted
during smelting.

Environmental Implications
‫ ׀‬Mining disturbs and damages the land
‫ ׀‬Processing and disposal of minerals pollute the air, soil and water.
‫ ׀‬Mining increases soil erosion

Solutions

 Install expensive pollution control devices to smelters


 When a mine is abandoned, the land can be reclaimed, or restored to semi-natural
conditions
 Construct marshes or ponds downstream from mines to prevent toxic compounds from
making their way into nearby streams or lakes.

ENERGY

Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels include oil, natural gas and coal. A fossil fuel is composed of partially decayed
remnants of organisms. Most of the fossil fuels that we use today were formed millions of years
ago. Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources i.e. the Earth has a finite or limited supply of
them. Although, coal and other fossil fuels, are still being formed by natural processes today,
they are formed too slowly to replace the fossil fuel reserves we are using.

Three hundred million years ago, the climate of much of the Earth was mild and warm and plants
grew throughout the year. Vast swamps were filled with plant species that are now long extinct.
As these ancient swamp plants died, they fell into the swamp where they were covered by water.
Their watery grave prevented the plants from decomposing much. This is because wood rotting
fungi require oxygen and anaerobic bacteria, that do not require oxygen, do not decompose wood
very rapidly. Over time, more and more dead plants piled up. As a result of periodic changes in
sea levels, layers of sediment (materials deposited by gravity) accumulated covering the plant
material. After millions of years, the heat and pressure that accompanied the burial converted the
plant material into a carbon rich rock called coal, and the layers of sediment into sedimentary
rock.

Oil was formed when large numbers of microscopic aquatic organisms died and settled in the
sediments. As these organisms accumulated, their decomposition depleted the small amount of
oxygen that was present in the sediments. This resultant oxygen deficient environment
prevented further decomposition. Again, over time, the heat and pressures accompanying the
burial aided in the conversion of these remains to the mixture of hydrocarbons known as oil.
Natural gas is completed primarily of the simplest hydrocarbon, methane and was formed
essentially by the same process as oil except at higher temperatures. Deposits of oil and natural
gas are often found together. The environmental problems associated with the use of oil and
natural gas include damage to the environment where the wells are located, accidental oil spills
during transport and storage, and CO2 emissions when the oil and natural gas are burned.

Burning any fossil fuel releases CO2, which contributes to global warming. Coal burning
contributes more air pollution than does burning oil or natural gas. It contributes especially to
acid deposition.

Nuclear Energy
This is the energy released by nuclear fission or fusion. Fission is the splitting of an atomic
nucleus into two smaller fragments accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy.
Fusion is the joining of two lightweight atomic nuclei into a single heavier nucleus, accompanied
by the release of a large amount of energy. Uranium ore is the mineral ore used in conventional
nuclear power plants. Low-level radioactive wastes are solids, liquids or gases, which give off
small amounts of ionizing radiation. These include glassware, tools, paper and clothing that have
been contaminated by radioactivity.

High-level radioactive wastes are solids, liquids or gases, which initially give off large amounts
of ionizing radiation. It includes wastes produced during nuclear fission eg. reactor metals,
coolant fluids.

Ocean disposal has the potential to harm the marine environment. International agreements
currently prohibit ocean disposal of radioactive wastes.

Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources are sources of energy that are replenished by natural processes so that
they can be used indefinitely. They include: Direct Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Hydropower,
Ocean Thermal Energy, Geothermal Energy and Tidal Energy.

Conservation

Energy conservation is moderating or eliminating wasteful or unnecessary energy-consuming


activities. Energy efficiency is using technology to accomplish a particular task with less energy.
Lecture #9

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste is any material that has no direct value to producers and must be disposed of. Millions of
tons of waste are produced each year. Much of it is harmful to humans, plants and animals.
Dispensing of this waste in an environmentally safe manner is becoming increasingly difficult
and expensive.

Characteristics

‫׀‬ Can be solid, liquid or gaseous.


‫׀‬ Arises from a wide variety of sources including use and generation of energy,
extraction of raw (virgin) materials; industrial processes; transport and agriculture.
‫׀‬ Also arises from construction; selling of goods or products, using products and waste
disposal.

Solid waste – waste that cannot be disposed of as a liquid

Types of solid waste

Municipal solid waste consists of solid materials discarded by homes, offices, retail stores,
restaurants, schools, hospitals and other commercial and institutional facilities. It accounts for
only a small portion of all solid waste produced.

Non-municipal solid waste includes waste from industry, agriculture and mining. It is produced
in substantially larger amounts than municipal solid waste.

Hazardous and toxic materials may be present in waste.

‫׀‬ Includes any discarded material containing substances known to be fatal to humans or
animals in low doses. e.g cyanide
‫׀‬ Includes toxic waste polychlorinated byphenols (PCB’s) used to produce insulators in
electrical units.

Carcinogenic Waste – causes cancer of the chest and abdominal lining. e.g. asbestos

Mutagenic waste – causes mutations; e.g. cadmium used in pigments and batteries

Teratogenic – foetal abnormalities to human and other organisms

Reasons for increase in volume of waste:

1. Increased consumption of raw materials


2. Increased manufacture, transport, sale and use of wide variety of products
3. Built in obsolescence – products such as toys, electrical and sporting goods designed not
to last very long.
4. Increase in the amount of packaging
5. Increase in the demand for convenience products i.e. disposable consumer goods e.g.
pens, razors.

Composition of Waste has changed considerably. There has been a decrease in the proportion of
biodegradable waste and an increase in the proportion of inorganic non-biodegradable waste
such as plastics, metals, alloys and chemicals.

Jamaica and waste

‫׀‬ 650,000 tonnes of waste generated annually, approximately 1 tonne solid waste per
household/day or 2 lb per person/day
‫׀‬ 2/3 of all solid waste is generated in urban areas.

Composition
Food waste - <30%
Paper - 15-20%
Yard waste - <10%
Plastics - <10%
Cardboard - <5%
Metals - <5%

Disposal/Management of waste

Open dumps – considered to be unsanitary. Methane gas is released into air as microorganisms
decompose solid waste. This poses a fire hazard. Liquid from these dumps may contaminate the
ground water.

Landfills – Solid waste is placed in a hole, compacted and covered with a thin layer of soil every
day. This reduces the danger of fires and the amount of odour.

Advantage

It is convenient, initial costs are low, basic requirements are land for the site and transport
arrangement. Idea that waste will degrade and decompose hence more space will become
available. However, when too much waste is being produced, very little oxygen gets to the
bottom and the waste does not decompose. Considered best method for hazardous waste
disposal by on site burial schemes.

Disadvantages
1. Suitable land near urban areas becoming scarce and expensive/has to compete with
other land uses.
2. Cost of transportation to site increasing
3. Produces hazardous gases, solids, liquids from burial waste. Rain percolating down
through site may drain out as polluted leachate contaminating soil and local ground
and surface water supplies.
4. Build up of combustible gases may cause the problem of rubbish fires.
5. Act as a significant producer of greenhouse methane contributing to global warming.

Modern landfills (sanitary) have improved designs to regulate and control pollution, smells,
litter, insects and rodents. They have a clay/plastic liner at bottom of landfill to prevent leaching
and methane is vented to prevent fire.

Incineration – two positive things accomplished:

o Volume of solid waste reduced by up to 90%


o Process produces heat which if properly channeled, can produce steam to warm
buildings or generate electricity.
o Glass and food wastes should be removed. Best materials for incineration are
paper, plastics and rubber.
o 50% of all used tyres in the US were incinerated in 1995. This is one of the best
uses for old tyres because burning rubber produces much heat.
o Possible production of toxic air pollutants is the major disadvantage.

Composting – converting organic wastes such as kitchen waste, grass clippings, branches, and
leaves into soil conditioners such as compost and mulch. This is the best disposal method for
organic waste.

WASTE PREVENTION

Three goals are:

 Reduce the amount of waste – source reduction is the most under-utilised aspect of waste
management. Industries design and manufacture products to decrease the amount of
solid waste or hazardous waste used.
 Reuse products – using a product more than once, either for the same purpose or for an
alternate purpose eg. refillable glass bottles.
 Recycle products – collect and reprocess many materials found in solid waste into new
products of the same or different type.
Benefits of recycling

 Conserves resources for future generations by reducing demand. Recycling one tonne of
aluminium saves four tonnes of bauxite (aluminium ore) and 700 kg of petroleum coke
which has to be extracted from the ground.

 Reduces energy consumption and emissions of many greenhouse gases. Recycling


plastic bottles can save 50% to 60% of the energy needed to make new bottles; similarly
making new steel from scrap is an estimated 75% of energy savings.

 Recycling results in reduction of pollution from extraction industries, production


processes and waste disposal. Recycling one tonne of aluminium reduces aluminium
fluoride emissions into the air by 35 kg. It has been estimated that by doubling
aluminium recovery worldwide, one million tonnes of air pollutants would be eliminated
annually.

 Creates jobs in recycling, repairing and renovating industries.

 Recycling may result in reduced waste disposal costs and the need for new waste disposal
sites. This is important as land space for landfills is scarce.

 Reduces pollution. Discarded paper, glass etc produces an unsightly litter problem which
requires expensive collection and cleaning.

 Participation in recycling helps to raise our awareness of the environment. This means
that we have an increasing awareness and responsibility towards waste production.

Special Case of Plastics

 ~ 2.5% plastics are recycled

 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the plastic used in soda bottles, is recycled more than
any other plastic. It is the form of plastic collected for recycling in Jamaica.

 Polystyrene (one form of Styrofoam) is an example of a plastic with great recycling


potential.

 There are many different types of plastic

 46 different plastics are commonly used e.g. A plastic ketchup bottle may have up to six
layers of different plastics bonded together.
Lecture #10

THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER

Organisms are made up mostly of water (H2O). Trees are ~60% water. Animals are ~50-65%
water and humans are ~70% water. Humans require water for survival and convenience. Water
is important in moderating climate and diluting pollutants. It can exist in three forms – solid,
liquid and vapour.

Water mainly exists as liquid in most parts of the Earth, where the temperature lies between 0oC
and 100oC. It can absorb a great deal of heat without significant change in temperature. This
high heat capacity allows it to have a moderating effect on climate. This also makes evaporation
of water an effective cooling process. Liquid water is a universal solvent, it carries dissolved
nutrients into tissues of organisms and flushes waste products out. Water has a high wetting
ability and expands when it freezes; ice has a lower density than liquid water and will float on
water. This property:
‫ ׀‬Allows aquatic life to exist in lakes and streams in cold climates
‫ ׀‬Facilitates breakage in rocks leading to soil formation

Use of Water

Domestic Use
Industrial Use – as raw material; washing and cooling
Agricultural Use – irrigation (70% water used worldwide)
Transport – rivers/oceans used as a source of conveying heavy and bulky goods over long
distances.
Recreation/Tourism – lakes and coastlines attractive for tourism; water sports becoming
increasingly popular

Surface water is fresh water found on the Earth’s surface in streams and rivers etc. A drainage
basin or watershed is the area of land that drains into bodies of water. Groundwater is
precipitation that infiltrates the ground and percolates downward through pores, fractures,
crevices and other voids in soil. The upper surface is called the water table.

The underground porous layers of rock in which groundwater is stored are called aquifers. Any
area of land through which water passes into an aquifer is called a recharge area. Groundwater
moves through the recharge area through an aquifer and out to a discharge area such as wells,
springs, streams or oceans.

Water supply can be increased by desalinisation, towing icebergs and cloud seeding. In Jamaica,
84% of the available fresh water comes from groundwater, which is extracted by pumping wells
(approx. 500 in Jamaica).

Watershed Destruction

This comes about due to:


‫׀‬ Unsuitable hillside agricultural practices
‫׀‬ Deforestation
‫׀‬ Illegal settlement on hillsides
‫׀‬ Illegal forest fires
‫׀‬ Illegal quarrying

Effects of watershed destruction includes:


‫ ׀‬Decrease in tree cover
‫ ׀‬Increased soil erosion
‫ ׀‬Decreased recharging of groundwater
‫ ׀‬Increased siltation of waterways
‫ ׀‬Increased flooding and loss of habitats

Water Pollution

There are 8 categories of pollutants: sediment, sewage, disease-causing agents, inorganic plant
and algal nutrients, organic compounds, inorganic chemicals, radioactive substances and thermal
pollution.

Eutrophication
Normal lakes having minimal levels of nutrients are said to be unenriched or oligotrophic.
These lakes have clear water and support small populations of aquatic organisms.
Eutrophication is the enrichment of water by nutrients. These lakes are cloudy because of the
presence of vast numbers of algae and other organisms supported by the nutrients.
Eutrophication can naturally occur over vast periods of time and is accelerated by human
activities.

Sources of water pollution

Pollution is classified as point source pollution and non-point source pollution. Point source
pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged into the environment through pipes, sewers or
ditches from specific sites eg. factories, or sewage treatment plants.

Non-point source pollution is caused by land pollutants that enter bodies of water over large
areas rather than a single point eg. agricultural run-off, mining wastes, construction sediments
and soil erosion.

Three major sources of human-induced pollution are:

‫׀‬ Agriculture – major source. Use of pesticides can be toxic while fertilizer run-off,
animal wastes and plant residues causes eutrophication. Soil erosion causes sediment
pollution.
‫׀‬ Municipalities (domestic activities) – Sewage is the major pollutant, also run-off from
storm sewers, streets etc., and traffic emmissions.
‫׀‬ Industries –different industries produce different types of pollutants eg. food
processing industries produce organic waste.
The effects of water pollution

Pollutant Effects Comment

Organic wastes (sewage, decaying plants, Increase in biological oxygen If adequate oxygen is available,
animal manures, wastes from food demand of water these substances can be degraded by
processing plants, oil refineries, and
leather, paper, and textile plants)
microorganisms usually present in
water. If oxygen becomes depleted,
decomposition is limited to what
can be done by anaerobic
decomposers. Water plants may be
killed, and animals may be killed or
caused to migrate.
Pathogenic organisms Cause disease in humans who Most bacteria are well controlled in public
drink the water drinking water, but certain viruses,
especially those that cause hepatitis, still
cause human disease. More effective
means of removing viruses during
purification are needed.

Inorganic chemicals and minerals Increase the salinity and acidity Such chemicals should be removed during
of water and render it toxic waste treatment. Heavy metals such as
mercury, which are toxic to humans, should
be prevented from entering water supplies.

Synthetic organic chemicals (herbicides, Can cause birth defects, cancer, Because these substances are not
pesticides, detergents, plastics, wastes neurological damage, and other biodegradable, chemical or physical means
from industrial processes) illness must be used to remove them during waste
treatment. Many such substances become
magnified (increased in concentration) as
they are passed along food chains.

Plant nutrients Cause excessive and sometimes Removal of excess phosphates and nitrates
uncontrolled growth of aquatic from water during waste treatment is costly
plants (eutrophication); impart and difficult.
undesirable odours and tastes to
drinking water

Sediments from land erosion Cause silting of waterways and


destruction of hydroelectric
equipment near dams; reduce
light reaching plants in water and
oxygen content of water

Radioactive wastes Can cause cancer, birth defects, Effects can be magnified through food
radiation sickness when in large chains. Because such wastes are difficult
doses to remove from water, preventing them
from reaching water is exceedingly
important.

Heated water Reduces oxygen solubility in


water; alters habitats and kinds
of organisms present; encourages
growth of some aquatic life, but
can decrease growth of desired
organisms such as fish.
Lecture #11

AIR POLLUTION

About 75% of the atmosphere’s mass is found in the atmosphere’s inner layer (the troposphere)
which is 17 km deep at the equator and 8 km at the poles. The composition of clean, dry air in
the troposphere is 78% nitrogen (N2), 21% oxygen (O2), <1% argon, 0.036% carbon dioxide
(CO2) and traces of other gases. Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere which extends about
17-48 km above the Earth’s surface. Its composition is similar to the troposphere with two
exceptions:

1) its volume of water vapour is ~1000 times less, therefore clouds are rarely found above
the troposphere.

2) its volume of ozone is ~1000 times greater

The stratospheric ozone acts as an ultraviolet filter keeping out ~99% of the Sun’s harmful
radiation from reaching the Earth’s surface. This allows life to exist on land, protects animals
from UV’s harmful effects and prevents oxygen in the troposphere from being converted to
ozone which is considered a pollutant in the troposphere.

Important atmospheric pollutants include gases such as sulphur dioxide (SO 2), oxides of nitrogen
and carbon, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and particulates such as dust. Urban areas with
large concentration of vehicles and factories normally have higher air pollution levels than rural
areas.

Air pollution can be divided into two main categories:

‫׀‬ Primary air pollutants – harmful chemicals that enter directly into the atmosphere
Primary pollutants are the products of natural events eg. dust storms, volcanic
eruptions as well as those from human activities such as emissions from vehicles
‫׀‬ Secondary air pollutants – harmful chemicals that are the resultant products of
reactions among primary pollutants or with components of the air.

Sources of air pollution

There are natural and man-made sources of air pollution. Natural sources include hydrocarbon
emission from trees in response to heat and sulphur dioxide from volcanoes.

The two main human sources of primary pollutants are motor vehicles and industries. Coal and
heavy oil burning power plants and factories inject sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and a variety of solid particles (unburned carbon referred to as soot) into the
atmosphere.

Urban Air pollution

Air pollution that is localised in urban areas, reducing visibility is called smog. Industrial smog
refers to smoke pollution with the principal components being sulphur oxides and particulate
matter. Sulphur dioxide is a choking, colourless gas which reacts with oxygen to form sulphur
trioxide which then reacts with water vapour to form sulphuric acid (H 2SO4). Droplets of
sulphuric acid react with ammonia in the atmosphere to form solid particulates of ammonium
sulphate which along with particles of soot give industrial smog its grey colour.

Photochemical or brown air smog is a mixture of primary and secondary pollutants formed under
the influence of sunlight and consists of more than 100 secondary air pollutants. The first step in
the formation of photochemical smog begins when nitrogen and oxygen in the air react in vehicle
engines and factory boilers to produce nitric oxide which on entering the atmosphere then slowly
reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), a yellowish brown gas with a choking odour.
This nitrogen dioxide may react with water vapour to form nitric acid (HNO 3) or with UV light
to form nitric oxide (NO) and oxygen atoms (O), which are highly reactive and react with O 2 to
form ozone (O3).

Both oxygen atoms and ozone can react with volatile organic compounds to produce aldehydes
and peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs). Nitrogen dioxide, ozone and PANs are called photochemical
oxidants because they can react with compounds in the air or in human lungs that are not
normally oxidised, irritating the respiratory tract. Photochemical smog may also cause eye
watering and may be toxic to plants because it can block one of the pathways in photosynthesis.

Effect of climate and topography on air pollution

When the sun increases surface temperatures the air near the ground is warmed. This heated air
expands and rises to higher levels in the atmosphere, causing a low pressure area near the ground
followed by movement of the surrounding air into this low pressure area. This air circulation
prevents toxic pollutants from increasing to dangerous levels near to the ground.

Thermal inversion is where air near the ground is colder than the air above it, causing pollutants
to be trapped near the ground. This only occurs for a few hours. Topography influences the
likelihood of thermal inversion. Cities located near valleys, near the coast or on the leeward side
of mountains are prone to this problem.

Indoor Air Pollution

Air in enclosed spaces may have higher levels of air pollutants than air outside. Illnesses caused
resemble common ailments like cold, influenza or upset stomach. Most common contaminants
are cigarette smoke, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, pesticides, cleaning solvents, ozone (from
photocopiers) and asbestos. Microorganisms, dust mites, pollen and other organisms may also
be present.

Sick building syndrome is the name given to the presence of air pollution inside office buildings
that can cause eye irritations, nausea, headaches, respiratory infections and fatigue.

Acid deposition

Acid deposition is a type of air pollution involving secondary pollutants such as sulphuric acid
and nitric acid in precipitation (sometimes called wet precipitation) as well as dry, sulphuric and
nitric acid particles that settle out of the air (sometimes called dry deposition). Acid
precipitation, including acid rain, sleet, snow and fog poses a serious threat to the environment.
In the United States alone, the damage has been estimated at $8 billion each year. Acid
deposition occurs when sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides react with water to produce dilute
solutions of sulphuric acid, nitric acid and nitrous acid.

Natural unpolluted rain has a pH of about 5.6 due to the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide.
However, in some areas eg. Britian, Europe and North America, rain water often has a pH of
between 4-4.5 and sometimes lower.

Acid deposition has harmful ecological effects especially when the pH falls below 5.1 for
terrestrial systems and below 5.5 for aquatic systems. It can also contribute to human respiratory
diseases such as bronchitis and asthma and can damage buildings, metals statues and car finishes.
Acid rain can do much damage to forests and vegetation. It contributes to what is known as
forest decline, characterised by gradual deterioration and often death of trees. The general
symptoms of forest decline are reduced vigour and growth. Other contributing factors include
tropospheric ozone, UV radiation and insect attack.

One way in which acid deposition harms plants is well established. Acid deposition alters the
chemistry of soils which affects the development of plant roots as well as their uptake of
dissolved minerals and water from the soil. Essential plant minerals such as calcium and
magnesium wash readily out of acidic soils becoming available for absorption in toxic amounts.

Acid rain can kill fish and interfere with the uptake of calcium by crustaceans. Without calcium
they cannot manufacture their exoskeleton. Birds are also affected. Studies have shown that
birds living in areas with pronounced acid deposition were much more likely to lay eggs with
thin, fragile shells that break or dry out before the chicks hatch. The basic means of control of
acid deposition is to reduce emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides. If sulphur and nitrogen
oxides are not released into the atmosphere, they cannot come down as acid deposition.

Acid rain is a serious regional problem in many areas downwind from coal burning, power
plants, smelters factories and large urban areas. Large portions of acid producing chemicals
generated in one country may be exported to others by prevailing winds. As s result of acid
deposition; 16000 lakes in Norway and Sweden contain no fish, 14,000 acidified lakes in Canada
are almost fish-less and 150,000 more are in peril and 9000 lakes in USA are threatened.

Treatment: Liming of acidified lakes and soils.

Controlling Air Pollutants


‫ ׀‬Smaller more fuel efficient automobiles
‫ ׀‬Develop new technologies to control air pollution
‫ ׀‬Smokestacks fitted with equipment to remove particulate matter
‫ ׀‬Sprinkling water on dry soil that is being moved during road construction
‫ ׀‬Switch to low sulphur fuels such as natural gas
‫ ׀‬Reduce combustion temperatures in automobiles which lessens formation of nitrogen
oxide.
The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the natural trapping of heat by gases such as carbon dioxide and
methane in the atmosphere. This heat keeps the planet warm and allows life to exist. Without
this process the average temperature on earth would be 17 0C. Human activities have increased
the concentrations of many greenhouse gases. This has enhanced the greenhouse effect resulting
in increased average global temperatures.

Greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect. Other greenhouse gases include
water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, chlorofluorocarbons, carbon monoxide,
and tropospheric ozone. The greenhouse effect is so called because carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases warm the earth in much the same way that glass warms a greenhouse. The
gases allow light rays from the sun to pass relatively unhindered, however, heat that is reflected
from the Earth’s surface is trapped in the atmosphere by these gases. There is evidence to show
that up to 200 years ago the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was fairly
constant, at around 0.027%. Since then it has risen to over 0.036%.

There are two reasons for this increase:

1. We are burning large amounts of fossil fuels that were laid down over hundreds of
millions of years. These acted as sinks in the carbon cycle. Normally carbon once
trapped in these would rarely ever escape.
2. Increased deforestation is removing trees that would otherwise act as carbon
reservoirs.

Methane (produced in rubbish dumps, swamps and the stomach of ruminants) is another even
more effective greenhouse gas but its build up in the atmosphere is much less than that of carbon
dioxide.

Consequences of Global Warming

The consequences of global warming are still uncertain. Over the last one hundred years world
temperatures have risen over 0.50C. The surface waters of the ocean at the equator have become
warmer; as a result, more water is evaporating into air. The warmer air rises faster resulting in
stronger winds. These winds carry the moisture laden air further from the tropics causing the
tropics to receive less rain than usual and temperate regions to get more rain leading to floods.

It is possible that the greenhouse effect might result in the melting of much of the mountain
glaciers. The resulting rise in sea levels would cause hundreds of millions of people in low-lying
areas to abandon their homes. The melting of the ice caps and a warmer climate would have
profound consequences for other species e.g. polar bears, British flora.

Other consequences include:

Changes in food production, reduction of water supplies in some areas, change in the makeup
and location of forests, increase in weather extremes and severity and spread of tropical diseases
to temperate regions.

Solution

A reduction in the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide is the solution. However, international
cooperation is essential. A number of approaches have been suggested.
‫׀‬ Rely less on fossil fuels and more on renewable energy sources such as solar power, wind
power and nuclear power
‫׀‬ Reduce total energy demand through the introduction of energy saving measures
‫׀‬ Increase energy and fuel efficiency of power plants
‫׀‬ Stop deforestation and plant more trees allowing more carbon dioxide to be locked up in
wood
‫׀‬ More controversial solutions include pumping carbon dioxide underground or down to the
ocean floor or even encouraging ocean algal blooms to trap carbon dioxide.
‫׀‬ At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 155 nations signed a convention on climate
change. The most developed countries committed themselves to reducing their emissions of
carbon dioxide and other green house gases to 1990 levels by year 2000.

Ozone depletion

Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen and is considered a pollutant in the troposphere but is essential in
the stratosphere. In the stratosphere oxygen reacts with ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun
to form ozone. Stratospheric ozone acts as a filter, preventing much of the solar ultraviolet
radiation from reaching the earths surface. UV radiation is that part of the electromagnetic
spectrum with wavelengths just shorter than visible light. It is a high energy form of radiation
that can be lethal to organisms in excessive amounts. Should ozone disappear from the
stratosphere, the earth would become uninhabitable for most forms of life.

It has been shown that there are seasonal holes in the ozone layer over the Arctic and Antarctica
and that each year the holes become larger. The Antarctic hole is much larger than the Arctic
hole. The main chemicals responsible for this thinning is a versatile group of compounds called
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs have been used as propellants for aerosol cans, as coolants in
air conditioners and refrigerators (eg. Freon), as foam used for insulation and packaging eg.
Styrofoam, and as solvents. Additional compounds that also attack ozone include halons (found
in many fire extinguishers) and methyl bromide.

CFCs and other chlorine containing compounds slowly drift up to the stratosphere, where UV
radiation breaks them down, releasing the highly reactive chlorine atoms. Similarly bromine is
released by the breakdown of halons and methyl bromide. The problem is worse during polar
winters because at very low temperatures many more chlorine atoms are released. Under certain
conditions found in the stratosphere a single chlorine or bromine atom breaks down many
thousands of ozone molecules. Human produced pollution is not the only cause of ozone
depletion. Volcanic eruptions also accelerate ozone loss because the sulphur aerosols they send
into the atmosphere speed the breakdown of CFCs and halons.

In 1987, the Montreal Protocol was signed by over 30 countries which laid down targets to
reduce CFC usage. Since 1987, more than 150 countries signed an agreement to phase out all
use of CFCs by 2000. Despite these agreements, the news about CFC’s worsened in the 1990’s.
Industrial companies that manufacture CFC’s have developed substitutes such as
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). HFCs do not attack the
ozone but are potent greenhouse gases. HCFCs attack ozone but are not as destructive as CFCs.
Health effects of several major air pollutants

Pollutant Description Source Effects


Particulate Consists of thousands of Industries, motor vehicles Aggravates respiratory illnesses;
matter different solid and liquid long term exposure may cause
particles that are increased incidence of chronic
suspended in the conditions such as bronchitis.
atmosphere. Solid
particulate matter is
generally referred to as
dust, whereas liquid
suspensions are
commonly called mists.
Hydrocarbons A diverse group of Methane is the principal There are many different
organic compounds that component of natural gas. hydrocarbons and they have a
contain only hydrogen variety of effects on human and
and carbon. The animal health. Some injure the
simplest compound is respiratory tract and others may
methane which is a lead to cancer. All except methane
colourless, odourless are important in the production of
gas. photochemical smog. Methane is
involved in global warming.
Carbon oxides Carbon monoxide is a Motor vehicles, industries Carbon monoxide is poisonous and
colourless, odourless reduces the blood’s ability to
and tasteless gas. transport oxygen. Headache and
Carbon dioxide is also fatigue at lower levels,; mental
colourless and odourless impairment or death at high levels
and tasteless. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the
atmosphere and is therefore
involved in global warming.
Nitrogen oxides Gases Motor vehicles, industries, Nitrogen oxides inhibit plant
heavily fertilised farmlands. growth, and when breathed,
aggravate health problems such as
Produced by the chemical asthma. They are involved in the
reactions between nitrogen production of photochemical smog,
and oxygen. acid deposition and global warming.
Nitrogen oxides cause metals to
corrode and textiles to fade and
deteriorate.
Ozone (O3) A form of oxygen. Ozone in the troposphere is a Considered a pollutant in one part
secondary air pollutant that of the atmosphere but essential in
forms when sunlight another. Ozone is the most harmful
catalyzes reaction between component of photochemical smog.
nitrogen oxides and It reduces air visibility and causes
hydrocarbons. respiratory problems. Ozone
stresses plants and reduces their
vigour.
Sulphur oxides Sulphur oxide (SO2) is a Electric power plants and Irritate respiratory tract; same
colourless, non- other industries. Formed by effects as particulates. Sulphur
flammable gas with a the reaction between sulphur oxides are very important in acid
strong irritating odour . and oxygen. Sulphur trioxide deposition and they corrode metals
is a secondary air pollutant and damage stones and other
that forms when sulphur materials. They may also damage
dioxide reacts with oxygen in plants and irritate the respiratory
the air. Sulphur trioxide in tracts of humans and other animals.
turn reacts with water to form
another secondary air
pollutant, sulphuric acid.

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