Session 2 Seismic experiments 2.2 Seismic arrivals on seismograms (textbook Chapter 6.

2)

Learning outcomes In controlled-source seismology, we use artificial seismic sources

(as opposed to using earthquakes as sources) to probe the Earthʼs
After this session, you should be able to interior. But like seismology involving earthquakes, our aim is to
• explain the term “seismic arrivals”, “reflected arrivals”, listen for the echoes, which are detected and recorded by an array
“critically refracted arrivals” and “direct arrivals” of receivers. Figure 1 shows P waves (P) and S waves (S)
• describe the Law of Reflection, Snellʼs Law and critical propagating from the source to the receivers, and the vibration is
refraction recorded by the receivers. For each receiver, these vibrations can
• outline the experimental designs of seismic refraction and be plotted as a function of time (i.e. as time goes on): these
reflection surveys in marine and land settings seismograms are seismic traces.
• Reading: Course book Chapters 4.4, 6.1, 6.2, 6.7, 7.7.1 and
7.7.4; Figure 7.5 (p. 86)

2.1 Introduction

In Session 1, we came across a geophysical concept known as

“seismic velocity”, which provides useful information about materials
and geological structures in the subsurface. In order to determine
how seismic velocity varies from one place to another beneath the
surface (seismic velocity model), we need to conduct seismic
experiments to obtain data. In this session, we will learn about how
seismic experiments are performed on land and at sea.

In these seismic experiments, we record seismic waves that may

have undergone reflection or refraction in the subsurface. We will
study how seismic waves propagate in the subsurface. Specifically,
we will study seismic reflection and refraction. The seismic signals
recorded during a seismic experiment allow us to determine seismic
velocity and other useful physical properties by geophysical
modelling (Sessions 3 to 5).
Figure 1. Seismic traces and seismic arrivals. The distance Figure 2. An example of seismic traces in reality (vertical axis is
between the source and the receivers is known as the source- time and the horizontal axis indicates increasing distance from
receiver offset. Seismic traces can be plotted as a function of source). (source: http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~dforel/
source-receiver offset (see the horizontal axis), and seismic signals 2001ge4600/011213.htm)
in the form of “wiggles” can be identified from the seismic traces.
In sketching arrivals in t-x diagrams or time-distance diagrams,
“Time=0” refers to the time when the source is set off. The we can identify and represent seismic arrivals by drawing lines to
vibrations recorded appear as “seismic wiggles”. The dotted lines P link up the seismic wiggles from the same arrival (like the dotted
and S in Figure 1 show two groups of seismic wiggles. Each group lines linking the P- and S-wave arrivals in Figure 1).
(“seismic arrival” or simply “arrival”) is a record of the propagation
of the same packet of seismic energy from the source at different
receiver locations. Figure 2 is an example of what seismic traces 2.3 Seismic refraction and seismic reflection
look like in reality. Note that there is always some level of noise.
As seismic waves propagate away from the source, the particles in
the medium that are in phase form a wavefront: an easy way to
understand this is to consider ripples on a pond. Each ripple is a
wavefront (Figure 3). Ray paths are perpendicular to the wavefront,
and indicate the propagation direction of the seismic wave.

Figure 3. Ripples in a pond are wavefronts. Ray paths radiate

outward from the centre, indicating the direction of wave
propagation.

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As body waves encounter an interface where there is a change in If v2 > v1, as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction
seismic velocity and/or density, both reflection and refraction occurs. increases. If r reaches 90 degrees, it is known as critical refraction
(Figure 5). The corresponding angle of incidence is known as the
For refraction, the direction of seismic rays changes at the interface. critical angle.
Snellʼs law allows us to determine this change in the direction of
propagation of seismic waves (Figure 4), which is related to the
seismic velocities of the layer above and below the interface.

Snellʼs Law states that

sin i / sin r = v1 / v2

where i and r are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

respectively, and v1 and v2 are the seismic velocities of the two
media.
Figure 5. Critical refraction. The seismic ray has undergone
seismic refraction at the interface but in the case of critical
refraction, the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. The angle of
incidence is known as the critical angle, which can be found by
Snellʼs Law. Note that critical refraction can only take place when
the seismic velocity of the second medium is higher than that of the
first medium. Also note that the seismic ray is travelling in the
second medium (i.e. just below the interface) after undergoing
critical refraction.
Figure 4. Seismic refraction across an interface. The interface
separates the two media with different seismic velocities. The
seismic ray is bent as it undergoes seismic refraction across the Unlike seismic refractions, seismic rays that have undergone
interface. The degree of bending as measured by the angle of reflection get ʻbounced backʼ at the interface. The angle of
refraction (r) is determined by the angle of incidence (i), and the incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This is known as the
seismic velocities of the two media. The exact relationship is Law of Reflection (Figure 6).
specified by Snellʼs Law. Note i and r are measured from the
normal, which is perpendicular to the interface.

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 Figure 7. Seismic arrivals in a two-layer model with velocities V2 >
Figure 6. Law of reflection. The seismic ray is bounced back at the V1. X is the horizontal distance and h is the layer thickness.
interface with the angle of incidence (a) being the same as the angle
of reflection (b).

Note that each of these seismic arrivals corresponds to the same

packet of seismic energy originating from the seismic source. The
2.4 Types of seismic arrivals same seismic arrival can be picked up by the array of receivers
located at various distances away from the source.
Figure 7 shows two media with seismic velocities v1 and v2. A direct
arrival is recorded by an array of receivers as the seismic wave The seismic signals from the same seismic arrival recorded at
propagates directly from the source to the receiver in the upper different distances all satisfy certain conditions. For instance, the
medium. Reflected arrival hits the interface, bounces back and is critically refracted arrivals from a particular interface have all gone
then recorded by receivers on the surface. through critical refraction at that interface, travel just below the
interface at the seismic velocity of the lower layer before
Critically refracted arrival comes from waves travelling in the lower refracting back to the surface at the critical angle. However, they
medium (just below the interface) before refracting back to the top can arrive at different distances away from the source on the
surface. Note that the critically refracted arrival has undergone surface. This is because the seismic wave can travel different
critical refraction. This means that the seismic wave has refracted at distances just below the interface before refracting back to the
the critical angle (angle of incidence) when it encounters an surface.
interface separating two media with different seismic velocities. The
critical angle can be calculated by applying Snellʼs Law with angle of
refraction = 90º.

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In our simple models, it takes longer for a particular packet of
seismic energy to arrive at a receiver located farther away from the
source. (This may not be true for some more complex models.)
The idea of time-distance diagram is to show this relationship for
each seismic arrival.

Now you have learnt about the terms “direct arrivals”, “critically
refracted arrivals” and “reflected arrivals”. You will find out about
how these seismic arrivals can be generated and recorded in the
field. The rest of this session will be on seismic experiments.

2.5 Seismic sources, receivers and timing devices

Seismic sources generate seismic waves in seismic experiments.

The sources used depend on the scale of the experiment as well as
on the geological setting (e.g., land or marine). Seismic sources
that are commonly used include hammers, explosives, airguns
Figure 8. Hammer seismics (http://www.terra-au.com/)
and non-impulsive sources.

Useful signals such as refracted arrivals and reflected arrivals

2.6 Land surveys
(together with noise) are recorded by receivers. The number of
receivers and their spatial configuration also depend on the scale of
Seismic experiments involving the use of a hammer (Figure 8) are
the experiment and the geological setting. Accurate timing devices
suitable for small-scale studies (< 100 m between the source and
are also needed so that the time for arrivals to reach the receivers
receivers). When the hammer touches the plate, the electric circuit
can be correctly measured.
is closed: and the time is recorded when the seismic source signal is
produced. Geophones connected to a cable (or single geophone)
are used (Figure 9). The receivers are buried so that noise from the
surrounding can be minimized.

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In explosion seismic explosions, the charge is buried in a drilled
hole. The charge is often set off (by an electrical detonator) below
the water table in order to produce better results. Lines of
geophones or seismometers are used. Wireless technologies are
employed to synchronize the time. Seismometers with three
receivers designed to record vibrations from the two horizontal
directions and the vertical direction are also used for studying S-
wave arrivals.

It is important to note that receivers have to be spaced more closely Figure 9. Geophones (http://www.harbourdom.de/)
together in order to detect the potential near-surface layer that is
characterized by low velocities (Figure 10). These low velocities are
associated with weather material and soil. If this layer is not
detected, the travel-times may be wrongly interpreted.

Apart from impulsive sources, vibroseis systems generate a

continuous train of seismic waves from a truck, for instance (Figure
11). The frequency of the wave produced by the source changes
with time (from 10 Hz to 100 Hz, lasting for < 30 sec); and a
characteristic source signal is produced. The vibrations generated
are relatively modest, and this method can thus be used in urban
areas. Deep crustal studies can be performed by using more than
one truck for generating the source signals. Vibroseis trucks are
mobile and can be deployed to different source locations relatively
easily. Geophones are used as receivers.

In seismic reflection experiments, geophones are designed to pick

up reflected arrivals in favour of the horizontally travelling direct
arrivals, which do not give information on the deeper interfaces in
the subsurface (Figure 12).

Figure 10. Refracted arrivals and receiver spacing. It is important

that receivers are spaced sufficiently closed together so that low-
velocity layers near the surface are detected.
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 Figure 12. The use of geophones in land reflection seismic
Figure 11. Vibroseis system on a truck: generating a continuous experiments: avoid the detection of horizontally travelling direct
train of seismic waves (www.indvehicles.com) arrivals in favour of the detection of near-vertical reflected arrivals.

Receivers are put in groups in order to enhance the signal-to-

noise ratio. First, receivers in these groups record refracted and
reflected arrivals with only slight differences in their raypaths (Figure
13). As noise is likely to be random, the signal-to-noise ratio can be
increased by adding (“stacking”) the seismic records from these
receivers.

Second, surface waves (e.g., Rayleigh waves or “ground roll”)

propagate along the surface, which may be unwanted noise. If the
group length of the receivers is the same as the wavelength of the
surface waves (Figure 14), the signals recorded by all these
receivers can then be added up (“stacked”) to enhance the signal-to-
noise ratio. This is possible because the effects of the upward and
downward motions (caused by the surface waves) will be reduced
significantly by stacking.
Figure 13. The signal-to-noise ratio can be enhanced by stacking
seismic records from receivers in a group.
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2.7 Marine surveys 2.8 Task 1: State-of-the-art surveys with ocean-bottom cables

Figure 15 shows an example of the design of a marine seismic The context: You have come across two main types of instruments
experiment with a seismic source and receivers. used in seismic surveys at sea, namely ocean-bottom
seismometers/hydrophones and streamers.
Explosives are now much less frequently used as seismic sources
at sea than before. Impulsive sources using compressed air (an
airgun array) and high-voltage electric discharges are now more A streamer typically has hundreds of receivers. In contrast, a typical
commonly used, especially in studies involving firing many shots refraction seismic experiment at sea has tens of ocean-bottom
(modern experiments can have 100,000+ shots). The depth of the instruments. What are the disadvantages of having a more limited
airgun array (Figure 16) and the depth at which explosives are number of ocean-bottom instruments?
detonated are determined by considering the quality of the seismic
signals that they generate. Ocean-bottom cables are similar to streamers but they are on the
seafloor. What are the advantages of using this technology? Why
Hydrophones on a streamer (floating cable towed by a research are they good for 4D marine seismic experiments (i.e. repeated
vessel) measure the pressure change caused by the P-wave experiment in the same area)?
refracted arrivals. Typical streamers are 3 to 12 km long. Stacking
is carried out in specific ways to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio
(refer to Session 5 on reflection seismology). Modern experiments
used in the petroleum industry involve using multiple streamers for a
full 3D imaging of the subsurface.

Ocean bottom hydrophones and seismometers (Figure 17) are

deployed to stay on the seafloor to record reflected and refracted
arrivals. Ocean bottom hydrophones record P-wave arrivals,
whereas ocean bottom seismometers contain sensors for recording
S-wave arrivals as well. These instruments have internal clocks and
provide continuous recording.

GPS systems are used for recording the location of the receivers on
the streamer and the deployment locations of the ocean-bottom
instruments.
Figure 14. Stacking seismic records from receivers within a group
can reduce the noise coming from surface waves

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Figure 15. A schematic diagram showing the configuration of a marine seismic experiment with airguns as seismic sources, hydrophones on a
streamer for detection of reflected arrivals, and ocean bottom hydrophones for detecting refracted and reflected arrivals (http://
www.bgr.bund.de/)

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 Figure 17. Ocean bottom seismometer. The sphere is a floating
device attached to the seismometer, which is in turn attached to a
heavy piece of metal (for making the unit sink to the seafloor). The
Figure 16. Airgun array to be deployed to the right depth for seismometer is recovered by leaving the metal behind through an
generating optimal seismic source signals (http://www.awi- electronic release mechanism and a remote control system.
bremerhaven.de/) (http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/operations/obs/)

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Figure 18. Seismic experiment on a glacier!
(http://shiro.wustl.edu/)

Geophysics course notes by

Dr Vincent C H Tong, Birkbeck, University of London
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