UNIT 2, Sentence Structure - Functions - Handout

Sentence structure: Functions
Unit 2
NODE = any point in a phrase marker bearing
a label (= name)
=> The Mother node dominates the constituents

right below it
=> The NODE S

immediately dominates
=> S =
=> The immediate constituents of the higher node
are also called the daughters of this higher
node.
=> The Node S is the

Mother of Phrase a &
Phrase b.
=> Phrase a & Phrase b
=
=> The sisters are immediately dominated by the same
single node above them.
=> Sister constituents
=> The Node S is the

Mother of Phrase a &
Phrase b.
=> Phrase a & Phrase b
=
=> Phrase a =
=> Phrase b =
Every well-formed sentence has two daughters (or ICs)
- Subject
- Predicate
The subject and predicate >
Identify the subjects and predicates of these sentences:

1. Birds can fly.
2. These birds are buiding their nests.
3. The beautiful birds in my garden are building their
nests at the top of the trees.
N.B.1 Question tests for Subject:
- Yes-No questions >
- WH-questions
Examples 1 (Yes-No Qs.)

(a) Birds can fly.
(b) These birds are buiding their nests.
N.B.1 Question tests for Subject:
- Yes-No questions
- WH-questions
Examples 2 (WH-Qs)
(a) These birds are buiding their nests.
(b) Carol is doing the gardening.
=> The subject answers the Qs about WHAT or WHO

N.B.2 Empty subject
(Expletive = )
- IT & THERE
Use Yes-No question tests for the subjects:

(a) It is snowing again.
(b) There is nothing to eat.
=> WH-questions do NOT work here because the

subjects are “empty”.
Practice 1: Use Yes-No questions to identify
the subjects. Demonstrate their movements
by using arrows. (Further excercises, p.42)
1. I am accepting your invitation.

2. The income received from fines can’t be taken into
account.
3. A gorilla swinging about in the trees above our heads
interrupted this already lengthy story.
4. One day will be enough for this job.
5. One day, my boy, all this will be yours.
6. Elizabeth and Leicester excel at Real Tennis.
N.B.3 NPs as Subjects
VPs as Predicates
Use Replacement tests for the subjects when giving

answers to Yes-No questions:
(a) Whales spout.
(b) These baby whales are spouting in the sea.
=> The Subject has a Noun/Pronoun as its centre
=> The Pred. has a Verb as its centre

Practice 2: Draw phrase markers as in the
example, using triangles for NP and VP.
1. Elizabeth and Leicester excel at Real Tennis.

2. I am accepting your invitation.
3. The income received from fines can’t be taken into account.
4. A gorilla swinging about in the trees above our heads
interrupted this already lengthy story.
5. One day will be enough for this job.
6. One day, my boy, all this will be yours.
Discussion: “Your invitation” is an NP, but why
isn’t it the Subject of the sentence?
NP VP
I am accepting your invitation.

N.B. Subject-Predicate relation
Subject is dependent Pred. is dependent on
on Pred. Subject
=> Subject-Predicate =>

=> an NP functions as a Subj. in the presence of a
sister VP, and vice versa >
Dependency
1. Head
2. The modifier-head relation
3. The head-complement relation
1. Head of a phrase
= the OBLIGATORY element that the
phrase is centred on (p.32)
=>
E.g. a nice HAT (NP)

IN the garden
is SWIMMING in the pool
rather WORRIED
2. The modifier-head relation
Modifier is dependent HEAD can
on HEAD. stand alone.
=> A modifier has its function in the presence of

its sister (HEAD)
=> Modifier >
=> HEAD >
PHRASE-a
PHRASE-b
PHRASE-c
Two rather dubious jokes
Identify three sister relationships:

(1) rather –
Modification (2) PHRASE-c –
(3) Two –
H
M
M H H
Two rather dubious jokes

Modifier-Head relationships:
(1) rather  dubious (H)
(2) rather dubious 
(3) Two 
3. The head-complement relation
HEAD (obligatory) Complement (obligatory)

HEAD (obligatory) Complement (obligatory)
=> Relation of Complementation

HEAD COMPLEMENT
played
felt
beside
SUMMARY
S P
H C
M H
John felt completely bored.
VP-Predicate
(p.37)
SUMMARY
Constituents have their functions in respect of
their sisters.
1. NODES:
2. Subject (NP), Predicate (VP)
3. Sub-pred >
4. Modifier-Head >
5. Head-Complement >
6. HEAD > centre of its phrase

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Sentence structure: Functions

=> The Mother node dominates the constituents

=> The NODE S

=> The Node S is the

=> The Node S is the

Identify the subjects and predicates of these sentences:

Examples 1 (Yes-No Qs.)

=> The subject answers the Qs about WHAT or WHO

Use Yes-No question tests for the subjects:

=> WH-questions do NOT work here because the

1. I am accepting your invitation.

Use Replacement tests for the subjects when giving

=> The Subject has a Noun/Pronoun as its centre

=> The Pred. has a Verb as its centre

1. Elizabeth and Leicester excel at Real Tennis.

I am accepting your invitation.

=> Subject-Predicate =>

E.g. a nice HAT (NP)

=> A modifier has its function in the presence of

Two rather dubious jokes

Identify three sister relationships:

Two rather dubious jokes

HEAD (obligatory) Complement (obligatory)

=> Relation of Complementation

John felt completely bored.

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