Study Material

ANGRAU

POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT

OF
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

K.BHASKARA REDDY
Associate Professor & Head
Department of Horticulture
S.V.Agricultural College
TIRUPATI
&
DR.N.NEERAJA PRABHAKAR
Associate Professor
Department of Horticulture
College of Agriculture
Rajendra Nagar-Hyderabad
POST HBARVEST MANAGEMENT

OF

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

 Post Harvest Technology / Post Harvest Management

Post harvest technology is a very important branch of agriculture and its

importance further increased in the field of horticulture as the crops are highly
perishable in nature.
Post harvest technology / post harvest management may be defined as the
branch of agriculture that deals with all the operations right from harvesting or
even the preharvest stages till the commodity reaches the consumer, either in
fresh (grains, apple, mango, tomato fruits) or processed form (flour, juice, nectar,
ketchup) and utilization of the wastes (pomace, peel, seed, skin etc.) in a profitable
manner (manufacture of fermented beverages, colour extraction, pectin extraction
etc.)
What ever unit operations are done with the crops right from the harvesting stage
till the product is consumed, all is dealt with in post harvest technology. Some
times some specific preharvest operations i.e.-harvest sprays of calcium and
boron on fruits that result in improving firmness (Post harvest quality) are also
dealt with in post harvest technology as these are not the regular agronomic
practices but are done to affect the pre harvest quality. Post harvest technology
deals with 3 types of products.i.e.fresh produce, processed products, and handling
and processing wastes.

Importance of post harvest technology: One of the most important

considerations in the world today is to provide nutritious food to approximately six
billion population of the planet. Fruits and vegetables, being a rich source of vital
nutrients constitute an important component of human nutrition. The concerted
efforts made in the horticulture sector have been amply rewarded with a
tremendous increase in production of various fruits and vegetables, through out
the world. In consistent with the global trend, India has emerged as the second
largest producer of fruits and vegetables and 25-40% of this hard earned valuable
produce goes waste due to inadequate post harvest infrastructure and poor
utilization (1.8%) by processing industry. More over, there is little point in growing
more if much of it is to be lost. Besides quantitative losses, the problem of quality
and safety of produce is also significant to the consumers. The whole scenario
thus, reflects a very gloomy picture. Unless post harvest technology gets its due
recognition and proper growth, the horticulture industry cannot thrive.

World production of fruits and vegetables at present is 878 million metric tones
(fruit production- 392 million metric tones and vegetable production- 486 million
metric tones). Worldwide post harvest fruit and vegetables losses are as high as
30 to 40% and even much higher in some developing countries. Reducing post
harvest losses is very important; ensuring that sufficient food, both in quantity and
in quality is available to every inhabitant in our planet. The prospects are also that
the world population will grow from 5.7 billion inhabitants in 1995 to 8.3 billion in
2025. World production of vegetables amounted to 486 million ton, while that of
fruits reached 392 million tonnes. Reduction of post-harvest losses reduces cost of
production, trade and distribution, lowers the price for the consumer and increases
the farmer’s income.

Where as Indian production of fruits and vegetables are 112.52 million metric
tones. It includes fruit production of 32 million metric tones which is about 8% of
world production and second largest producer after Brazil in the world and
vegetable production of 80.52 million metric tones which is about 15% of world
production and second largest producer after China in the world. But India loses
about 30-40% of the produce due to improper Post Harvest Management. A loss
estimated at Rs. 40,000 crores per year. India wastes fruits and vegetables every
year equivalent to the annual consumption of the United Kingdom.

Recently, post harvest technology of fruits and vegetables has engaged the
attention of policy makers, planners and scientists in the developed countries.
However, in the developing countries the situation is far from satisfactory, where
even the recognition of the subject is a recent phenomenon. Development of post
harvest technology could save a lot of produce from spoilage, become a new
diversified source of food and a tool to fight malnutrition, prevailing in these
countries. For this, sustained efforts for in-depth research, value addition and
efficient strategy for technology and then only it could absorb new innovations
which are a slow process.
The following points shall high light the importance of Post harvest technology
1) Reduction in post harvest losses: Post harvest technology ensures
reduction of losses in what has already been produced. So; reduction of
post harvest losses is an alternative way of increasing production of
agricultural and horticultural crops.
2) Reduction of cost of production: Post harvest technology reduces cost of
production, packaging, storage, transportation, marketing and distribution,
lowers the price for the consumer and increases the farmer’s income.
3) Reducing malnutrition: Proper post harvest technology ensures
availability of sufficient food to all thus reducing malnutrition and ensuring
healthy growth of the nation. It also extends the season of availability of a
particular commodity.
4) Economic loss reduction: Reduces economic losses at grower level,
during marketing and at consumers end.
5) Availability: Had there been no knowledge of post harvest technology,
apples would not have ever reached Kerala and Banana in H.P. or Kashmir
today. Today we can get perishable commodities like Banana, tomato
etc.throughout the year and in almost very place in the country. Apples can
be made available through out the year although the cropping season is just
 for 2-3 months. Thanks to the advancement made in the filed of post
harvest technology. The increasing exports of fruits and vegetables have
become possible only by the interventions made in post harvest technology.
6) Employment generation: The food processing industry ranks first in terms
of employment generation with approximately 15 lakhs persons employed.
Employment potential in post harvest and value addition sector is
considered to be very high. Every one crore rupee invested in fruit and
vegetable processing in the organized sector generates 140 persons per
year of employment as compared to just 1050 person days of employment
per year in small scale investment (SSI) units. The SSI unit in food industry
employs 4, 80,000 persons, contributing 13% of all SSI units employed.
7) Export earnings: Export of fresh and processed horticultural commodities
also attracts valuable foreign exchange.
8) Defense and astronaut’s requirements: Defense forces posted in remote
border areas as well as astronauts who travel into space have special
requirements of ready to eat and high energy low volume food. The
requirements are fulfilled by processing industries.
9) Infant and sports preparations: To day special infant and sports drinks
and other processed preparations are available for use especially by these
people. These preparations are done especially to meet the specific
nutritional requirements of their body.

Causes of post harvest losses: The causes of post harvest losses are many, but
they can be classified into two main categories. The first of these is physical loss.
Physical loss can arise from mechanical damage or pest or disease damage
resulting in produce tissue being disrupted to a stage where it is not acceptable for
presentation, fresh consumption or processing. Physical loss can also arise from
evaporation of intercellular water, which leads to a direct loss in weight. The
resulting economic loss is primarily due to the reduced mass of produce that
remains available for marketing but can also be due to a whole batch of
commodity being rejected because of a small proportion of wasted items in the
batch.
Loss of quality is the second cause of post harvest loss, and this can be due to
physiological and compositional changes that alter the appearance, taste, texture
and make produce less aesthetically desirable to end users. The changes may
arise from normal metabolism of produce (e.g. senescence) or abnormal events
e.g. chilling injury) arising from the post harvest environment. Economic loss is
incurred because such produce will fetch a lower price. In many markets there is
no demand for second class produce, even at reduced price, which leads to total
economic loss even though the goods may still be edible.
 Maturity and maturity indices of fruits and vegetables

The principles dictating at which stage of maturity a fruit or vegetable should be

harvested are crucial to its subsequent storage and marketable life and quality.
Fruits harvested too early may lack flavour and may not ripen properly, while
produce harvested too late may be fibrous or have very limited market
life.Similarly; vegetables are harvested over a wide range of physiological stages,
depending upon which part of the plant is used as food. For example, small or
immature vegetables possess better texture and quality than mature or over
mature vegetables. Therefore harvesting of fruits and vegetables at proper stage
of maturity is paramount importance for attaining desirable quality. The level of
maturity actually helps in selection storage methods, estimation of shelf life,
selection of processing operations for value addition etc.

Post-harvest physiologists distinguish three stages in the life span of fruits and
vegetables: maturation, ripening, and senescence. Maturation is indicative of the
fruit being ready for harvest. At this point, the edible part of the fruit or vegetable is
fully developed in size, although it may not be ready for immediate consumption.
Ripening follows or overlaps maturation, rendering the produce edible, as
indicated by taste. Senescence is the last stage in the ontogeny of the plant organ,
characterized by natural degradation of the fruit or vegetable, as in loss of texture,
flavour, etc. (senescence ends at the death of the tissue of the fruit).

Maturity is the attainment of a particular size or stage after which ripening takes
place is called maturity. It is also defined as the stage of development at which the
produce has completed its natural growth and is ready for harvest. This stage
would ensure proper completion of ripening process.
The term maturity is derived Latin word ’Maturus’ which means ripen .It is that
stage of fruit development, which ensures attainment of maximum edible quality at
the completion of ripening process.
The maturity has been divided into two categories i.e. physiological maturity and
horticultural maturity.

1. Physiological maturity: It is the stage at which a plant or plant part continues

ontogeny (complete developmental history of an organism from egg/spore/ bud
etc. to an adult individual) even if detached from the parent plant or the point of
origin. It can also be defined as the stage at which a plant or plant part is capable
of further development or ripening when it is harvested i.e. ready for eating or
processing. Ex. A French bean pod or okra pod is at its physiological maturity
when the seeds are fully developed and the pod is lignified which will dehisce with
little pressure.
2. Horticultural maturity / Harvest maturity: It may be defined as the stage at
which a plant or plant part possesses all the prerequisites for use by consumers
for a particular purpose, i.e. local, distant, export market (shipping maturity) or
exhibition or processing (processing maturity), culinary maturity, desert maturity
etc. Ex. A pod vegetable is matured when it is tender with maximum size.

Horticultural maturity stage of tomato if harvested for long distance transportation

would be the “turning stage of skin from green to red”, while the optimum stage of
harvesting of the same crop for home use or local markets would be “when the
fruits have attained full red colour”.

Maturity indices are important for deciding when a given commodity should be
harvested to provide some marketing flexibility and to ensure the attainment of
acceptable eating quality to the consumer. Generally a single maturity index is not
considered to be reliable. In most of the crops more than one or two indices should
be made use of while determining the exact stage of optimum maturity.
Fruits picked at the wrong stage of maturity may develop physiological disorders in
storage and may exhibit poor defect quality. Fruit size is also sacrificed by
harvesting too early. For selecting the harvest maturity of fruits or vegetables it
should be kept in mind that harvested commodity has its peak acceptable quality
(Non-toxic, size, appearance and flavour with adequate shelf life).

Importance of maturity indices:-

Ensure sensory quality (flavour, Colour, aroma, texture) and nutritional
quality.
Ensure an adequate post harvest shelf life.
Facilitate scheduling of harvest and packing operations
Facilitate marketing over the phone or through internet.

Determination of harvest maturity can be done by different methods:

1. Computation methods: (1) calendar date, (2) Days From Full bloom to
Harvest, (3) Mean heat units (4) T – stage.
2. Physical methods: (1) Fruit retention strength,(2)Fruit size and surface
morphology (3) W eight, (4) Specific gravity, (5) Colour, (6) Flesh firmness,
(7) Total soluble solids (T S S), (8) Juice content and (9) oil content
3. Chemical methods: (1) Titratable acidity (2) TSS/ acid ratio, (3) Sugar –
Total and reducing), (4) Sugar/acid ratio, (5) Bio electrical conductance, (6)
Starch- iodine test (7) Tannin content (8) Oil content, (8) Juice content.
4. Physiological methods :(1)Respiration rate and (2)Ethylene evolution rate
Determination of maturity: Parameters which are considered for the
determination of maturity indices are : Chronological age, size, shape ,surface
characteristics, color, firmness, soluble solids, sugars, starch presence, sugar to
acid ratio, oil content etc .In recent years much work has been done on developing
non-destructive methods f or th e measurement of fruit and vegetable
characteristics, using principles of NMR(nuclear magnetic resonance), X-rays,
sonics and ultra sonic waves, delayed light emission and light reflectance. Maturity
indices must be set for each region and variety.

No single method of maturity indices is satisfactory, a combination of the following

may be better than relying upon any one.

(1) Skin colour: The loss of green colour of many fruits is a valuble guide to
maturity .There is initially a gradual loss in intensity of colour from deep green to
lighter green and with many commodities, a complete loss of green colour with the
development of yellow, red or purple pigments. Some fruits exhibit no perceptible
colour change during maturation. Assessment of harvest maturity by skin colour
depends on the judgment of the harvester, but colour charts are available for
cultivars, such as apples, tomatoes, peaches, chilli peppers, etc.Although human
eye is used to evaluate colour but results can vary considerably due to human
differences in colour perception. Therefore, an instrument is used to provide a
specific colour value based on the amount of light reflected off the commodity
surface or light transmitted through the commodity. This instrument can measure
small differences in colour accurately and can be autometd in the packing line.
This instrument is popularly known as Colour Difference Meter. This instrument
use colorimetric method for colour measurement. This method is not entirely
reliable as it is influenced by factors other than maturity.

Mango

Tomato

Judging maturity of mango and tomato by colours

(2) Shape: The shape of fruit can change during maturation and can be used as a
characteristic to determine harvest maturity. For instance, a banana becomes
more rounded in cross-sections and less angular as it develops on the plant.
Mangoes also change shape during maturation. As the mango matures on the tree
the relationship between the shoulders of the fruit and the point at which the stalk
is attached may change. The shoulders of immature mangoes slope away from
the fruit stalk; however, on more mature mangoes the shoulders become level with
the point of attachment, and with even more maturity the shoulders may be raised
above this point.

Judging mango harvest by shape and shoulder

(3) Size: Changes in the size of a fruit / vegetable while growing are frequently
used to determine the time of harvest. Size is generally of limited value as a
maturity index in fruit, though it is widely used for many vegetables, especially
those marketed early in their development. W ith these produce, size is often
specified as a quality standard, with large size generally indicating commercial
over maturity and under sized produce indicating an immature state. The
assumption however, is not always a reliable guide for all purpose.

For example, in bananas, the width of the individual fingers can be used to
determine harvest maturity. Usually a finger placed midway along the bunch and
its maximum width is measured with calipers.

Cross section of the middle banana fingers showing the changes in angularity as
they mature on the plant
(4) Optical methods: Light transmission properties can be used to measure the
degree of maturity of fruits. These methods are based on the chlorophyll content of
the fruit, which is reduced during maturation. The fruit is exposed to a bright light,
which is then switched off so that the fruit is in total darkness. Next, a sensor
measures the amount of light emitted from the fruit, which is proportional to its
chlorophyll content and thus its maturity.

5) Heat Units / Degree days: It is a measure of the time required for the
development of the fruit to maturity after flowering can be made by measuring the
degree days or heat units in a particular environment. It has been found that a
characteristic number of heat unit or degree days is required to mature a crop
under usually warm conditions, maturity will be advanced and under cooler
conditions, maturity is delayed. The number of degree days to maturity is
determined over a period of several years by obtaining the algebraic sum from the
differences ,plus or minus ,between the daily mean temperatures and a fixed base
temperature(commonly minimum temperature at which growth occurs).The
average or characteristic number of degree days is then used to forecast the
probable date of maturity for the current year and as maturity approaches, it can
be checked by other means.

(6) Aroma: Most fruits synthesize volatile chemicals as they ripen. Such chemicals
give fruit its characteristic odour and can be used to determine whether it is ripe or
not. These odours may only be detectable by humans when a fruit is completely
ripe, and therefore has limited use in commercial situations.

(7) Leaf changes: Leaf quality often determines when fruits and vegetables
should be harvested. In root crops, the condition of the leaves can likewise
indicate the condition of the crop below ground. For example, if potatoes are to be
stored, then the optimum harvest time is soon after the leaves and stems have
died. If harvested earlier, the skins will be less resistant to harvesting and handling
damage and more prone to storage diseases. Apple leaves turns green to light
green and to yellow at maturity.

(8) Abscission: As part of the natural development of a fruit an abscission layer is

formed in the pedicel. For example, in cantaloupe melons, harvesting before the
abscission layer is fully developed results in inferior flavoured fruit, compared to
those left on the vine for the full period.

(9) Firmness: A fruit may change in texture during maturation, especially during
ripening when it may become rapidly softer. Excessive loss of moisture may also
affect the texture of crops. These textural changes are detected by touch, and the
harvester may simply be able to gently squeeze the fruit and judge whether the
crop can be harvested. Today sophisticated devices have been developed to
measure texture in fruits and vegetables, for example, texture analyzers and
pressure testers; they are currently available for fruits and vegetables in various
forms. A force is applied to the surface of the fruit, allowing the probe of the
penetrometer or texturometer to penetrate the fruit flesh, which then gives a
reading on firmness. Two commonly used pressure testers to measure the
firmness of fruits and vegetables are the Magness-Taylor and UC Fruit Firmness
testers.

Penetrometer

The Agricultural Code of California states that “Bartlett pears shall be considered
mature if they comply with one of the following: (a) the average pressure test of
not less than 10 representative pears for each commercial size in any lot does not
exceed 23 lb (10.4 kg). (b) the soluble solids in a sample of juice from not less
than 10 representative pears for each commercial size in any lot is not less than
1 3 %”

(10) Juice content: The juice content of many fruits increases as the fruit matures
on the tree. To measure the juice content of a fruit, a representative sample of fruit
is taken and then the juice extracted in a standard and specified manner. The juice
volume is related to the original mass of juice, which is proportional to its maturity.
The minimum values for citrus juices are presented in the Table’

Minimum juice values for mature citrus.

Citrus fruit Minimum juice content (%)

Naval oranges 30
Grapefruit 35
Lemons 25
Mandarins 33

(11) Oil content and dry matter percentage: Oil content can be used to
determine the maturity of fruits, such as avocados. According to the Agricultural
Code in California, avocados at the time of harvest and at any time thereafter,
shall not contain in weight less than 8% oil per avocado, excluding skin and seed
Thus, the oil content of an avocado is related to moisture content. The oil content
is determined by weighing 5 -10 g of avocado pulp and then extracting the oil with
a solvent (e.g., benzene or petroleum ether) in a distillation column. This method
has been successful for cultivars naturally high in oil content.

(12) Moisture content: During the development of avocado fruit the oil content
increases and moisture content rapidly decreases. The moisture levels required to
obtain good acceptability of a variety of avocados cultivated in Chile are listed in
the table given below.

Moisture content of certain varieties of avocado fruit cultivated in Chile.

Cultivar Moisture content (%)

Bacon 7 7 .5
Zutano 8 0 .5
Fuerte 7 7 .9
Edranol 7 8 .1

(13) Sugars: In climacteric fruits, carbohydrates accumulate during maturation in

the form of starch. As the fruit ripens, starch is broken down into sugar. In non-
climacteric fruits, sugar tends to accumulate during maturation. A quick method to
measure the amount of sugar present in fruits is with a brix hydrometer or a
refractometer. A drop of fruit juice is placed in the sample holder of the
refractometer and a reading taken; this is equivalent to the total amount of soluble
solids or sugar content. This factor is used in many parts of the world to specify
maturity.

Refractometer

14) Starch content: Measurement of starch content is a reliable technique used

to determine maturity in pear cultivars. The method involves cutting the fruit in two
and dipping the cut pieces into a solution containing 4% potassium iodide and 1%
iodine. The cut surfaces stain to a blue-black colour in places where starch is
present. Starch converts into sugar as harvest time approaches. Harvest begins
when the samples show that 65-70% of the cut surfaces have turned blue-black.
(15) Acidity: In many fruits, the acidity changes during maturation and ripening,
and in the case of citrus and other fruits, acidity reduces progressively as the fruit
matures on the tree. Taking samples of such fruits, and extracting the juice and
titrating it against a standard alkaline solution, gives a measure that can be related
to optimum times of harvest. Normally, acidity is not taken as a measurement of
fruit maturity by itself but in relation to soluble solids, giving what is termed the
brix: acid ratio.

(16) Specific gravity: Specific gravity is the relative gravity, or weight of solids or
liquids, compared to pure distilled water at 62°F (16.7°C), which is considered
unity. Specific gravity is obtained by comparing the weights of equal bulks of other
bodies with the weight of water. In practice, the fruit or vegetable is weighed in air,
then in pure water. The weight in air divided by the weight in water gives the
specific gravity. This will ensure a reliable measure of fruit maturity. As the fruit
matures its specific gravity increases. This parameter is rarely used in practice to
determine time of harvest, but could be used in cases where development of a
suitable sampling technique is possible. It is used however to grade crops
according to different maturities at post-harvest. This is done by placing the fruit in
a tank of water, wherein those that float are less mature than those that sink.
 Maturity indices of some fruits and vegetables

Maturity Index Commodities

Peel Colour Citrus, Papaya, pineapple, tomato (breaker stage), grapes,

mango, straw berry and peas

Pulp Colour Tomato, mango and apple

Size Asparagus, cucumber, citrus, apple and pears.

Shape Banana (fullness of fingers,disappeaence of angularity),

mango(fullness of cheeks), pineapple (flattening of eyes
with slight hollowness at the centre) and litchi(flattening of
tubercles)

Drying of plant parts Onion,garlic,banana,potato and ginger

Surface characteristics Grape, tomato, melon and mango

Ease of separation Musk melon, grape and mango

from plant
Ease of snapping Beans, okra and peas

Juiciness Sweet corn

(Milk exudation)
Tapping Watermelon and jackfruit

Solidity Cabbage

Netting Musk melon

Aroma Jack fruit

Specific gravity Mango 1.0-1.02 for Alphonso less than 1.0 for dashehari,
potato, pineapple (0.98-1.02) & guava (1.00).
Firmness Melons, apples and pears

Sugars Melons and grapes

TSS Grape (14-160 brix for Anab-e-shahi, 18-220Brix for

Thompson seedless, 12-140 brix for Bangalore blue),
mandarin 12-140 brix, sweet orange-120brixpapaya 11.5)
brix, pineapple 12-140 brix.
Acidity Citrus (Mandarin-0.4%, sweet orange 0.3%), mango &
pineapple (0.5-0.6%)
Starch index Apple, pear and banana

Juice content Citrus (35-50%)

Heat units Pea,mango,grape,apple and pear

Days from anthesis Melons and pineapple

Days from full bloom Mango, citrus apple and pear

Days from fruit set Banana (90 days) for dwarf Cavendish, mango (110-125
days for Alphonso and Pairi.

Harvesting of Fruits and Vegetables

Harvesting: It is detaching a commodity from the point of origin. This point of origin may

be an above ground plant part i.e. shoot e.g. apple, tomato etc.or an under ground

plant part eg.potato, carrot etc.

It involves removing the product from the parent plant either by hand or by some device

or machine. Manual harvesting is essential for the picking of fragile, highly perishable
products. Harvesting by machine involves mechanically removing the product from the

parent plant.

Preparing to harvest: A poor harvesting operation would result in poor quality

produce and a low selling price. The grower should plan the harvesting operation
with great care ,especially when the enterprise is on a commercial scale. Labour,
equipment and transportation should be pre arranged.Labour should be trained to
pick the produce at the right stage (market harvest) and the proper manner (e.g.,
plucking, cutting, and digging) with out bruising the produce. Mechanical injury is
reduced by training workers to use the appropriate containers in the best shape
(not rough edged of lining), to avoid rough handling (throwing, dropping) and to
pack properly. Harvesting equipment should be cleared and readied for the
operation.

When the crop is ready for harvesting, the decision as to when to start harvesting will

depend largely on;

 Weather conditions

 The taste of the market

 The flexibility of marketing date .It depends on the crops. Some such as root

crops can be harvested and sold over a long period or stored on the farm to

await favorable prices. Others such as soft berries must be marketed as soon

as they are ready or they will spoil.

When the decision to harvest has been made, the best time of day must be considered.

The aim is to dispatch the produce to the market in best possible condition that is as

cool as possible, properly packed and free from damage.

Devices for harvesting of fruits:

In order to avoid any injury to the fruits, the use of the following devices is advised.

 Stepladders are to be used to avoid getting up the tree.

 Clippers may be used to avoid pulling off the fruit from the stock.

 Scissors are to be used for harvesting grape bunches.

 Hooks may be used for harvesting for fruits like acid lime, sweet oranges,

mango, guava, sapota etc.

 Special picker bags may be used to hold the harvested fruit.

 Some harvesting gadgets have been developed e.g.mango harvester in CISH

(Lucknow), IIHR (Bangalore) and KKV (Ratnagiri).

 Nut W izzard for collecting drooped nuts

The basic rules to observe for harvesting are:

 Fruits should not be pulled but clipped.

 Fruits should not be thrown to the ground but should be brought carefully to

the ground in pickers bags.

 Fruits should not be picked during rains or in the morning when the dew is

settled on them, as this moisture develops brown spots on the rinds. W et

produce will over heat if not well ventilated, and it will be more likely to

decay. Some produce may be more subject to damage when wet.e.g.oil

spotting and rind breakdown in some citrus fruits.

 Fruits should not be piled in direct sun after harvesting but should be placed

under shade.

 Fruits should not be heaped, but spread evenly.

 All the damaged, cut and diseased fruits should be promptly removed and

should not be mixed with healthy fruits.

 Harvest during the coolest part of the day-early morning or late afternoon.

 Protect harvested produce in the field by putting it under open sided shade

when transport is not immediately available. Produce exposed to direct

sunlight will get very hot. For example, aubergine and potatoes left exposed

to tropical sunlight for four hours can reach temperatures of almost 50OC.

 Produce for local markets can be harvested early in the morning .For more

distant markets it may be advantage –if suitable transport can be arranged-

to harvest in the late afternoon and transport to market at night or early in

the next morning.

 Harvesting with improper methods results in damage of crop by bruising which

can be caused by compression (due to overfilling of boxes or in bulky stores),

impact (due to dropping of crop or from some thing hitting the crop) or vibration

(due to loose packing during transportation).So, during harvesting factors like

delicacy of crop, maturity criteria, time, method of harvesting, mode of

packaging and transportation, the importance of speed during and directly after
 harvesting, economy of operations, and need for the harvesting method to fill

the requirement should be taken into consideration.

 Some fruits i.e. citrus fruits (Malta, lemon, orange etc.) and temperate stone

fruits (plum etc.) are reported to have longer shelf life and lesser rotting during

storage when harvested along with attached pedicel. So, such fruits should

carefully be harvested with attached pedicel.

 In addition to harvesting methods, the stage of harvest plays crucial role in

maintaining the best quality of crop during the course of post harvest handling

and storage. For the determination of harvest maturity, a, number of methods

have been evolved which vary from crop to crop.

Many fruits and vegetables are harvested unripe for their safe handling,

transportation and marketing but they must be matured when harvested so that

they can ripen later on normally and develop good eating quality.

Methods of harvesting

There are two methods of harvesting. They are (1) Hand harvesting and (2)
Mechanical harvesting. Several factors are considered in deciding on the
appropriate method of harvesting a crop. Some crops offer no choice since
machines have not yet been developed for harvesting them. In other cases ,the
product is so delicate that mechanical harvesting becomes a great challenge and
is not cost effective. Where human labour is plentiful and inexpensive ,hand
picking may be economical.
Hand harvesting: Harvesting by hand is being practiced in all the horticultural
crops since time immemorial. Some of the crops eg.flowers even to day are
harvested by hands. But in India hand harvesting is still the most common method
used in horticultural commodities. Due to inadequate mechanization, small land
holdings and diversity of crops being grown by a small farmer. In developing
countries, most produce for internal rural and urban markets is harvested by hand.

Advantages of hand harvesting:

 1) Hand harvesting is usual where fruit or other produce is at various stages of
maturity with in the crop, that is, where there is need for repeated visits to
harvest the crop over a period of time.
2) Accurate selection of maturity
3) Accurate grading (discarding the damaged, diseased fruits at the time of
harvesting only)
4) Less expensive
5) Minimum damage to the commodity
6) Rate of harvesting can be increased by employing more number of persons
7) Minimum of capital investment
8) Some labour can be used for harvesting different types of crops eg.apple
and gladiolus can be harvested by same person but can not be harvested
by same machine.
9) Immature or small sized fruits could be left on the plant for next harvest
eg.pea, capsicum where 3-4 harvests are taken from the same plant.

Disadvantages of hand harvesting:

1) More time consuming
2) Dependent on availability of labour. Labour is very costly in some countries
like Japan. Strike of labour during the time of harvesting may result in crop
losses.

Mechanical harvesting: Harvesting by use of machines. It is very useful for rapid

harvesting of a particular crop and at low cost. Special harvesting machines are
designed for specific crops. In developed countries mechanical harvesting is
common for most of the crops, but in India still it is uncommon. Larger commercial
producers may find a degree of an advantage, but the use of sophisticated
harvesting will be limited for production of cash crops for processing or export or
both. Machine harvesting is usually viable only when an entire crop is harvested
at one time.
Advantages of mechanical harvesting:
1) Rapid harvesting thus saving time
2) Less dependency on labour.No risk of labour strikes and labour
management related problems
3) Improve working conditions for workers
Dis-advantages of mechanical harvesting:
1) Required skilled manpower for use of machine, therefore dependence on
trained labour.
2) Improper machine usage may result in huge economic losses
3) Machine require regular maintenance
4) May cause damage to perennial crops(bark of the branches of the trees)
5) Social impact of low labour requirements and employment
 6) Inadequate facilities for handling and processing large quantity of harvested
produce.
Harvesting machines: Mechanical harvesting devices that employ direct contact
methods such as combing, cutting, pulling, snapping, twisting, stripping and
compacting.
1. Shake-catch and collect system: This was designed for the harvesting of
deciduous tree fruits, grapes and blue berries. The system consists of vibrator to
shake the fruit from the plant and the falling fruit is caught in an underlying frame
and collected in to boxes.

(2) Pick and collect system: This picks up fruit from the surface of the land and it
was designed for harvesting of walnuts, almonds, pecans, filberts and tung. Fruit,
which naturally falls to the ground or that which is harvested by shaking, are
collected by this system. This is a labour saving device.

(3) Once-over harvesters: These were designed for the harvesting of vegetable
crops grown for canning and picking, such as peas, snap beans, tomatoes and
cucumbers. All the fruits present on the plant are harvested in one operation. The
type of machine used varies with the crop. With peas, the vines are cut at the base
and the pods are separated in a machine called” viner”. W ith snap beans, rotary
tines or fingers attached to a reel or chain work downwards from the top to the
bottom of the plants as the machine moves forward. The finger like tines strips the
pods from the plants and places them on a moving conveyor belt, which carries
them to the boxes. W ith tomatoes and cucumbers the basal stems are cut and the
tops are carried to a comportment of the machine, which shakes the fruit from the
vines. All over ripe and other undesirable fruits are removed by hand.

Coffee Mechanical harvester

 Carrot harvester

Sweet Pepper Harvester

Pre-harvest factors affecting the quality of fruits and vegetables

The factors affecting the quality of fruits and vegetables can be grouped into
environmental and cultural.
1. Environmental factors
Sl.No. Factors Quality affected
1 Temperature Maturity, colour, sugar, acidity etc. High temperature
reduces the quality, e.g., citrus, radish, spinach,
cauliflower, etc., and increased the quality in grapes,
melons tomato, etc. Low temperature cause chilling and
freezing injury.
2 Light Essential for anthocyanin formation. Exposed fruit to sun
light develop the lighter weight, thinner peel, lower
juice and acids and higher TSS than shaded fruits, e.g.,
citrus, mango, etc. Exposure of potato to light causes
Greening (solanine formation) which has toxic properties.
High sun light intensity causes Sunscald in citrus and
tomatoes and reduces the pure white colour of
cauliflower.
 Low light intensity causes thin and large leaves in leafy
vegetables.
3 Rains Causes cracking in grapes, dates, litchi, limes, lemon,
tomato, sweet potato, etc. It reduces appearance and
sweetness.
4 Wind Causes brushing, scratching and corky scar (citrus
fruits) on the fruit and damage leafy vegetables.
5 Humidity High humidity reduces the colour and TSS and increases
acidity in citrus, grapes, tomato, etc., but on other hand it
is needed for better quality of banana, litchi and
pineapple.
2. Cultural factors
Sl.No. Factors Quality affected
I. Mineral nutrition
1. Nitrogen High nitrogen reduces the ascorbic acid content, TSS/
acid ratio and keeping quality but increases thiamine,
riboflavin, carotene, e.g., Citrus and Spinach. Its
deficiency reduces size of fruits.
2. Phosphorous High phosphorous decreases size, weight, vitamin C
e.g., Citrus. Its deficiency causes poor appearance of
fruit.
3. Potassium Increase size, weight and vitamin C, e.g., Citrus. Its
deficiency causes uneven ripening.
4. Calcium Increases firmness of many fruits, e.g., Apple, Mango,
Guava, Tomato, etc.
5. Magnesium Increases size, weight and vitamin C, e.g., Citrus fruits
6. Zinc Increases size, weight and vitamin C, e.g., Citrus.
Deficiency causes straggled cluster in Grape.
7. Boron Deficiency causes flesh browning in fruits, e.g., Anola
and gummy discolouration of albedo in citrus. Fruits
and vegetables become hard and misshapen. Cabbage,
Turnip and cauliflower are sensitive to boron deficiency.
8. Copper Deficiency causes irregular blotch on citrus fruits and
spoils the appearance.
II Growth Regulators
1. Auxins Increases fruit size in loquat (2, 4, 5-TP), mandarins
(NAA) and TSS in mango (2, 4,-D).
2. Gibberlic Increases size and weight of grape berries, apricot, and
acid strawberry and causes parthenocarpic fruits in fig,
guava, grape, tomatoes etc. It reduces disorder of fruits,
e.g., water spot and corky spot in citrus
 3. Cytokinin Maintain green colour of leafy vegetables and causes
parthenocarpic fruits in fig.
4. Ethylene Ethephon increases anthocyanin (coloured grape, plum,
apple, chillies, brinjal), carotenoides (mango, guava,
papaya, citrus, tomato etc), ascorbic acid and TSS and
reduces tannin (grapes, dates, etc) and acidity (grape,
mango, tomato, etc.)
5. Growth Alar (B9) increases colour in fruits, e.g., apple, cherry,
retardant apricot, etc. Maleic hydrazide (MH) inhibits sprouting in
onion bulbs.
III Root stock In citrus Troyer and Carizzo (Citranges) rootstock produce
the fruit of excellent quality of oranges, mandarins and
lemons. In guava P.pumilum root stock increases sugar
and P.cujavillis ascorbic acid content of fruits.
IV Irrigation Excess irrigation causes high acidity and deficiency of
moisture reduces fruit size, juice content and increases
thickness of peel.
V Pruning It affects the size, colour, acidity and sugar content of
grape, phalsa, ber, peach, apple etc.
VI Thinning Thinning in grapes, dates, peaches, plum, etc., increases
size, colour, acidity and sugar content of fruits.
VII Girdling In grapes, it increases size, colour and sugar content of
the berries.
VIII Variety Varieties differ in size, shape, colour and chemical
composition. High yield, bright appearance and good
shipping qualities are most important characters of the
varieties.
IX Diseases and Both are harmful to fruits and vegetables.
pests
X Pesticide Pesticide spray residues may give rise to flavor taints in
the processed product. Excessive use of pesticides may
even produce harmful metabolites and toxicity not
necessarily destroyed during processing.
XI Maturity In general vegetables with exception of potato and onion
are of higher quality when less mature because they are
more tender, succulent, less fibrous or starchy. On the
other hand fruits when ripe are of higher quality on account
of full size, bright colour, sweetness and less acidic.
X II Mechanical Fruits and vegetables should be in no case injured or
injury damaged other wise injury, such as skin abrasion and
tissue bruising will reduce appearance and may be source
 of infection.

Factors responsible for deterioration of harvested fruits and vegetables

The major factors responsible for deterioration of fruits and vegetables during their
post harvest life are:

Four factors: 1. Respiration 2. Transpiration 3. Ethylene 4.Mechanical damage to the

harvested produce.

I. RESPIRATION: It is the most deteriorating biological process of the harvested fruits

and vegetables which leads to oxidative breakdown of complex material (CHO/acids)
into simpler molecules (CO2, H2O) with production of energy. Since the products are
still alive after harvest, their living cells respire to secure energy. The equation for
respiration is as follows.
enzymes
Stored foods + H2O------- soluble foods + O2---------------CO2 + H2O +Heat and
useful energy.

The rate of respiration is again influenced by no of factors during storage. These factors
are divided into two groups.(A) Plant factors ( B) Environmental factors.
Plant Factors:
 1) Soluble Sugars: Soluble sugars particularly glucose are chiefsugars used
in respiration. Hence, the greater the conc of solublesugars within the living
tissues, the greater is the rate ofrespiration.
2) Proportion of living cells: Living cells require constant supply ofenergy.
Respiration liberation the necessary energy. So the rate ofrespiration will be
directly proportional to the number of livingcells.
3) Water content of the product: The rate of respiration variesdirectly with
water content of the product. Generally succulentproducts respire more
rapidly than non-succulent products. Thuslettuce heads respire (deteorate)
more rapidly than potatoes or sweetpotatoes or even peppers.

A) Environmental factors:
a) Concentration of O2 + CO2: More O2 concentration more will be
the respiration rate and vice versa.
b) Temperature: Higher the temperature greater will be the respiration
rate.
II. TRANSPIRATION: It is the main cause of deterioration because it results in not only
direct quantitative losses (loss of salable weight) but also in loss in appearance (wilting
and shriveling), textural quality loss (softening loss of crispness) and loss in nutritional
quality. Transpiration is also influenced by b o th plant factors as well as
environmental factors.

A) Plant factors

1) Differentiation of tissues: Plant products differ in the degree of differentiation of their

tissues and hence they differ in the rate of transpiration under the same conditions. In
general, non-differentiated very succulent tissues contain more water than highly
differentiated, non-succulent tissues. Under the same conditions tissues with high water
content lose water more rapidly than tissues with low water content.
Ex: Highly succulent –Asparagus spears, spinach leaves highly differentiated products–
mature cabbage heads, onions, celery etc.
A) Outer cover: Two kinds of tissues constitute the outer cover of plant products. These
are epidermis and periderm. The epidermis consists of a single layer of living cells on the
outer walls a layer of wax on epidermis retards transpiration, plant products with cutinized
epidermis will shrink less rapidly in storage than those with non-cutinized epidermis.
The plant products with a well developed and non-injured periderm lose water less
rapidly and keep longer in storage than those products with a poorly developed (or) badly
injured or bruised periderm. Plant products which possess a periderm as the outer cover
are apples, pears, citrus fruits, root crop vegetables, potatoes and sweet potatoes.
B) Environmental factors:
1) Temperature: High storage temperature induces a greater rate of transpiration
and greater shrinkage than comparatively low temperature.
2) Relative humidity: The rate of transpiration is inversely proportional to the
relative humidity. In other words low relative humidity induces a high rate of
transpiration and high RH induces low rate of transpiration.

III. ETHYLENE: All th e living cells are capable of producing ethylene.

Moreover, ripening fruits are rich source of ethylene production. The cuticle on fruit
surface acts as a resistant barrier through which it is dissipated. This is one of the
reasons, due to which internal concentration of ethylene with in the fruit is greater than
the external concentration in atmosphere.
Ethylene causes degreening in oranges and banana, it bleaches green colour of leafy
vegetables, celery, cabbage, broccoli etc. In fruits and vegetables degreening related to
ripening process.
The most obvious and studies effect of ethylene is an initiator of fruit ripening or, as
contributor to ripening.

IV. MECHANICAL DAMAGE: The various mechanical injuries that can occur to a product
are:-
Roller bruising: Fruits can severely damage by vibration or transit bruising some times
called ‘roller bruising’. Usually the damage occur on the fruit surface as a result of
rubbing (or) vibration against another surface during handling transportation.

Impact bruising: It is as another injury that can affect fresh produce. This happens when
the product drops onto a hard surface during filling of the package or from dropping of
individual packages or even pallet loads of produce. The impact bruising may not be
seenat the product surface, since the symptoms appear as internal damage.

Compression bruising: It also causes losses and deterioration of fresh commodities. It

occurs from simply ‘squeezing ‘the product into too small a space.

Pests and diseases--Fruits and vegetables are attacked by a variety of insect pests
which render them unfit for human consumption (or) reduce their market value. In all
cases, infestation starts in the field. In most cases, damage is visible in the field it self
and such fruits and vegetables are discarded during harvesting. However, in many cases
the infestation is internal and not visible at the time of harvesting. It is only during post
harvest storage/handling that the infestation becomes visible.
Flow Chart for Post Harvest Handling of Fruits and Vegetables
POST HARVEST HANDLING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Post harvest handling is the name given to all the processes through which the
fruits and vegetables pass from the time of harvest till they are delivered to the
consumer.
(1) Pre-cooling: High temperatures are detrimental to keeping quality of fruits and
vegetables especially when harvesting is done during hot days. Pre-cooling is a
means of removing field heat. It slows down the respiration of the produce,
minimizes susceptibility to attack of micro-organisms, reduces water loss and
eases the load on cooling system of storage or transport.

Currently used pre-cooling methods include room cooling, forced air cooling, water
cooling, vacuum cooling and package icing.

a) Room cooling: It is relatively a simple method which needs only a

refrigerated room with adequate cooling capacity. The produce is packed in
containers which are loosely stacked in the cooling room, leaving enough
space between containers for each one to be exposed to circulating cold
air. The rate of cooling is rather slow compared to other methods of cooling,
because the heat inside each container needs to be transferred to the
surface of the container by means of conduction before being carried out by
the refrigerated air. It may take hours or even days to cool the product
depending upon what kind of product it is, the size and nature of container
and the temperature and velocity of the circulating air.
All fruits and vegetables like banana ,beans, cabbage, coconut, garlic
,ginger,lemon,onion,orange, lime cucumber, pineapple, potato, pumpkin,
radish, sweet potato, tomato watermelon are pre cooled by this method.
b) Forced air cooling: It is a more rapid way of air to cool the produce. Cold
air is forced to flow through the inside of each container, so that it carries
away heat directly from the surface of the produce rather than from the
surface of the container. The air flow is produced by creating a pressure
difference between the two perforated sides of each container. The
containers are stacked inside covered tunnel with an exhaust fan at one
end. Highly perishable and high value products such as grapes, straw
berries and rasp berries may be cooled in less than an hour using this
method.
Fruits and fruit type vegetables like banana, berries, Brussels sprouts
,cucumber, egg plant, fig, ginger, grape, guava ,litchi, mango, kiwi fruit,
okra, oranges, papaya, passion fruit, bell pepper, pineapple, pomegranate,
sapota, straw berry, tomato, tubers, cauliflower etc are pre cooled by this
method.

c) Water cooling (Hydro cooling): It is also known as hydro cooling. It is

rapid and less expensive method. Produce is exposed to cold water by
 means of showering or dipping. The required cooling time is often a matter
of minutes. However not all kinds of products tolerate hydro cooling.
Hydrocooled products inevitably have a wet surface which may encourage
decay in some kinds of produce.
Some leafy vegetables, fruits like artichoke, asparagus beet, broccoli,
Brussels sprouts, cantaloupe, carrot, cauliflower, celery, Chinese cabbage,
cucumber, brinjal, green onion, kiwifruit, leek ,knoll-khol ,orange, parsely,
parsnip, peas, pomegranate, radish, spinach, rhubarb, swiss chard,
summer squash etc. are pre cooled by this method.
d) Vacuum cooling: It is the most efficient method for cooling leafy
vegetables, particularly headed ones such as lettuce, cabbage and Chinese
cabbage. The produce is placed inside a vacuum tube in which air pressure
is reduced. W hen the pressure is reduced to 4.6mm Hg, water boils of at
OOC from all over the leaf surface. The boiling effect draws heat for
vaporization and hence cools the produce. The cooling time is usually in the
order of 20-30 minutes. The equipment needed for vacuum cooling is very
expensive, and may not be good choice for small scale
Some stem, leafy and flower type vegetables like endive, Brussels sprouts,
carrot, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage, celery, leek, lima bean, spinach,
sweet corn, swiss chard etc. are pre-cooled by this method.
e) Package-icing or top icing: It is the simplest way of cooling. Adding
crushed ice, flake ice or slurry of ice in containers can cool the produce.
However this method is not suitable for produce which is very sensitive to
ice cold temperatures .Cooling by ice is also inevitably wets both the
produce and the container and generates water which needs to be drained.
Roots, stems, flower type vegetables like endive ,broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
carrot, spring, onions ,Chinese cabbage, leek, parsley, snow peace,
spinach, swiss chard, sweet corn etc. are pre=cooled by this method.

(2) Curing: It is done immediately after harvesting. It strengthens the skin. The
process is induced at a relatively higher temperature and humidity involving
sterilization of outer tissues followed by the development of wound periderm which
acts as an effective barrier against infection and water loss. It is favoured by high
temperature and high humidity. Potato, sweet potato, colocasia, onion, garlic are
cured prior to storage or marketing.
In Sweet potato this condition is most rapid at 33OC and relative humidity of 95%.
Potato tubers are held at 18OC for 2 days and then at 7OC-10OC for 10-12 days at
90% relative humidity. Curing also reduces the moisture content especially in
onion and garlic. Drying of superficial leaves of onion bulbs protects them from
microbial infection in storage. Maximum safe temperature for onion curing at field
is 37.8OC for 3-5 days. Artificial curing of onions in crates at 40OC for 16 hours
reduces rot losses in storage.
(3) De-greening: It is the process of decomposing green pigments in fruits usually
by applying ethylene or other similar metabolic inducers to give a fruit its
characteristic colour as preferred by the consumer. It is applicable to banana,
mango, citrus and tomato. The time required to degreen a fruit depends upon the
degree of natural colour break at maturity. The higher the green colour and more
mature a fruit is, the less time is required to reduce the chlorophyll to a desired
level. De-greening is carried out in special treating rooms with controlled
temperature and humidity in which low concentrations ethylene (20ppm) is applied
to keep the CO2 level below 1 %( Low colouring). The ethylene should be supplied
from a gas cylinder. These rooms are thoroughly ventilated to keep the carbon-di-
oxide level below 1%, which does not allow higher colouring. Ethylene accelerates
decomposition of chlorophyll with out significantly affecting the synthesis of
carotenoid pigments. T he best degreening temperature is 27oC.Higher
temperature delay degreening.The Relative humidity should be 85-90%.Higher
humidity levels cause condensation during degreening and are associated with
slow degreening and increase in decay. Low humidity though checks decay
causes excessive shrinkage, shriveling and peel break down.

(4) Washing and drying: Most of the fruits and vegetables are washed after
harvesting to improve their appearance, prevent wilting and remove primary
inoculum load of micro organisms. Hence fungicide or bactericide should be used
in washing water. Washing improves shelf life of bananas by delaying their
ripening. After washing excess of water should be removed this would otherwise
encourage microbial spoilage. Root and tuber crops are often washed to remove
the soil adhering to them.

(5) Sorting and grading: Immature, diseased and badly bruised fruits and
vegetables are sorted out. Most of the countries have their own set of standards of
domestic trade and for international trade standards have also been defined.
Grades are based on size, weight, colour and shape. Grading is done manually or
mechanically.

(6) Dis-infestation: Papaya, mango, melon and other fruits are susceptible to fruit
fly attacks. Dis-infestation is done either by vapour heat treatment at 43OC with air
saturated with water vapour for 6-8 hours, by ethylene dibromide fumigation (18-
22g of EDB/cubic meter for 2-4 hours. Residues of inorganic bromide must not
exceed 10Vg/g) or by cold treatment (exposure of fruits to near freezing
temperature for a specified period.)

(7) Post harvest treatments: Post harvest application of Bavistin (0.1%) and
topsin (0.1%) controls storage diseases in mango. In Nagapur mandarins, hot
water treatment with Imazalil (0.1%), Bavistin (0.1%) and Benlate (0.1%) is most
effective. A complete inhibition of sprouting of cool chamber (evaporatively cooled)
stored potatoes for 4 months and 5 months is achieved by spraying them with an
aqueous emulsion of CIPC @ 50mg and 100 mg/kg of tubers respectively before
completion of dormancy period.

(8) Waxing: Fruits and vegetables have a natural waxy layer on their outer surface
which is partly removed by waxing. An extra layer of wax is applied artificially with
sufficient thickness and consistency to prevent an aerobic condition with in the
fruits provides necessary protection against decay organisms. W axing is
especially important if tiny injuries and scratches on their surface are present.
These can be sealed by wax. W axing also enhances the glossiness of fruits or
vegetables. Therefore, appearance is improved making them more acceptable.
If refrigerated storage facilities are not available, protective skin coating with wax
increases the storage life of fresh fruits and vegetables at ambient temperature.
There are two types of wax emulsions. Wax-W-which does not impart any glass to
fruits and vegetables, where as wax ‘O’ impart glass.
The application of wax emulsion to freshly harvested healthy produce protects
them against excessive moisture loss, higher rate of respiration, heat build up or
thermal decomposition. The texture and quality of fresh produce is maintained as
nearer to the fresh conditions as possible for a long time.
The wax emulsion without fungicide doesn’t protect fruits and vegetables against
microbial spoilage. So, to protect fruits and vegetables from microbial spoilage
suitable fungicides are added to the wax emulsion.

(9) Control of ripening process: Ripening transforms a physically mature but

inedible plant organ in to a visually attractive taste and smell sensation. It marks
the completion of development and commencement of senescence with the life of
a fruit and is normally an irreversible event.
For ripening adequate quantity of ethylene should be used in the ripening room at
regular intervals. A concentration of CO2 above 1% delays ripening. Hence,
thorough ventilation is necessary. By use of ethephon commercially known as
ethrel, making it alkaline using caustic soda (3 g of soda for 20ml of
ethephon).Calcium carbide can also be used for ripening (100g for 100kg of fruits).
Ripening in fruits and vegetables can be retarded by using proper packaging, low
temperature, ethylene absorbents, skin coating of waxol, growth retardants and
using fungicides for controlling their spoilage.
Frutox (fungicidal waxol) and Tal prolong (1.0-1.5%) retarded ripening in mango.
Frutox is more efficient than Tal prolong to retard ripening.
Use of cycocel (500mg/lit), Alar (500mg/lit), GA (250mg/lit) significantly retards
ripening.
Use of Purafil (alkaline potassium permanganate on a silicate carrier) is effective
in the complete absorption of ethylene in banana held in sealed polythene bags.

(10) Pre-packaging in plastic films: This increases shelf life by creating a

modified atmosphere with an increase in concentration of CO2 in the package. The
packaging material should provide reasonable access to oxygen. For this,
breathing film like polyesterine and cellulose acetate are used. But tougher LDPE
films which have high O2 and CO2 transmission rates are more durable.
The pouches must have perforations to transmit O2 and CO2 rapidly enough for
the respiration of fresh produce. The pouches used reduce bruising, facilitates
inspection, reduces moisture loss (weight loss) and prevents dehydration. It also
creates modified atmosphere.

(11). Palletization: Pallets are widely used for the transport of fruit & vegetable
packages, in all developed countries. Loading and unloading are very important
steps in the post harvest handling of fruits and vegetables but are often neglected.
Loading and unloading are done manually in India. Due to low unit load there is a
tendency to throw, drop or mishandle the package damaging the commodity. This
loss can be considerably reduced by using pallet system. However; this requires
the standardization of box dimensions. For each commodity it should be worked
out. Once this is accomplished, mechanical loading and unloading become very
easy with the fork lift system.

The advantages of handling packages on pallets are:

Labour cost in handling is greatly reduced.
Transport cost is reduced.
Goods are protected and damage reduced.
Mechanized handling is very rapid.
Through high stacking, storage space can be more efficiently used.
Pallets encourage the introduction of standard package sizes.

(12). Transportation: For selecting the mode of transport, the distance to reach
the destination as well as perishability of the commodity should be considered. For
highly perishable ones there should be minimum temperature rise during transit.
Transport should be preferred for perishable commodities than rail transport. For
local transport the produce is brought by bullock carts or tractor trolleys, carts,
trailers and trucks used in the field should have good suspension and low tyre
pressure to avoid excessive jolting of produce. They should be driven slowly.
Lining of the trailer with straw or leaves can also help prevent damage.
(13). Storage: The marketable life of most fresh vegetables can be extended by
prompt storage in an environment that maintains product quality. Storage methods
can be grouped into two.

Traditional methods (Low cost storage structures)—In-situ, clamps, wind

breaks, cellar storage, barns, night ventilation, sand and coir, night temperature
cooling, natural ice and well water cooling.

Advanced methods (Low temperature storage -cold storage) Hydro cooling,

hypobaric storage, evaporative cooling, forced air cooling, controlled atmospheric
storage and modified atmospheric storage.

(14) Irradiation: Application of irradiation for suppressing sprouting and hence

extension of shelf life has been allowed in India. Sprouting onion can be checked
by gamma irradiation at a dose of 0.06-0.1 kGY.In potato gamma irradiation at 0.1
kGY can inhibit sprouting completely. The irradiated potatoes could be stored
successfully for 6 months at 15OC with 10% loss.
Irradiation in Banana, Guava, Mango and papaya improves shelf life due to delay
in rate of ripening and senescence.
 Ripening

Ripening refers to the changes that occur in a mature fruit either before harvest or
after harvest. Ripening renders the product edible. Unripe fruits are not edible in
most cases. Ripening fruits undergoes many physico chemical changes after
harvest that determines the quality of the fruit eventually purchased by the
consumer. Ripening is a dramatic event in the life of a fruit – it transforms a
physiologically mature but inedible plant organ into a visually attractive olfactory
and taste sensation. Ripening marks the completion of the development of a fruit
and the commencement of senescence, and it is normally an irreversible event.
Ripening is the result of a complex of changes, many of them probably occurring
independently of one another.
Some fruits ripen on the tree itself, while others ripen only after harvest. Those,
which don’t normally ripen on the tree, drop off from the tree after attaining
maturity if they are not harvested in time. There are two characteristic types of fruit
ripening that shows different patterns of respiration.

Non climacteric fruit ripening—refers to those fruits which ripen only while still
attached to the parent plant .Their eating quality suffers if they are harvested
before they are fully ripe because their sugar and acid content does not increase
further. Respiration rate slows gradually during growth and after harvest.
Maturation and ripening are a gradual process. Eg. Cherry, cucumber, grape,
lemon, pineapple, grape, citrus, straw berry etc.

Climacteric fruit ripening—refers to the fruits that can be harvested when mature
but before ripening has begun. These fruits may be ripened artificially. The start of
ripening is accompanied by a rapid rise in respiration rate, called the respiratory
climacteric. After the climacteric, the respiration slows down as the fruit ripens and
develops good eating quality. Eg.apple, banana, mango, sapota melon, papaya,
tomato etc.
 Changes occurring during ripening

During ripening, changes occur in colour, texture, taste, aroma and chemical
constituents. These changes progress till the maximum edibility or taste is attained
and there after the degradation or break down of tissues starts, rendering it unfit
for eating. These changes are closely associated with the rate of respiration of the
fruit.

Colour: Colour change is the most obvious signal; it occurs in many fruits and is
often the major criterion used by consumers to determine whether fruits ripe or
unripe. Marketability of fruit depends largely on the attractive colour it develops.

The colours arise from carotene, xanthophylls and anthocyanin pigments.

Carotene and xanthophylls are yellow in colour and other colours of fruits like red,
pink, violet etc are imparted by anthocyanin pigments.
The most common change is the loss of green colour.W ith a few exceptions, e.g.
avocado, kiwifruit and granny smith apple, climacteric fruits show rapid loss of
green colour on ripening. Many non-climacteric fruits also exhibit a marked loss of
green colour with attainment of optimum eating quality, for example citrus fruit in
temperate climates (but not in tropical climates).The green colour is due to the
presence of chlorophyll ,which is a magnesium–organic complex. The loss of
green colour is due to the degradation of the chlorophyll structure.
The disappearance of chlorophyll is often associated with the synthesis of
pigments ranging from yellow to red. Many of these pigments are carotenoids,
which are unsaturated hydrocarbons. Carotenoids are stable compounds and
remain intact in the tissue even when extensive senescence has
occurred.Carotenoids may be synthesized during the development stages on the
plant, but they are masked by the presence of chlorophyll .Following the
degradation of chlorophyll, the carotenoid pigments become visisble. W ith other
tissues, carotenoid synthesis occurs concurrently with the chlorophyll degradation.
Banana peel is an example of the former system and tomato of the latter. As the
tomato fruit matures, the predominant carotenoid that is synthesized is carotene.
Anthocyanins provide many of the red purple colours of fruit and vegetables and
flowers. Anthocyanins are water soluble phenolic glucosides that can be found in
the cell vacuoles of fruit and vegetables such as beet root, but are often in the
epidermal layers as with apple and grape. They produce strong colours, which
often mask carotenoids and chlorophyll. Some fruits like grapes, pomegranate
produces anthocyanins when mature. In tomato another pigment accumulates
during ripening is lycopene.
The factors that effects fruit colorations are weather, temperature humidity,
carbohydrate accumulation, and practices like ringing or girdlings and basketing of
fruits. Manuring and irrigation also influence the brightness of colour. Excessive
nitrogen tends to delay colour development. Shaded fruits don’t develop good
colour.

Organic acids: Usually organic acids decline during ripening as they are respired
or converted to sugars. Acids can be considered as reserve source of energy to
the fruit and would therefore, be expected to decline during the greater metabolic
activity that occurs on ripening. There are exceptions, such as banana, where the
highest level is attained at the full ripe stage, but the level is not high at any stage
of development compared to the other produce.

Texture: Terms such as firmness, crispness, mealiness, juiciness and hardiness

are all related to the texture of fruits and is controlled by the wall to wall adhesion
of cells. Fruits become soft on ripening, mainly due to the dissolution of pectic
substances in the cell walls. The softening is due to enzymatic hydrolysis of
polysaccharides. The cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, calcium
pectatae, polyuronoides and glycoproteine. The enzyme pectinase break down
pectin between the fruit cells resulting in softening of the fruit

Taste: Taste depends on the proper proportion of sugars and acids. So, it is
convenient to measure taste as sugar-acid ratio (Brix-acid ratio). Acidity and
astringency gradually disappear, while sweetness increases due to conversion of
starch to sugars during the course of fruit ripening. Starch content of banana
decreases from initial 21% to about 15% in ripened fruit. This is accompanied by
accumulation of sugars mainly sucrose to the extent up to 20% by fresh weight.

Aroma: Aroma plays an important part in the development of optimal eating

quality in most fruit. It is due to synthesis of many volatile organic compounds
(often known merely as volatiles) during ripening phase. Together with taste, it
constitutes flavour. Aroma usually develops during ripening but occasionally in
storage also. During ripening enzymes break down large organic molecules into
smaller one that can be volatile (evaporate into the air) and can be detected as an
aroma.
The flavouring compounds are found to be different in different types of fruit but all
of them are volatile. The aroma of fruit is not due to a single chemical compound
but it is a mixture of no. of chemicals, which may be derived from aliphatic
compounds, alcohols, acetates, ketones or esters and terpinoides. In most of the
fruits, the bioconversion of flavouring compounds increase with the advent of
ripening. The process needs specific temperature for difficult types of fruits.
The major volatile formed is ethylene, which accounts for about 50-75% of the
total carbon in the volatiles; ethylene does not contribute to typical fruit aromas.
The amount of aroma compounds is therefore extremely small. Non-climacteric
fruits also produce volatiles during the development of optimum eating quality. The
fruits doesn’t synthesize compounds as aromatic as those in climacteric fruit;
nevertheless, the volatiles produced are still important in consumer appreciation.

Abscission: During ripening the pectinase enzyme also unglue the cells of the
abscission zone (the layer of cells in the pedicels often called abscission zone).
So, the cells in this zone become weak and the weight of the fruit will cause it to
fall from the plant.

Development of surface wax: The delicate waxy or powdery substance develops

on the surface of certain fruits like grape and berries.

Respiration rate: It is essential for ripening as it provides the energy required to

drive many of the reactions and changes. If respiration is inhibited, ripening is also
inhibited. Based on respiration characteristics fruits and vegetables can be divided
into climacteric and non-climacteric. In non-climacteric fruits relatively low,
consistant rate of respiration is maintained during ripening. The fruits often don’t
have large carbohydrate reserves and ripening occurs while attached to the plant.
Cucumber and olive are vegetables that are non-climacteric.
In contrast, in climacteric fruits the respiration declines during the final stages of
maturation,as ripening proceeds the respiration rate increases rapidly reaching
peak (often referred as climacteric peak) after which there is a subsequent decline
in respiration. Tomato and bitter melon exhibit climacteric ripening.

Chemical changes: Starch is hydrolyzed in to sugars (Glucose and fructose),

pectin’s become soluble, acids disappear and tannins responsible for astringency
are eliminated by the action of enzymes.

Factors influencing ripening

Temperature: Fruits picked up at right time generally ripen at any temperature
between two critical limits. In certain cases fruits may require a cold treatment
before being placed in the temperature limit for ripening.
Temperature affects the rate of synthesis of specific pigments and their final
concentration in the fruit. The optimum and maximum temperature for synthesis of
a specific pigment varies between species. For example lycopene synthesis in
tomato is inhibited at 30OC where as in watermelon; synthesis is not prevented
until the fruit temperature rises above 37OC.

Carbon- di- oxide: Elevated levels of CO2 will inhibit ripening due to decrease in
respiration.

Oxygen: Reduced levels of oxygen inhibit the ripening of fruits and vegetables.
The use of elevated CO2 and reduced O2 levels in refrigerated storage is called
Controlled atmospheric storage.
Oxygen is essential for carotenoid synthesis and increasing the oxygen
concentration enhances the synthesis of this pigment.

Radiation: May act as inhibitors or stimulators of ripening. Grapes ripen more

quickly under treatment with ‘infrared’ radiations. Banana irradiated with ‘X’ rays
exhibited a decrease in softening but an increase in skin blackening.

Air humidity: The relative humidity and velocity of the air in the vicinity of the fruit
influence the maturity, especially in the evolution of flavour. Saturated air hinders
the development of good flavour in pears. Apples show blackening of the core.

Volatiles: Non-ethylinic volatiles can stimulate ripening. Air purification with

activated carbon, H2SO4 and NaOH slowed down the ripening of pre-climacteric
apples in a recirculation system. Carbon (activated) reduces the effect in both the
cases.

Growth regulators: These some times stimulate ripening of gathered fruits. It

seems that the treatment is effective especially when the application is made very
early soon after the picking. Stems of bananas immersed in solution containing
1000ppm sodium 2,4-D, 2,4,5 -T or Para- chloro- phenoxy acetic acid showed that
ripening was accelerated.2, 4,5 -T and to some extent 2,4-D when sprayed in a
wax emulsion delayed the development of yellow colour in the rind of lemons
during storage. The storage life increases.
Application of ethephon promotes degreening and early ripening in grape, tomato,
coffee, pear, plum, peach and citrus. Smoking is commercially employed to hasten
de-greening and ripening of banana and mango. Calcium carbide release
acetylene which on hydrolysis hasten ripening process. ABA at 1ppm, thio- urea at
20%.CCC 4000ppm,ethrel 200-300ppm sprays one week before harvest hastens
ripening.
Auxins may slow down (generally) or even sometimes accelerate ripening
process. Ethylene formation is inhibited by auxin and therefore auxins have to be
broken down by peroxidases (IAA Oxidases) to control fruit ripening. Ripening in
accompanied by a rise in auxin degrading enzymes. Gibberellins also stop colour
changes in fruits like banana. Accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA) is also
associated with ripening.
The shelf life of fruits like apple, banana and others can be improved by storing the
fruit in low oxygen tension (203%) or by absorbing ethylene with a suitable
absorbent like alumina or silica gel impregnated with potassium permanganate.
MH,GA(10-6M), IAA(10-6M) sprays one to two weeks before harvesting and post
harvest dip of cycocel, Alar, GA(150ppm), Vit K3, KMNO4,Ca Cl2,W axol delays
ripening.

Harvest: The extent to which certain fruits are pre-climacteric or post climacteric
at the time of harvest is an important factor affecting ripening. The mere act of
picking may influence the ripening rate of certain fruits. Detachment accelerates
ripening of fruits like avocado and apple. It has been postulated that an inhibitory
auxin was contributed by the leaves while the fruit is attached to the tree. In fruits
like citrus, apples, bananas and avocados bruising often stimulate ripening. so;
careful handling of fruits at the time of harvest is required.

Chemicals that delay ripening and senescence: (1) Kinetin, (2) GA, (3) Auxin,
(4) Growth retardant (MH), (5) Alar, (6) CCC. (7)CIPC. (8)Metabolic Inducers-
(a)Cycloheximide, Actinomycin-D(b)Vitamin-k,(c)Maleic acid, (d)Ethylene Oxide,
(e)NA-DHA, (f)Carbon monoxide,(9) Ethylene absorbents-(a)KMno4(b)Fumigants
like methyl bromide(c)Reactants
 Chemicals for hastening and delaying ripening of fruits and vegetables

Hastening ripening: These some times stimulate ripening of gathered fruits. It seems

that the treatment is effective especially when the application is made very early soon

after the picking. Stems of bananas immersed in solution containing 1000ppm sodium

2,4-D, 2,4,5 -T or Para- chloro- phenoxy acetic acid showed that ripening was

accelerated.2, 4,5 -T and to some extent 2,4-D when sprayed in a wax emulsion

delayed the development of yellow colour in the rind of lemons during storage

increases the storage life..

Application of ethephon promotes degreening and early ripening in grape, tomato,

coffee, pear, plum, peach and citrus. Smoking is commercially employed to hasten
de-greening and ripening of banana and mango. Calcium carbide release
acetylene which on hydrolysis hasten ripening process. ABA at 1ppm, thio- urea at
20%.CCC 4000ppm,ethrel 200-300ppm sprays one week before harvest hastens
ripening.

Delaying ripening: Auxins may slow down (generally) or even sometimes accelerate

ripening process. Ethylene formation is inhibited by auxin and therefore auxins have to

be broken down by peroxidases (IAA Oxidases) to control fruit ripening. Ripening in

accompanied by a rise in auxin degrading enzymes. Gibberellins also stop colour

changes in fruits like banana. Accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA) is also associated

with ripening.
The shelf life of fruits like apple, banana and others can be improved by storing the
fruit in low oxygen tension (203%) or by absorbing ethylene with a suitable
absorbent like alumina or silica gel impregnated with potassium permanganate.
MH,GA(10-6M), IAA(10-6M) sprays one to two weeks before harvesting and post
harvest dip of cycocel, Alar, GA(150ppm), Vit K3, KMNO4,Ca Cl2,W axol delays
ripening.

Storage of fruits and vegetables

Proper marketing of perishable commodities such as fruits and vegetables often
requires some storage to balance day to day fluctuations between harvest and
sale for long term storage. Storage improves commodities quality, usefulness and
also controls a market glut. The principal goal of storage is to control the rate of
transpiration, respiration, disease and insect infestation.Stoage life can be
prolonged by harvesting at proper maturity, control of post harvest diseases,
regulation of atmosphere, chemical treatments, irradiation, refrigeration and
controlled and modified atmosphere.
The main goals of storage are:
Slow the biological activity without chilling injury
Slow the growth of micro-organisms.
Reduce transpiration loss.
The factors which need to be taken into account before embarking on crop
storage are:
Knowledge of the appropriate storage conditions
Cultivar or variety of crop suitable for storage
Availability of appropriate storage facilities
Availability of suitable management.
Fruits and vegetables are living organisms. Their condition and marketable life will
deteriorate during storage through—
1) Loss of moisture
 2) Loss of stored energy—carbohydrates
3) Loss of other foods
4) Physical losses through pest and disease attack
5) Loss in quality from physiological disorders,
 Fibreness (asparagus)
 Greening (potatoes)
 Rooting (due to increased humidity)
 Shoot growth and elongation (asparagus,carrot,beet)
 Seed germination
 Fruit growth
 Sprouting (potatoes, onion, ginger, garlic)
 Toughening (due to high temparaturein beans and sweet
corn)
Factors affecting storage:
a) Temperature
b) Relative humidity
c) Air velocity
d) Atmosphere composition
e) Light
f) Storage operations

Methods of storage: Mainly there are two methods of storage i.e.tradirtional methods

and advanced methods.

I. Traditional methods (Low cost storage structures) not requiring refrigeration

include: in situ, sand, coir, pits, clamps, windbreaks, cellars, barns, evaporative
cooling, and night ventilation:

a) In situ. This method of storing fruits and vegetables involves delaying the
harvest until the crop is required. It can be used in some cases with root
crops, such as cassava, but means that the land on which the crop was
grown will remain occupied and a new crop cannot be planted. In colder
climates, the crop may be exposed to freezing and chilling injury. In some
commodities development of undesirable fibre and starch occurs. There are
chances of occurring damage due to insect pests and diseases.
b) Sand or coir: This storage technique is used in countries like India to store
potatoes for longer periods of time, which involves covering the commodity
under ground with sand.
c) Pits or trenches: These are dug 1.0-1.5m deep at the edges of the field
where the crop has been grown. Usually pits are placed at the highest point
in the field, especially in regions of high rainfall. The pit or trench is lined
with straw or other organic material and filled with the crop being stored,
 then covered with a layer of organic material followed by a layer of soil.
Holes are created with straw at the top to allow for air ventilation, as lack of
ventilation may cause problems with rotting of the crop. This method is
suitable for storing ginger.

This method is not suitable for fruits and leafy vegetables demanding high
humidity because it cannot maintain high humidity. The stored commodity
can not be examined frequently for rotting etc.

d) Clamps. This has been a traditional method for storing potatoes, cassava
etc. in some parts of the world, such as Great Britain. A common design
uses an area of land at the side of the field. The width of the clamp is about
1 to 2.5 m. The dimensions are marked out and the potatoes piled on the
ground in an elongated conical heap. Sometimes straw is laid on the soil
before the potatoes. The central height of the heap depends on its angle of
repose, which is about one third the width of the clump. At the top, straw is
bent over the ridge so that rain will tend to run off the structure. Straw
thickness should be from 15-25 cm when compressed. After two weeks, the
clamp is covered with soil to a depth of 15-20 cm, but this may vary
depending on the climate. Produce may desiccate because of low relative
humidity. Large heaps may result in more incidence of rotting.
e) Windbreaks are constructed by driving wooden stakes into the ground in
two parallel rows about 1 m apart. A wooden platform is built between the
stakes about 30 cm from the ground, often made from wooden boxes.
Chicken wire is affixed between the stakes and across both ends of the
windbreak. This method is used in Britain to store onions.
f) Cellars. These underground or partly underground rooms are often
beneath a house. This location has good insulation, providing cooling in
warm ambient conditions and protection from excessively low temperatures
in cold climates. Cellars have traditionally been used at domestic scale in
Britain to store apples, cabbages, onions, and potatoes during winter.
Produce may desiccate due to low relative humidity.
g) Barns. A barn is a farm building for sheltering, processing, and storing
agricultural products, animals, and implements. Although, there is no
precise scale or measure for the type or size of the building, the term barn
is usually reserved for the largest or most important structure on any
particular farm. Smaller or minor agricultural buildings are often labeled as
sheds or outbuildings and are normally used to house smaller implements
or activities.
h) Evaporative cooling. W hen water evaporates from the liquid phase into
the vapour phase energy is required. This principle can be used to cool
stores by first passing the air introduced into the storage room through a
 pad of water. The degree of cooling depends on the original humidity of the
air and the efficiency of the evaporating surface. If the ambient air has low
humidity and is humidified to around 100% RH, then a large reduction in
temperature will be achieved. This can provide cool moist conditions during
storage.
i) Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC): It is a low cost storage structure
suitable for short duration storage fruits and vegetables There is no need of
any power source i.e. electicity, diesel, petrol etc. for cooling,thus,the name
zero energy cool chamber. The zero energy cool chamber based on
evaporative cooling system. Evaporation occurs when air that is not already
saturated with water is blown across any wet surface. Thus an evaporative
cooler consists of a wet porous bed through which air is drawn, cooled and
humidified by evaporation of water. In summer, when outside temperature
is 44OC, the maximum temperature inside the chamber never goes beyond
more than 28OC, the relative humidity being 90%.

j) Night ventilation. In hot climates, the variation between day and night
temperatures can be used to keep stores cool. The storage room should be
well insulated when the crop is placed inside. A fan is built into the store
room, which is switched on when the outside temperature at night becomes
lower than the temperature within. The fan switches off when the
temperatures equalize. The fan is controlled by a differential thermostat,
which constantly compares the outside air temperature with the internal
storage temperature. This method is used to store bulk onions.
 k) Controlled atmospheres are made of gastight chambers with insulated
walls, ceiling, and floor. They are increasingly common for fruit storage at
larger scale. Depending on the species and variety, various blends of O2,
CO2, and N2 are required. Low content O2 atmospheres (0.8 to 1.5%),
called ULO (Ultra -Low Oxygen) atmospheres, are used for fruits with long
storage lives (e.g., apples).

II. Advanced (high cost) methods of storage:

1. Low temperature storage (Refrigerated or cold storage): Microbial growth

and enzyme reactions are retarded in food storage at low temperatures. The lower
the temperature, the greater the retardation. Low temperatures employed can be

a) Cellar storage temperature (about 15OC)

b) Refrigeration or chilling temperature (OO C to 5OC)

c) Freezing temperature(Cold storage) (-18OC to -40OC)

1(a) Cellar storage temperature (about15OC): Temperature in cellar (under

ground rooms) where food is stored in many villages are usually not much below
that of the out side air and is seldom lower than 15OC.The temperature is not low
enough to prevent the action of many spoilage organisms and of the plant
enzymes. Decomposition is however slowed down considerably. Root crops,
potatoes, onions, apples and similar foods can be stored for limited during the
winter months.

1(b) Refrigeration or chilling temperatures (OOC to 5OC): Refrigerated storage or

low temperature storage is the most common method of storage through out the world

both for fruits and vegetables. Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from an

enclosed space or room or a substance or commodity. The primary purpose of

refrigeration is lowering the temperature of the enclosed space or substance or

commodity and then maintaining that lower temperature.

1(c) Cold storage: At temperatures below the freezing point of water (-18OC to -40OC)

growth of micro organisms and enzymes activity are reduced to the minimum.Most

perishable foods can be preserved for several months if the temperature is brought

down quickly(called quick freezing) and food held at these temperatures. Foods can be

quick frozen in about 90 minutes or less by (1) placing them in contact with the coil

through which the refrigerant flows(2) blast freezing in which cold air is blown across
the food,(3) by dipping in liquid nitrogen. Quick frozen foods maintain their identity and

freshness when they are thawed (brought to room temperature) because of very small

crystals are formed when foods are frozen by these methods. Many micro-organisms

can survive this treatment and may become active and spoil the food if the foods are

held at higher temperatures. Frozen foods should always ,therefore be held at

temperatures below -5OC.Enzymes in certain vegetables can continue to act even after

being quick frozen and so vegetables have to be given heat treatment called

blanching(above 80OC) before they are frozen to prevent development of off flavours.

(2) Controlled / Modified atmosphere storage: In this system the produce is held

under atmosphere conditions modified by package, over wrap, box liner or pellet cover.

The first requirement of CAS is sufficiently gas tight envelops around the produce and

the second requirement is some means of maintaining the concentration of CO2 and O2

at the desired level. This method in combination with refrigeration markedly enhanced

the storage life of fruits. The fruit that has derived the most benefit is apple. Among the

tropical fruits, the best atmosphere for storage of mangoes is 5% CO2 and 5% O2 at

13OC.CAS improved the appearance of pine apple fruit by reducing the superficial

mould growth. The optimum O2 level was 2%.Levels of oxygen below that were

ineffective in extending storage life. Benefits could be obtained with papaya when the

fruits are stored in 5% CO2 and 1 % O2 for 3 weeks at 13OC.Initiation of ripening in

banana can be delayed for weeks or months by holding the green banana fruits in an

atmosphere of 1-10% O2, 5-10% CO2 or low O2 and high CO2 combination, In general,

the response of citrus fruits to CAS has been disappointing. In MAS the composition of

the storage atmosphere is not closely controlled.

(3) Hypobaric (Sub atmosphere) storage: The commodity is placed in a vacuum tight

and refrigerated container and evacuated by a vacuum pump to the desired low

pressure. The process of ripening and senescence are greatly retarded by decreasing
respiration and evacuation of ethylene given out by the poduce.This is an expensive

method.

(4)Irradiation: Application of irradiation for suppressing sprouting and hence extension

of shelf life has been allowed in India. Sprouting onion can be checked by gamma

irradiation at a dose of 0.06 - 0.1 kGY. In potato gamma irradiation at -0.1 kGY can

inhibit sprouting completely. The irradiated potatoes could be stored successfully for 6

months at 15OC with 10% loss. Irradiation in banana, guava, mango and papaya

improves shelf life due to delay in rate of ripening and senescence.

Packing (packaging) and Packaging materials

Packing of fruits and vegetables and also their processed products plays a vital
role in day to day life.
Packaging can be defined as;” Techno-economic” function arrived at minimizing
cost of delivery while maximizing sales. It is a coordinated system of packaging
goods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and use. Packaging plays a vital
role in the conservation, preservation and transport.

Importance of packaging:
Food packaging is an integral part of food processing and it is link between food
processor and consumer.
Packaging protects the contents against dehydration, oxidation, light, flavour loss,
environmental factors and mechanical damage. It serves as a processing aid.
Package is a convenience item for the consumer, can also be cost saving device.
Package provides handling facilities for loading, transport, storage for long for both
the processor and consumer.

Methods of packaging / Packing:

(1)Edible film packaging: An edible film or coating is simply defined as a thin
continuous layer of edible material formed on, placed on, or between the foods or
food components. The package is an integral part of the food, which can be eaten
as a part of the whole food product. Selection of material for use in edible
packaging is based on its properties to act as barrier to moisture and gases,
mechanical strength, physical properties, and resistance to microbial growth. The
types of materials used for edible packaging include lipids, proteins and
polysaccharides or a combination of any two or all of these.
The most common form of coating fruits and vegetables is wax coating to retard
respiration, dehydration and senescence. Edible films selected should meet the
requirements such as physicochemical and microbial stability, good sensory
qualities, high carrier and mechanical efficiencies, free of toxic and safe for health,
simple technology, non-polluting and low cost of material and process.

(2)Modified humid packaging: Mostly used for highly perishable commodities

like green leafy vegetables. MHP systems are designed to control not only
dehydration but also condensation. Water absorbents like CaCl2, Sorbitol or xylitol
in the package or by use of packaging with good permeability enables to provide
required MHP system.

(3) Protect packaging: The term is used to packaging which is primarily designed
to protect the product than for appearance, or presentation so, generally is used to
the outer containers used for transporting goods from the manufacturer to the
point of sale and filling materials inside the outer container, e.g, nylon barrier
sealed bubble packaging.

(4) Shrink wrap/Individual seal packaging: Individual seal packaging involves

the use of heat shrinkable film (usually HDPE) that is wrapped around the
individual units of fruits and vegetables and shrunk by blowing hot air over the
package. Advantages of this packaging are ripening is delayed by micro
atmosphere created around the product. The films act as good barrier to water.
Prevents the spread of disease from one product to another, improve the handling
and sanitation of the product, and facilitates pricing and labeling of individual
products.However,off odours may occurs with result of poor gas exchange and
high RH.

Active packaging: Another way of modifying the atmosphere pack is by

using,”Active packing”. Packaging is termed as “Active”, when it performs some
desired role other than to provide an inert barrier to the external environment. The
goal of developing such packaging is to create a more ideal match of the
properties of the package to the requirements of the food. A wide variety of
materials have been used for this purpose. Active packaging can be created by
using oxygen scavengers, carbon- di -oxide absorbents / emitters, ethanol emitters
and ethylene absorbents. The appropriate absorbent material is placed along side
the fresh produce. It modifies the head space in the package and there by
contributes to the extension of shelf life of the fresh produce.

Vacuum Packaging: Vacuum packaging offers an extensive barrier against

corrosion, oxidation, moisture, drying out, dirt, attraction of dust by electric charge,
ultra violet rays and mechanical damages, fungus growth or perishability etc. This
technology has commendable relevance for tropical countries with high
atmospheric humidity.
In vacuum packaging, the product to be packed is put in a vacuum bag (made of
special, hermetic fills) that is then evacuated in a vacuum chamber and then
sealed hermetically in order to provide a total barrier against air and moisture. If
some of the product cannot bear the atmospheric pressure due to vacuum inside
the package, then the packages are flushed with inert gases like Nitrogen and CO2
after evacuation.
Vacuum packaging offers an extensive barrier against corrosion, oxidation,
moisture drying out, dirt, attraction of dust by electric charge, ultra violet rays and
mechanical damages, fungus growth or perishability etc.Vacuum packaging
prevents freezer burn by preventing the food from exposure to the cold, dry air.

Controlled and Modified Atmospheric Packaging (CAP and MAP)--

The normal composition of air is 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0.03% Carbon
dioxide and traces of other noble gases. Modified atmosphere packaging is the
method for extending the shelf-life of perishable and semi-perishable food
products by altering the relative proportions of atmospheric gases that surround
the produce. Although the terms Controlled Atmosphere (CA) and Modified
Atmosphere (MA) are often used interchangeably a precise difference exists
between these two terms.

Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP)--This refers to a storage atmosphere

that is different from the normal atmosphere in its composition, wherein the
component gases are precisely adjusted to specific concentrations and maintained
throughout the storage and distribution of the perishable foods. Controlled
atmosphere relies on the continuous measurement of the composition of the
storage atmosphere and injection of the appropriate gases or gas mixtures into it,
if and when needed. Hence, the system requires sophisticated instruments to
monitor the gas levels and is therefore practical only for refrigerated bulk storage
or shipment of commodities in large containers. If the composition of atmosphere
in CA system is not closely controlled or if the storage atmosphere is accidentally
modified, potential benefit can turn into actual disaster. The degree of
susceptibility to injury and the specific symptoms vary, not only between cultivars,
but even between growing areas for the same cultivars and between years for a
given location. W ith tomatoes, excessively low O2 or high CO2 prevents proper
ripening even after removal of the fruit to air, and CA enhances the danger of
chilling injury.

Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)—Unlike CAPs, there is no means to

control precisely the atmospheric components at a specific concentration in MAP
once a package has been hermetically sealed. Modified atmosphere conditions
are created inside the packages by the commodity itself and / or by active
modification. Commodity generated or passive MA (Modified Atmosphere) is
evolved as a consequence of the commodity’s respiration. Active modification
involves creating a slight vacuum inside the package and replacing it with a
desired mixture of gases, so as to establish desired EMA (Equilibrated Modified
Atmosphere) quickly composed to a passively generated EMA. Another active
modification technique is the use of carbon dioxide or ethyl absorbers
(scavengers) within the package to prevent the build-up of the particular gas within
the package. This method is called active packaging. Compounds like hydrated
lime, activated charcoal, magnesium oxide are known to absorb carbon dioxide
while iron powder is known as a scavenger to carbon dioxide. Potassium
permanganate and phenyl methyl silicone can be used to absorb ethylene within
the packages. These scavengers can be held in small sachets within the packages
or impregnated in the wrappers or into porous materials like vermiculite. For the
actively respiring commodities like fruits and vegetables, the package atmosphere
should contain oxygen and carbon dioxide at levels optimum to the particular
commodity. In general, MA containing between 2-5% oxygen and 3.8% carbon
dioxide have shown to extend the shelf life of a wide variety of fruits and
vegetables. If the shelf life of a commodity is one day under CA storage, then the
shelf life of a commodity at 20-25OC by employing MAP, it will get doubled,
whereas refrigeration can extend the shelf life to 3, and refrigeration combined
with MAP can increase it to four days. Few types of films are routinely used for
MAP. The important ones are polyvinyl chloride, (PVC), polystyrene, (PS),
polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). The recent developments in co-
extrusion technology have made it possible to manufacture films with designed
transmission rates of oxygen.

Packaging materials for fresh fruits and vegetables

The packages for fresh fruits and vegetables can be classified as (1)
Consumer/Retail packs and (2) Transport/Bulk packs.

Packing materials used for consumer packs: Consumer packages are small in
size and designed to hold ½ dozen to 1 dozen fruits or ½ to 2 kg of vegetables.
Many types of packages in terms of forms and materials used as consumer packs.
The selection criterion of the packing material for the type of consumer pack
depends on marketing characteristics of the product. The most commonly used
packaging materials for consumer packages are:

(1) Flexible plastic films: Different types of flexible plastic films LDPE (low
density poly ethylene), PVC (poly vinyle chloride), PP (poly propylene) and
cellulose acetate films are used for packing. These films are mostly used as
pouches with holes punched at regular intervals to allow respiration. They are
available in wide range of thickness and grades and can be used to control the
environmental gases inside the pouch. LDPE is the most widely used material.

(2) Trays with over wrap: The trays used are usually made of moulded pulp tray
or plastic material like PVC and PP.The produce is placed in individual cavities so
that abrasion and bruising is avoided during transportation. The trays also provide
cushioning effect to the produce.
The over wrap film is a transparent see through food grade, odourless plastic film
with the property of clinging to the product packed when stretch wrapped. This film
can be applied without application of heat. This film is usually made of LDPE or
PVC.The films are semi-permiable and allow exchange of gases for respiration of
the product.
(3) Plastic punnets: These are strong, versatile. clear, bright containers which
offer product visibility and are provided with holes for ventilation, which keeps the
produce fresh.
These containers are food grade, odourless.light weight, stackable and recyclable
and give good presentation. These are either made of PET (poly ethylene
terephthalate), PVC or PP.
(4) Plastic net bags (extruded and oven): The plastic net bags have the feature
to stretch and accommodate all sizes and shapes of produce. These bags are
available in roll form or in precut lengths with the stretch width of 200mm –
400mm.By allowing air to circulate in and around the produce; the net bags
prolong the freshness and shelf life of the product. These also eliminate pack
condensation there by preventing spoilage and wastage. They make a colourfull
point of sale display allowing clear visibility of the contents, enhancing the natural
colours of fresh produce. These are generally made of HDPE or PA (poly amide).

(5) Foam sleeve: This is a plastic tubular film made of polyethylene foam
available in different colours, diameters and lengths. It can be easily slipped over
the individual fruits in a snug fit form. It provides a cushioning effect and protects
the fresh produce against abrasion and scratches during transport. It is hygienic,
non-toxic and odourless.

Shrink film wraps: Films such as Polypropelene, polysterine, Polyetheylene and

rubber hydrochloride can be converted into shrink films by molecular orientation
methods. After the shrink film is applied to the filled trays or in tubular or heat-
sealed wrap form, the packages are sent through a heat tunnel to shrink the film
cover. This immobilizes the commodity to reduce the possibility of physical
damage during handling.

Transport or bulk packs: Transport or bulk packages are designed for long
distance transportation in capacities ranging from 4-5 kg to 20-25 kg.These packs
must withstand impacts, compression and vibration during transport.

Packaging material for transport or bulk packing can be broadly categorized as

rigid containers made of wood (wooden crates), corrugated fiber board boxes,
plastic crates and flexible containers such as sacks made of plastic. Along with
these materials some traditional materials used are jute (jute sacks) and baskets
made of woven strips of leaves, bamboo, plastic etc.

(1) Natural materials - Baskets and other traditional containers made from
bamboo, rattan, straw, palmleaves, etc.,are used throughout the developing
world. Both raw materials and labour costs are normally low, and if the containers
are well made they can be reused.
Dis- advantages:
1) They are difficult to clean when contaminated with decay organisms.
2) They lack rigidity and bend out of shape when stacked for long distance
transport.
3) They load badly because of their shape.
 4) They cause pressure damage when tightly filled.
5) They often have sharp edges or splinters causing cut and puncture
damage.

(2) Wooden boxes/Crates: The conventional baskets have been replaced by

wooden boxes as they give better protection to the fresh produce against
transportation hazards. They have high puncture resistance, good tensile strength.
Wooden boxes are rigid and reusable and if made to a standard size, stack well on
trucks.
However, the use of wooden boxes is discouraged now a days as it promotes
deforestation.
Dis- advantages:
1) They are difficult to clean adequately for multiple use
2) They are heavy and costly to transport
3) They often have sharp edges, splinters and protruding nails requiring some
form of liner to protect the contents.
4) The nails cause injuries to the produce during long transportation.
5) They occupy more space and add on to the tare weight.

(3) Card board (fibre board)/corrugated fibre board boxes: Containers are
made from solid or corrugated card board. The types closing with either fold over
or telescopic (separate) tops are called boxes or cases. Shallower and open
topped ones are called trays. Boxes are supplied in collapsed fore that is flat and
are set up by the user. The setting up and closing of boxes requires tapping,
gluing, stapling or the fixing interlocking tabs.

Are used for tomato, cucumber, and ginger transport. They are easy to handle,
light weight, come in different sizes, designs and strengths and come in a variety
of colours that can make produce more attractive to consumers. These have good
cushioning properties, low cost to strength and weight ratio. These are reusable
and recyclable, easy to setup and collapsible for storage, smooth and non-
abrasive surface with good printability on the outer surface of the board.
Ventillation can be provided by punching holes and have good printability on the
outer surface of the board.

Since these boxes have poor wet strength, now a days they are laminated with
plastic film like LDPE, PP or PVC. Plastic corrugated boxes made of PP and
HDPE are partly replacing CFB boxes because of their low weight to strength
ratio, high degree of water resistance and reusability. However, it’s cushioning
properties are not comparable to CFB boxes

Dis-advantages:
 1) They may if used only once, prove an expensive recurring cost.
2) They are easily damaged by careless handling and stacking
3) They are seriously weakened if exposed to moisture
4) These boxes are often of lower strength compared to wooden or plastic
crates, although multiple thickness trays are very widely used.
5) They can be ordered economically only in large qualities; small quantities
can be prohibitive expensive.

(4) Moulded plastic crates: Re-usable boxes moulded from high density
polythene are widely used for transporting produce. They can be made to almost
any specifications .They are strong, rigid, smooth ,easily cleaned and can be
made to stack when full of produce and nest when empty in order to conserve
space.

Dis-advantages:
1) They can be produced economically only in large numbers but are still
costly.
2) They have to be imported into most developing countries, adding to the cost
and usually requiring foreign currency for their acquisition
3) They often have many alternative uses (as wash tubs) and are subject to
high pilferage rates.
4) They require a tight organization and control for use in a regular go and
return service
5) They deteriorate rapidly when exposed to sunlight (especially in the tropics)
unless treated with an ultraviolet inhibitor, a factor adding to the cost.
Despite their cost, however, their capacity for reuse can make them an
economical investment.
These crates are either stackable, stack nest or collapsible in design.
Collapsible plastic crates are the most expensive followed by stack nest and
then the stacking crates. The collapsible crates reduce the storage space
requirement and transport cost of empty containers. The normal capacity
varies between 20-40kg.

(5) Natural and synthetic fibres: Sacks or bags for fresh produce can be
made from natural fibres like jute or sisal or from synthetic polypropylene or
polyethylene fibres or tapes. ‘Bags’ usually refers to small containers of up to
about 5 kg capacity. They may be woven to a close texture or made in net
form. Nets usually have a capacity of about 15kg.Bags or sacks are mostly
used for less easily damaged produce such as potatoes, sweet potatoes,
onions, but even these crops should have careful handling to prevent injury.
 These are very useful because of low cost, high strength, re-usability and
require less space for empties.

Dis-advantages
1) They lack rigidity and handling can damage contents
2) They are often too large for careful handling; sacks dropped or thrown
will result in severe damage to the contents
3) They impair ventilation when stacked if they are finely woven
4) They may be so smooth in texture that stacks are unstable and collapse;
they are difficult to stack on pallets.

(6) Paper or plastic film: Paper or plastic film is often used to line packing
boxes in order to reduce water loss of the contents or to prevent friction
damage.
Paper sacks can have walls up to six layers of Kraft (heavy wrapping) paper.
They can have a capacity of about 25 kg and are mostly used for produce of
relatively low value. Closure can be done by machine stitching across the top
(recommended for large scale crop production) or in the field by twisting wire
ties around the top by means of a simple tool.

Dis-advantages:
1) Walls of paper are permeable by water or vapour and gases (walls may
be water proofed by incorporating plastic film or foil, but sacks then
retain gases and vapour)
2) Heat can be slow to disperse from sacks of stacked produce, thus
damaging fruit or leafy vegetables.
3) Limited protection to contents if sacks are mishandled.
4) Plastic film bags or wraps are used because of their low cost, widely
used in fruit and vegetable marketing, especially in consumer packs.

Modern packaging must comply with the following requirements

a) The package must have sufficient mechanical strength to protect the contents

during handling, transport, and stacking.

b) The packaging material must be free of chemical substances that could transfer
to the produce and become toxic to man.
c) The package must meet handling and marketing requirements in terms of
weight, size, and shape.

d) The package should allow rapid cooling of the contents. Furthermore, the
permeability of plastic films to respiratory gases could also be important.

e) Mechanical strength of the package should be largely unaffected by moisture

content (when wet) or high humidity conditions.

f) The security of the package or ease of opening and closing might be important
in some marketing situations.

g) The package must either exclude light or be transparent.

h) The package should be appropriate for retail presentations.

i) The package should be designed for ease of disposal, re-use, or recycling.

j) Cost of the package in relation to value and the extent of contents protection
required should be as low as possible.

Cushioning materials for packaging fruits and vegetables

The function of cushioning materials is to fix the commodities inside the packages
and prevent them from mixing about in relation to each other and the package
itself, when there is a vibration or impact. Some cushioning materials can also
provide packages with additional stacking strength.
The cushioning materials used vary with the commodity. The cushioning materials
mostly used for packaging fruits and vegetables are dry grass, paddy straw,
leaves, saw dust, paper shreds etc., which are easily available locally and less
costly. These are unhygienic and don’t allow respiratory heat to escape from the
packing box.
For cushioning material to be useful, it should in addition to have resilient property,
the availability to dissipate the heat of respiration of the produce. It should be free
from infection so that it doesn’t pass on the same to the fruit and vegetables. It is
important that the cushioning materials itself should be physiologically inactive.
Recently fibre board (single or double wall), moulded paper pulp trays, moulded
foam polystyrene trays, moulded plastic trays, foam plastic sheet, plastic bubble
pads, fine shredded wood, plastic film liners or bags etc., are used for replacing
the cushioning material in costly commodities and for export purposes.

Purpose using cushioning materials:

1) Protect the products which are sensitive to mechanical stresses and those
to be protected from damage due to impact, Jolting or vibration in transit.
 2) Fragile goods such as ceramics, glass, porcelain containers are protected
from mechanical stresses by cushioning material
3) To adjust the packages to standard size as they act as adapters between
non-standard package contents and the packaging

Mode of action: They absorb a portion of kinetic energy arising when the package
suffers impact or is dropped and increase the breaking distance of the packing
containers.
Characters of cushioning materials:
1) Recovery: If the recovery is too low, the breaking distance on constant
exposure to stress, such that the resultant kinetic energy can no longer
adequately be absorbed and the package contents may be damaged.
2) Insensitive to climatic conditions: Moisture due to elevated RH, direct
solar radiation and extreme variations in temperature are important. The
cushioning material must not be impaired by such exposure.
3) They are not hygroscopic and don’t promote corrosion.
4) Use of cushioning material must be effective, simple, environmentally
compatible and cost effective.

`
 VALUE ADDITION
OF
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Importance and scope of fruit and vegetable processing in India

The green revolution and subsequent efforts through the application of Science
and technology for increasing food production in India have brought self-reliance in
food. Numerous hybrids, improved management practices have resulted in
increased food production.
Among the food produce, fruits and vegetables are the perishable commodities
and also source of vitamins and minerals are important in the human diet, which
are known as “protective foods”.
Higher production of perishable fruits and vegetables produced during a particular
season result in glut in the market and became scarce during the other seasons.
Therefore fruits and vegetable processing has been engaging the attention of
planners and policy makers as it can contribute to the economic development of
rural population. The utilization of resources both material and human is one of the
ways of improving the economic status of the family.
India’s wide diversity in climate and soil provides much scope for growing a wide
variety of horticulture produce than in most of the countries in the world. India is
the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after Brazil and
China respectively. However, if combined production of fruits and vegetables are
taken, India ranks first in the world.
Presently, the horticulture crops covers 13.6 million hectares i.e. roughly 7% of the
gross cropped area and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s
agricultural out put.
The export value of fruits and vegetables has increased from Rs.987 crores in
2002 to Rs.1086 crores in 2003.Further the value of processed fruits and
vegetables increased from Rs1100 crores in 2002 to 1207 crores during
2003.(Proceedings of national seminar,2003).
After the start of green revolution and attainment of self sufficiency in food
production, the need for food processing was realized. It is estimated that 30-35%
of fruits and vegetables worth of about Rs.23,000 crores perish due to want of post
harvest facilities and also lack of sufficient processing industries to process the
fruits and vegetables during glut, thus depriving the farmer the fruits of his labour.
Only around 2% of the total fruits and vegetables produced in India are processed
as against 40% in some developing countries and 70-80% in developed countries.
There is therefore, a vast unexploited potential in agro processing, as it can
immensely contribute to the growth of the countries economy, nutritional security,
trade and increasing the purchasing power of the middle class sections of the
society and in changing food habits and life styles.
Over the last few decades, both developed and developing countries experienced
many lifestyle changes including food habits that have led to an increased demand
for processed foods. Processed foods now represent over 50% of the diet of many
developed countries. The demand for ready to eat foods is increasing presumably
with more and more women folk venturing the out of house work culture.

Advantages of fruit and vegetable preservation:

1) Processing and preservation of fruit and vegetables will extend the

consumption period available round the year and retains its nutritive value.
 2) Maximize the fruit and vegetable utilization; minimize the post harvest
spoilage and surplus production losses.
3) Encourages contract farming, commercial growing and quality production.
4) Value addition to the fruit and vegetable products.
5) Increase in storage time by processing has great potential to expand
markets beyond the region and country and can earn foreign exchange.
6) Possibility of diversification to a range of products suitable to consumers.
7) Processing of fruit and vegetables makes available ready for preparation
and consumption.
8) Provides on farm and off farm employment, strengthening the rural
economy
9) By dissemination of technology among the rural families particularly the
women, small scale processing industry can be developed.

Status of fruit and vegetable Processing in India

The installed capacity of fruits and vegetables processing industry has increased
from 1.1 million tonnes in January 1993 to 2.1 million tonnes in 2006. The
processing of fruits and vegetables is estimated to be around 2.2% of the total
production in the country. The major processed items in the fruit and vegetable
segment are fruit pulps and juices, fruit based ready-to-serve beverages, canned
fruits and vegetables, jams, squashes, pickles, chutneys and dehydrated
vegetables. Some recent products introduced in this segment include vegetable
curries in sealable pouches, canned mushroom and mushroom products, dried
fruits and vegetables and fruit juice concentrates.

The fruits and vegetable processing industry is highly decentralized, and a large
number of units are in the cottage, household and small-scale sector, having small
capacities of up to 250 tonnes per annum. Since 2000, the food processing
industry has seen significant growth in ready-to-serve beverages, fruit juices and
pulps, dehydrated and frozen fruits and vegetable products, pickles, processed
mushrooms and curried vegetables, and units engaged in these segments are
export oriented.

Exports of Fruit & Vegetables

(Quantity in MT, Value in Rs Mn)

CAGR
2001-02 2004-05
 Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
Dried & Preserved 1 2 .5
209157.8 5371.5 351034.3 7657.5 1 8 .8
Vegetables
7 .6
Mango Pulp 76735.18 2413.4 90988.6 3008.6 5 .8
0 .1
Pickles & Chutney 38758.97 1203.4 67193.29 1205.8 2 0 .1

Other Processed Fruits &

61332.39 2017.4 80760.5 2755.3 9 .6 1 0 .9
Vegetables
9 .9
Total 385984.3 11005.7 589976.7 14627.2 1 5 .2

Source: Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Annual Report 2005-06

The domestic industry has to change its preference in favour of processed foods.
Consumption of value added fruits and vegetables are low compared to the
primary processed foods, and fresh fruits and vegetables. The inclination towards
processed foods is mostly visible in urban centers due to a high purchasing power.
A remarkable push can be given to this sector by strengthening linkages between
farmers and food processors. The poor and weak linkage between farmers and
markets, as well as, farmers and processing companies has brought about
inefficiencies in the supply chain and encouraged the involvement of middlemen
leading price rise to the products. The Government of India’s National Agriculture
Policy envisages the participation of the private sector through contract farming
and land leasing arrangements which not only assures supply of raw material for
processing units, but also a market for agriculture produce, accelerate technology
transfer and capital inflow into the agriculture sector.

Innovative practices like contract farming in wheat practiced in Madhya Pradesh

by Hindustan Lever Ltd and by Pepsi Foods Ltd in Punjab for tomatoes, food
grains, spices and oilseeds are some successful examples of contract farming in
India, which changed the farming landscape and promoted the cultivation of
processable variety of farm produce this will certainly power the fruits, vegetables
and grain processing industry. Besides such initiatives, fiscal incentives and tax
concessions will also give impetus to the sector. The five-year 100% tax
exemption announced by the Government in the financial year 2005 was one such
incentive for upcoming fruits and vegetable processing units.
Value Addition of Fruits and Vegetables

India is the second largest producer of both fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are
the reservoir of vital nutrients. Being highly perishable, 20-40% of the total production of fruits
and vegetables goes waste from the time of harvesting till they reach the consumers. India is,
therefore, incurring a precious loss not only in terms of revenue, but also in terms of health,
because fruits and vegetables play a vital role in human diet as fresh food sources of calories,
vitamins, dietary fibre and special nutraceuticals.Only 2% of the produce is processed in India.
It is, therefore, necessary to make them available for consumption throughout the year in
processed or preserved form and to save the sizeable amount of losses. Fruits and
vegetables have great potential for value addition and diversification to give a boost to food
industry, create employment opportunities and give better returns to the farmers.
After harvest, the biological produce can be either preserved or processed. Value addition is a
terminology used to define the processing of biological produce. Through processing the
value of the commodities can be increased by converting it to different products by using
conventional or modern processing techniques, thereby the storage life of the produce is
enhanced.
Value added products-

1. Fruit Juice: It is a natural juice obtained by pressing out the fruits. Fruit juices may be
sweetened or unsweetened.

2. RTS: It is prepared from fruit juices which must have atleast 10 per cent fruit juice and
10percent total sugar.

3. Fruit Juice Powder: The fruit juice is converted into highly hygroscopic powder. These are
kept freeze dried and used for fruit juice drinks by reconstituting their composition.

4. Fermented fruit beverages: These are prepared by alcoholic fermentation by yeast of fruit
juice. The product thus contains varying amounts of alcohols e.g.; Grape wine, orange wine
and berry wines from strawberry, blackberry etc.

5. Jam: Jam is a concentrated fruit pulp processing a fairly heavy body form rich in natural
fruit flavour. It is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with sufficient quantity of sugar to a
reasonably thick consistency to hold tissues of fruit in position

6. Jelly: Jelly is a semi solid product prepared by cooking clear fruit extract and sugar.
7. Marmalade: It is usually made from citrus fruits and consists of jelly containing shreds of
peels suspended

8. Tomato Ketchup: It is prepared from tomato juice or pulp without seeds or pieces of skin.
Ketchup should contain not less than 12 per cent tomato solids and 28 per cent total solids.

9. Pickles: Food preserved in common salt or in vinegar is called pickle. Spices and oil may
be added to the pickle.

Principles and methods of preservation of fruits and vegetables

Principles of preservation of fruits and vegetables
Preservation: Preservation means just protect the foods against the spoilage, but
scientifically it may be defined as a science which deals with the process for
prevention of decay or spoilage of the food is called preservation.
In other words preservation is just controlling the physical, chemical or microbial
changes in the food.
1. Physical Changes: Colour, flavour, texture and taste etc.
2. Chemical Changes: Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals.
3. Microbial changes: Mould, yeasts and bacteria.
Why do we preserve food?
x To increase the shelf life of the food for increasing the supply.
x To make the fruits and vegetables available throughout the year.
x To add the variety to the diet.
x To save time by reducing preparation, time and energy by fire.
x To stabilise the prices of the food in the market.
x To improve the health of the population.

Principles of preservation--- There are three main principles:

1. Prevention or delay the microbial decomposition of the food.
2. Prevention or delay the self decomposition of the food.
3. Prevention or damage by insects, animals, mechanical causes.

1. Prevention/delay the microbial decomposition of the food:

1. By keeping out the micro organisms ---Asepsis

2. By removal of micro organisms ---Filtration

3. By hindering the growth and activity ---Anaerobic condition

of micro organisms

4. By killing the micro organisms ---Exposing at high temperature

A. Asepsis: It means preventing the entry of micro organisms by maintaining of

general cleanliness, while picking, grading, packing and transporting of fruits and
vegetables, increase their keeping quality and the product prepared from them will
be superior quality.
B. Filtration: Fruit juice, bear, soft drinks, wines etc. enter through a bacteria
proof filter which is made of asbestos pad or unglazed porcelain type of materials.
These filters contain the micro organisms and allow the water or juice to percolate
through with or without pressure.
C. Anaerobic conditions: It can be maintained by:
x Replacing the O2 by CO2 ---------- Carbonation
x Evacuating the sealed container (fruit juice)
 x Use of oils from top of the food (pickles)

D. Exposing at high temperature: Fruits can be exposed to high temperature

such as;
x Canning: Food is exposed to a high temperature (>100OC) which reduces
spoilage and inactivate the enzyme present in the food. The process of
sealing food stuffs hermitically (air tight, protecting from out side agencies)
in containers and sealing them by heat for longer storage is called canning.
x Irradiation: In case of irradiation, the food is exposed to the radiations to
kill the surviving micro organisms by ionising and non-ionising radiation like
α, β and γ rays. Here, food is exposed to electromagnetic or ionizing
radiation or various frequencies ranging from low frequency
electromagnetic rays to high frequency i.e. gamma rays which destroy the
micro organisms present in the food.

2. prevention/delay the self decomposition:

a. By destruction or inactivating the enzyme – Blanching.
b. Prevention / delay the non-enzymatic chemical reactions – Antioxidant
A. Blanching: Treatment of fruits and vegetables with boiling water or steam
for short periods followed by cooling prior to canning is called” blanching”.
x It is a primary treatment which has to soften the tissues to facilitate
packaging.
x To preserve the original colour and flavour.
x To destroy certain enzymes which are undesirable.
x Elimination of the air.
x Mostly done for vegetables.
x Remove micro organisms
x Remove astringent taste and toxins.

B.Antioxidant: Anti-oxidants are substances which are used to protect the food
against deterioration caused by exposure to the air.
x BHA- Butylactic Hydroxy Anisole & BHT- Butylactic Hydroxy Toluene
(vegetable oils)
x Gellales : Animal fat, Vegetable oil
x Tocopherols: Animal fat
x Ascorbic acid: Fruit juices, Citrus oil, W ine, Beer etc.
x Lactic acid: Processed fruits and vegetables, canned fruits.
x Phosphoric acid: Vegetable oil, Animal fat and Cola drinks.

3. Prevention or damage by insects, animals, mechanical causes: This

principle of preservation deals with the prevention of damage caused by
various external agencies other than micro-organisms and enzymes i.e.
animals, man, insects, rodents etc.These agencies generally cause
physical damage to the food material eg.rats may eat peels of oranges in a
storage, animals may also eat the food if kept within their reach etc. But in
none of these cases these damages are deleterious to human health. If you
consume a half eaten apple or orange you are generally never going to die
or experience any health risks, but if the food is spoilt by micro organisms,
and you consume the spoilt food your health shall definitely be at risk. The
damage of food by animals, man, insects, rodents etc. may later on give
way for the initiation of microbial and self decomposition.
Proper packing of the food is predominantly the effective solution for
prevention of damage caused by the agencies considered under this
principle of preservation. Over all from the food processors point of view
the three principles are to be considered in decreasing order of importance
and emphasis. Highest emphasis is given on control of microbial
decomposition followed by self decomposition, ultimately followed by
damage caused by animals, insects, rodents etc.

ESTABLISHMENT OF A FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVATION

FACTORY
Before establishing a fruit and vegetable preservation factory, it is necessary to

consider certain important factors such as investment, site, building, water supply, staff,

labour, etc. which are essential for the successful running of a large-scale factory.

Investment: The capital outlay includes investment on land, factory building and

machinery. The running or operational expenses include the cost of raw material,

labour, processing, storage, transport and distribution. As a first step, the entrepreneur

should plan carefully the type and size of production, which would be most

advantageous. He should then decide about the plant and other requirements.

Factory Site: In selecting site for the factory, the following points should b consid -

ered carefully:

1) Adequate quantities of the right type of fruits and vegetables should be readily

available in the locality, because fruits and vegetables are highly perishable and

deteriorate in long distance transport.

2) There should exist proper transport facilities for the movement of raw materials

and finished products.

3) The environment should be clean and free from debris, dust etc, as far as

possible. The site should be at a considerable distance from other industrial

factories spreading soot, smoke, and disagreeable odours, which would affect

adversely the quality of the canned product. There should also be facilities for

disposal of the cannery wastes.

4) There should be scope for future orderly expansion of the factory.

Factory Building: The factory building may be single- storied or multi storied -. Where

the plant is comparatively small one and works for short periods during the year, a

single-storied building of light construction will do. In the case of larger plants, that

have to run almost throughout the year, multistoried construction is desirable as it

would facilitate and cheapen the movement of raw as well as finished products.

Flooring should be firm and of good cement to with stand the constant use of water and

the movement of heavy-wheeled trucks. A slope of about one quarter of an inch per

foot is necessary for proper drainage. All doors, windows and ventilators should be

provided with fine wire-gauze to prevent entrance of flies, wasps and other insects.

The roof of the building should be high and well ventilated to provide outlet for vapours

and steam. The windows should have large glass panes, and part of the roof should

be of ground glass to permit gentle light inside. There should be provision for efficient

artificial lighting as the cannery will have to work at night quite often.

A sufficient number of dressing and toilet rooms should be provided separately for men

and women workers in the factory premises. The workers should be taught the

importance of personal hygiene. There are important considerations for handling food-

stuffs for human consumption.

Water Supply and Drainage: There should be abundant supply of potable water. Large

quantities of water are required for cleaning fruits and vegetables, making syrup and

brine, washing floors and machinery, etc. The water system should work at sufficiently

high pressure, so that supplies can be made at different points in the cannery without a

break. The water should not be alkaline or very hard and should be free from organic

matter. Saltish water should be avoided as it would affect the taste of the products.

Presence of iron and sulpher compounds in it renders it unsuitable for making syrups

and brines. Saltish water should be avoided as it would affect the taste of the products.

If supplies of the desired quality are not available, it would be necessary to install a

water softening plant. Further, the boiler feed water requires ion-exchange treatment to

bring it to the desired pH and freed from scale-forming ions.

Labour:All the workers in the factory, whether employed on regular basis or recruited

during rush periods, should have clean clothes and aprons to ensure hygienic

conditions.
They should be medically examined at regular intervals as a precaution against

infectious diseases. An efficient system of chemical and microbiological control at

various stages of the manufacturing process should be maintained to guard against the

risk of contamination and food-poisoning. There should be a trained chemist with

assistants to supervise the work and to ensure the desired standard of production.

Plan of a fruit preservation factory

Machinery and Equipment: Great care is needed in the selection of machinery and

other equipments. Different types of units are in use, but every manufacturer will have

to determine his own requirements.

The whole equipment should be arranged in a proper order so that minimum time and

effort are needed in handling the products at all stages of manufacture. In short, the

raw product should move practically in a straight lime till it emerges as finished product,

ready for labeling and packing. During the off-seasons, the entire machinery should be

over hauled, greased and painted.

 Methods of preservation of fruits and vegetables

The important methods of preservation of fruits and vegetables are:

(1) Preservation by high temperature-- In this method, food material is exposed

to higher temperature and high temperature helps to killing of the micro organisms
due to coagulation of protein. It helps in inactivation of enzyme. Here moist heat is
more effective than dry heat. At low pH high temperature is required than the
higher pH. High temperature can be employed by following methods:
(i) Pasteurization : below 1000C
 (ii) Boiling/Cooking : at 1000C
(iii) Canning : above 1000C

(i) Pasteurization: It is a mild heat treatment. By pasteurization milk is

pasteurized by HTST at 720C for 15 sec. Fruit juices are pasteurized at
such temperature and for such periods as would render them sterile,
without impairing their flavor. Usually, the juices are pasteurized at about
850C for 25-30 min., according to the nature of the juice and the size of
container. Acid fruit juices require lower temperature and less time for
pasteurization than the less acid ones.

Juices can be pasteurized in two ways

(1) By heating the juice at a low temperature for a High time (LTHT) and
(2) By heating the juice at high temperature for a short time only (HTST).

(ii) Boiling/Cooking :

The primary objective of cooking is to produce a palatable food. Cooking

results in:
1. Destruction or reduction of micro organisms and inactivation of
undesirable enzymes.
2. Destruction of potential hazard in the foods which are present naturally
through micro-organism.
3. Improvement of color, flavor and texture of the food.
4. It improves the digestibility of food component.
5. Putting the temperature about 1000. By this method, food can be
preserved for 10-24 hours at low temperature.

(iii)Canning: Canning is done at or above 1000C. In case of fruits which are

acidic, they are canned at 1000C, while in case of vegetables those are
non-acidic; they are canned at above 1000C. Here, high temperature can be
obtained by using steam pressure; time varies according to the type of
foods. Due to anaerobic condition any survivable organism would not grow.

(2) Preservation by low temperature-- Low temperature retards the microbial

growth and enzyme reaction because it retards the chemical reactions. This is not
a permanent method because some micro organisms can also grow at low
temperature.
1. Cellar storage : (Above 150C)
2. Refrigerated storage : (0 to 50C)
3. Freezing storage : (-18 to -400C)

1) Cellar Storage: Cellar Storage (about 150C). The temperature in cellar

((underground rooms) where surplus food is stored in many villages is
usually not much below that of the outside air and is seldom lower than
 150C. Root crops, potatoes, cabbage, apples, onions and similar foods can
be stored for limited periods during the winter months.
2) Refrigeration: Refrigerated (or) chilling (0.to 50C). Chilling temperature are
obtained and maintained by means of ice or mechanical refrigeration. Most
perishable foods, including eggs, dairy products, meats, sea foods,
vegetable and fruits may be held in chilling storage for a limited time with
little change from their original condition. Enzymatic and microbial changes
in the foods are not prevented but are slowed considerably.

Fruits and vegetables can be stored for 2-7 days. Semi-perishable crops,
such as potatoes, apples etc. can be stored, in the commercial cold storage
with proper ventilation, automatic controlled temperature for one year.

3) Freezing: Freezing (-18 to 400C). At temperature below the freezing point

of H2O, growth of microorganisms and enzyme activity are reduced to
minimum. But, sometimes enzymes are active even below the 00C. In this
case before freezing, ‘Blanching’ is necessary for vegetable freezing. Most
perishable foods can be preserved for several months. Fruits, vegetables,
juices and fleshy foods (meat, poultry, fish and sea foods) can be preserved
in this method.

(3) Preservation by drying --- Drying is just removal of moisture from the food to
a certain level at which micro organisms can not grow is called drying, It can be
done by two methods:

(i) Application of heat :

(a) Sun drying

(b) Mechanical drying
(c) Vacuum drying
(d) Freeze drying

(ii) Binding the moisture in the food :

(a) Use of Sugar

(b) Use of Salt

(i) Application of heat :

(a) Sun drying: Sun drying is the method in which food is directly exposed to
sunlight. It is generally done in the places where plenty of sunshine is
available for long period e.g. Rajasthan. The dried product in this method is
inferior in quality.
 (b) Mechanical drying: This is a method of drying where application of heat is
applied by a mechanical dryer under the controlled conditions of
temperature, humidity and air flow.

(c) Vacuum drying: The temperature of the food and the rate of water removal
are controlled by regulating the degree of vacuum and intensity of heat
input.

(d) Freeze drying: In this method, the food is dried by sublimation process,
i.e., just converting the food into ice without passing through the liquid form of
water by means of vacuum plus heat applied in the drying chamber. In this
method, the product is first frozen, then water is removed by vacuum and
application of heat which occurs simultaneously in same chamber.

(4)Preservation by filtration -- Filtration is the only successful method for the

complete removal of organisms and its use is limited to clear liquids. The liquid is
filtered through a previously sterilized ‘bacteria proof’ filter made of sintered glass,
diatomaceous earth, unglazed porcelain, membrane pads, (or) similar material and
the liquid is forced through by positive or negative pressure. This method has been
used successfully with fruit juices, beer, soft drinks, wine and water.

(5)Preservation by use of chemical preservatives-- Chemical preservatives are

substances which are added to food just to retard, inhibit or arrest the activity of
micro organisms such as fermentation, pacification and decomposition of the food.
Chemical preservatives are of two types:

Class-1 preservatives: common salt, sugar, dextrose, spices, vinegar,

Ascorbic acid etc.
Class-2 preservatives : Benzoic acid and its salt, SO2 and the salts of
sulphuric acid, nitrates, ascorbic acid and its salts, propeonic acid and its
salts, lactic acid and its salts.
Among the class-2 preservatives, only two chemical preservatives are used
in fruits and vegetables preservation:

(i) KMS(Potassium Meta bisulphate) :

(1) It releases the SO2 and it is unstable.

(2) It is used for the fruit which have non water solvent pigment (colourless).
(3) It can not be used in naturally coloured juices such as phalsa, jamun
because they have the Anthocynin pigment.
(4) It can not be used in the product which is packed in container because it
acts on the tin containers and oil, Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) which has
an unpleasant smell and also form a black compound with the base
plate of containers.
(5) Best to control moulds than bacteria.
 (6) 350 ppm KMS is mostly used in fruit juice products.

(ii) Sodium Benzoate :

(1) It is a salt of benzoic acid and soluble in water.

(2) It delays the fermentation in the juices.
(3) It is commonly used in the product which are having natural colour such
as anthocynin pigment.
(4) It is more effective against the yeast.
(5) 750 ppm Sodium benzoate is mostly used in fruit juices, squashes and
cordials.

(6) Preservation by use of food additives (Sugar, Salt, acids and vinegar):
Food additives are substances or mixture of substances other than basic
foodstuffs, which are present in the foods as reagent of any aspects of production,
processing, storage, packaging etc. Food additives are (i) sugar, (ii) salt, (iii)
acids, (iv) spices.
In case of sugar and salts, they exert osmotic pressure and water diffuses from the
product through a semi-permeable membrane until the concentration reached
equilibrium. They kills the micro organisms or do not allow them to multiplly.
(i) Sugar: The concentration of 68-70% is used for preparation of jam, jelly,
marmalades etc. Sugar act as a preservative by osmosis and not as a true
poison for micro organisms. It absorbs most of the available water, so little
water available for the growth of micro organisms.

(II)Salt: The concentration of 15-20% is used for the preparation such as

pickles. Salt inhibits enzymatic browning and discolouration and also acts
as an anti-oxidant. It exerts its preservative action by:
(i) Causing high osmotic pressure resulting in the plasmolysis of microbialcells.
(ii) Dehydrating food and micro organisms by tyeing up the moisture.
(iii) Ionizing to yield the chloride ion which is harmful to micro organisms, and
(iv) Reducing the solubility of oxygen in water, sensitizing, and the cells against
CO2.

(III)Acids: Many processed foods and beverages need the addition of acids to
impart their characteristic flavor and taste in the final product because acids
provide desired flavour and taste. They adjust the sugar and acid ratio in the
food .proper balance of flavor of the food. They are also playing the role for
controlling the pectin-gel formation.

Main acids are the following:

1. Acetic acid (Vinegar)
2. Citric acid (Lime juice)
3. Lactic acid (Lactose)
 1. Acetic acid: It is commonly used for pickles, chutney, sauce and ketchup,
just to inhibit the growth of micro organisms.

2. Citric acid: It is used for the preparation of jam, jelly, squash, nectar etc.
just to increase the acidity.

3. Lactic acid: It is used for the formation of curd from milk.

(7) Preservation by oil---- A layer of oil on the surface of any food produces
anaerobic conditions which prevent the growth of moulds and yeasts. Eg., pickles

(8) Preservation by fermentation -- Decomposition of carbohydrates by

microorganisms or enzymes is called fermentation. Foods are preserved by the
alcohol or organic acid formed by microbial action.

The keeping quality of alcoholic beverages, vinegars, and fermented pickles

depends upon the presence of alcohol, acetic acid and lactic acid respectively.

W ines, beers, vinegar, fermented drinks, fermented pickles etc., are prepared by
these processes.

In wines – 14% alcohol acts as a preservative. About 2% acetic acid prevents

spoilage in many products.

(9) Preservation by Carbonation -Carbonation is the process of dissolving

sufficient CO2 in water or beverage so that the product when served gives off the
gas as fine bubbles and has a characteristic taste. Fruit juice beverages are
generally bottled with CO2 content varying from 1 to 8 g/ l, it is sufficient for
supplementing that effect of acidity on pathogenic bacteria. For complete inhibition
of microbial activity (14.6 g CO2/ l) creating an anaerobic condition, which reduces
the oxidation of ascorbic acid and prevents browning.

Although carbonated beverages contain sugar much below 66%, the absence of
air and the presence of CO2 in them help to prevent the growth of moulds and
yeasts.

The keeping quality of carbonated fruit beverages is enhanced by adding about

0.005% sodium benzoate. The level of carbonation required varies according to
the type of fruit juice and type of flavor.

(10) Preservation by Antibiotics--- Certain metabolic products of

microorganisms have been found to have germicidal effect and are termed as
antibiotics.

Nisin is an antibiotic produced by Streptococcus lactis. Commonly found in milk,

curd, cheese and other fermented milk products. It is non-toxic. Used in the food
industry especially for preservation of acid foods in which it is more stable.Used in
canning of mushrooms, tomatoes and milk products. Nisin suppresses the growth
of mainly the gas-producing spore-forming bacteria and toxin-producing
Clostridium botulinum

Subtilin - an antibiotic obtained from certain strains of Bacillus subtilis is used in

preservation of asparagus, corn, and peas. It is most effective against gram-
positive bacteria and spore-forming organisms. Canned peas and tomatoes
containing 10 and 20 ppm of subtilin respectively.

Pimaricin- an antifungal antibiotic can be used for treating fruits and fruits juices.
Use of antibiotics along with other sterilizing agents including heat and radiation
offer good promise.

(11) Preservation by irradiation-- Sterilization of food by ionizing radiations is a

recently developed method of preservation. The unacceptable flavor of some
irradiated foods and the fear that radioactivity might be induced in such food has
come in the way of its greater use.

W hen gamma rays (or) electron beams pass through foods there are collisions
between the ionizing radiation and food particles at atomic and molecular levels,
resulting in the production of ion pairs and free radicals. The reactions of these
products among themselves and with other molecules results in physical and
chemical phenomena which inactivate microorganism in the food.

Thus irradiation of food can be considered to be a method of “Cold

Sterilization” i.e. food is free of microorganism without high temperature treatment.
Radiation dose of up to 1 Mrad is not hazardous. Ionizing radiations can be used

For sterilization of foods in hermetically sealed packs,

Reduction of the spoilage organisms in the perishable foods, delays
ripening of fruits,
Inhibits sprouting of root vegetables and controls infestation (insects)
in stored cereals.
 CANNING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

The process of sealing food stuffs hermitically (air tight, protected from out side agencies)

in containers and sterilizing them by heat for longer storage is known as canning.

In 1804, Nicholas Apart in France invented a process of sealing foods hermitically in

containers and sterilizing them by heat. In honour of the inventor canning is also named as

“appertizing”.Saddington,in England was the first to describe a method of canning of foods

in 1807.In 1810 Peter Durand, another English man, obtained the first British Patent on

canning of foods in tin containers. William under Wood in 1817 introduced canning of fruits

on a commercial scale in USA.

Fruits and vegetables are canned in the season when the raw material is available in

plenty. The canned products are sold in the off season and give better returns to the

farmers.

For canning, fruits and vegetables should be fresh, ripe but firm and evenly matured. It

should be free from all blemishes, insect damage, mechanical injury and malformation.

Over ripe fruit is generally infected with micro organisms and would yield a pack of poor

quality. Under ripe fruit will shrivel and toughen on canning. The vegetables should be

tender except tomatoes and free from soil, dirt etc.Tomatoes should, however, be firm, fully

ripe and deep red colour.The fruits and vegetables pass through several processes in

canning as detailed below.

Sorting and grading: This is necessary to obtain a pack of uniform quality. This is done

by hand or machines. There are several mechanical graders, such as screen graders,

roller graders, cable graders etc.Screen graders, which are fitted with six vibrating screens

with different size circular openings are most commonly employed. Soft and berry fruits are

generally graded by hand.

Washing: The graded fruits and vegetables are washed with water either by soaking or

agitating in water or hot water sprays etc.Vegetables may preferably be soaked in dilute

potassium permanganate solution to disinfect them. Root crops that loosen in soil are

washed by soaking in water containing 25--50ppm of chlorine as detergent. Spray

washing is however the most efficient method.

Peeling, coring, pitting: Fruits and vegetables are prepared for canning by peeling, coring

and pitting. The peeling is done in a variety of ways.

(1) Hand peeling: It is done mostly in case of fruits of irregular shape.e.g. mango

and papaya where mechanical peeling is not possible. Many of the fruits and

vegetables are peeled and cut by hand with the help of peeling knife which have

curved blades with a special guard to regulate the depth of peeling.

(2) Mechanical peeling: Mechanical peeling, coring and cubing machines for pears,

apples, peaches and cherries and also for root vegetables like carrots, turnips,

potatoes etc are available.

(3) Peeling by heat: certain varieties of peaches and potatoes etc are scalded in

(burning in) steam or boiling water of 40OC for 10-60 seconds to soften and

loosen the skin, which is removed later by hand. The heat peeled fruit absorb

sugar more readily. Recently, infra red heating has been successfully employed

for peeling apples, tomatoes etc.

(4) Lye peeling: Peaches, apricots, quinces, sweet oranges tangerines, carrots and

sweet potatoes are generally peeled by dipping them in boiling caustic soda

(lye) solution of 1-2 percent strength for 30 seconds to 2 minutes depending on

their nature and maturity. The hot lye loosens the skin from the inner flesh by

dissolving the pectin and the skin is removed by hand. The peeled fruit or

vegetable is washed thoroughly in running water or preferably by dipping it for

few seconds in a weak citric acid or hydrochloric acid to remove any trace of
 alkali. This method is quick and reduces wastage and cost of peeling. The use

of aluminium in this lye dip equipment should be avoided as it reacts with

sodium hydroxide.

(5) Flame peeling; it is used only for garlic and onion which have a papery out

covering. This is just burnt off.

Cutting: Pieces of the size required for canning are cut. Seed stone and core are removed.

Some fruits like plum from which the seeds cannot be taken out easily are canned whole.

Blanching: Treatment of fruits and vegetables with boiling water or steam for short periods

followed by cooling prior to canning is called” blanching”. It is also known as scalding/Para

boiling or pre cooking .The objective of blanching is to soften the texture and to enable a

greater weight to be pressed in to the container with out damage to the individual fruit.

Advantages in blanching: Blanching loosens the skin, facilitates close filling in the can,

drives out the air from the tissues, helps to clean the fruit or vegetable and eliminate micro

organisms. It also inactivates the enzymes, thus preventing the discolouration.By removing

undesirable acid elements and astringent taste of the peel; it also improves the taste and

flavour.

Disadvantages in blanching – Blanching makes water soluble materials like sugar and

anthocyanin pigments are leached by boiling water. Fruits loose their colour, flavour and

sugar.

For blanching, fruit or vegetable is placed in a wire of perforated basket, which is dipped in

hot water for 2 to 5 minutes and then in cold water. Avoid hard water for blanching, as it

toughens the tissues and destroys the natural texture .In large canneries, blanching is done

on belt conveyors passing through boiling water or steam or in a horizontal rotary cylinders.
Can filling: Thoroughly washed and sterilized cans are to be used for filling with fruit or

vegetable. Plain cans are generally used. In case of coloured fruits like red plums, black

grapes, straw berries etc.fruit lacquered cans are employed. In large canneries can filling is

done by automatic can filling machines.

Syruping or brining: The loaded cans are filled with hot sugar syrup for fruit and with hot

brine for vegetables. It improves the taste of the canned product and fills up the

interspaces between fruits or vegetables in the can. It also facilitates further processing

.The syrup or the brine should be added to the can at a temperature of 79OC to 82OC,

having a head space in the can so that when the filled can is closed on the double

seaming machine, the space left inside ranges from 0.32 cm to 0.47cm.In large canneries,

syruping or brining is done on automatic machine which are available in various capacities.

Lidding or clinching: Formerly, the cans after being filled were covered loosely with the lid

and passed through the exhaust box. It has the disadvantage of spilling of the contents,

toppling of the lid etc.Therefore to avoid spilling and toppling of lid, the clinching process in

which the lid is partially seamed to the can by a single first roller action of a double

seamer.The lid remains sufficiently loose to permit the escape of the dissolved as well as

free air from the contents and also the vapour formed during exhaust process.

Exhausting: It is necessary to remove practically all the air from the contents before final

sealing of the can. The process by which this is achieved is known as ‘exhausting’. By

removing the air from the container, risk of corrosion of the tin plate and pin holing during

storage, as also discoloration of the product, are reduced because oxidation is prevented.

Exhausting also helps in better retention of vitamins especially vitamin C.The tendency of

fruits and vegetables to expand or shrivel during heating the exhaust process will be of

assistance in avoiding over filling or under filling of the can. For instance corn and peas

expand in brine and straw berries shrivel in sugar syrup when boiled. The other
advantages of exhaust process are prevention of bulging of can when stored at high

altitudes or in hot climates; reduction of chemical reaction between the container and the

contents and prevention of excessive pressure and strain during sterilization. Fruits and

vegetables sometimes react slowly with the metal can and produces hydrogen gas which

builds up pressure. If there is no vaccume inside the can to start with, bulging will takes

place and the marketability of the product would suffer. The vaccume in the can after

exhaust depends on several factors such as the time and temperature of the exhaust, the

headspace in the can and altitude etc.

Containers are exhausted either by heat treatment or by mechanical means. The can is

passed through a tank of hot water at 82-87OC or on a moving belt through a covered

steam box. The time of exhaust varies from 5 to 25 minutes. Depending on the product

nature. At the end of exhaust the temperature at the centre of the can should be about

79OC.In the case of glass jars, vaccume closing machines are generally used. The jar is

placed in a closed chamber in which high vaccume is maintained.

Sealing: After exhausting, the cans are sealed air tight by double seamers.There are hand

operated as well as semi automatic and fully automatic seamers.

Processing: It means heating or cooling of canned foods to inactivate bacteria. Processing

consists in determining just the temperature and the extent of cooking that would suffice to

eliminate all possibilities of bacterial growth. Over cooking should be avoided as it spoils

the flavour and product appearance. Generally almost all fruits can be processed

satisfactorily at 100OC temperature, as the presence of acids in fruits retards the growth of

bacteria and their spores. On the other hand vegetables ,which are non-acidic (except the

acidic tomato and rhubarb required to be processed at high temperatures of about 115OC to

121OC.The centre of the cans should reach these temperatures and maintained for a

sufficient period to destroy the spores of the more resistant bacteria.

The sound ness of fruits and vegetables is due to their acid content (measured in pH)

which has a great influence upon the destruction of micro organisms. The lower the pH,

the greater is the ease with which a product can be processed or sterilized. Fruits and

vegetables can be classified into the following four groups according to their pH value.

On the basis of acid, foods are divided in to four different groups:

Class pH Product
Low acid > 5 .0 Vegetables su ch as peas, lima beans,
(Non-acid) asparagus, cauliflower, potato, spinach, beet,
corn,
French bean
Medium acid 4.5—5.0 Turnip, carrot, okra, cabbage, pumpkin, bee
tgreen, bean etc. and products like soups and
sauces.
Acid 3.7—4.5 Tomato, pear, banana, mango, jackfruit,
pineapple, sweet cherry, peach, apple and other
fruits.
High acid 3 .7 Citrus juice, rhubarb, prune, saukeraut, pickle,
chutney etc.

Cooling: After processing the cans are cooled rapidly to stop the cooking process and to

prevent stack burning. Especially in cans at the centre of large stacks where they remain

hot for several hours. Prolonging heating results in inferior and uneven pack. For example

peaches and pear became dark in colour ,tomatoes turn brownish and become bitter in

taste ,while peas become mashy with a cooked taste .In vegetables prolonged heating due

to improper cooling may result in development of ‘Flat sour’ by the heat resistant spore

forming bacteria, which survives ordinary commercial processing. In this case the cans

don’t show any bulging, but the contents will be sour.

Cooling is done by:

Immersing or passing hot cans in tanks containing cold water.

By spraying with jets of cold water.

By turning the cold water into the pressure cooker.

By exposing the cans to air in small lots when water is scarce

Labelling, Storing and Packing: The outer surface of the can should be dry perfectly. It is

advisable to lacquer the can outside to prevent rusting during storage near the sea or in

damp and moist regions.

The cans are then labeled and packed in strong wooden cases or corrugated card board

cartons, in standard packings.They should be stored in a cool dry place. In tropical hot

areas, basement stores are useful, especially during summer months, as the temperature

is lower by about 6 to 80 C, compared to the out side temperatures .Storage at higher

temperatures should be avoided, as it shortens the shelf life of the product.

Containers for canning: Tin and glass containers have so far been successfully employed

for canning foods. In recent years plastic containers and heat sealable pouches are being

tried as possible substitutes for the familiar tin and glass containers.

Both tin and glass containers are employed, although the tin containers are more common

in use on account of the following reasons. These are fabricated readily and are strong

enough to withstand processing, they are light in weight, easy to handle and fairly cheap,

they can be handled in high speed machines.

Glass containers are fragile and require extra care in handling and during processing .They

however possess two definite advantages over the tin cans, the contents being visible can

be easily displayed and the containers can be used over and over again.Further,since

glass of high quality doesn’t contaminate the contents, glass containers are preferred for

packing baby foods.

Other new type of containers introduced recently

1.Plywood containers for dairy products like butter, sweetened milk, milk power, lemon

cheese, minced meat, confectionary etc.These might also useful for packing jam, jellies

and marmalades.

2. String opening composite container developed by metal Box Company, Calcutta, which

is easily opened by sharply pulling a rip-card fixed to the body of the container is said to

be ideal for packing baby foods, custard powders, confectionary, biscuits etc.

3. Self heating can is being used by armed forces of UK and USA. A mixture of calcium

silicate plus Fe2O3 (Ferrous oxide) or Fe3O4 (Ferric oxide) which is placed in a central

tube fixed to the inside of the can is ignited by means of a cigarette end or match stick.

The heat of reaction warms the contents of the can quickly to about 50OC in 4 or 5

minutes. These cans are highly useful for products like thin soups, cocoa, milk shakes etc,

for use in the filed, air travel, picnics and other out door activities.

Tin containers: These are made of thin steel plate of low carbon content, lightly coated on

either side with tin metal to a thickness of 0.00025 cm.Tin plates are of several grades

.The usual weight of tin coating is 0.681 kg of tin per base box, which gives a thickness of

tin coating of 0.00025 cm.One base box is equivalent to 112 sheets, each 50x35cm (Or)

19.6 m2 of tin plate weighing 48.8 kg net. These are called IC plates. Plates thinner than

IC are called lights and those thicker than IC are crosses.

Lacquering: Small microscopic spaces are always left uncoated in steel plates with tin,

although the coating may appear perfect to the eye. The contents of the can may react

with these uncoated spots and cause discolouration of the product or corrosion of the tin

plate. When corrosion is severe, the steel is attacked and black stains of iron sulphide are

produced. It is therefore necessary to coat the inside of the can with some material like

lacquer, which would prevent discolouration.This is achieved by lacquers (a) acid resistant

and (2) sulpher resistant.

Acid resistant cans: Acid resistant lacquer is ordinary gold coloured enamel, and the cans

when treated with it, are called R- enamel cans. These are used for canning fruits and

vegetables of acid group with soluble colouring matter. Acid fruits are of two types (1)

those in which the colouring matter is insoluble in water (Peach, pineapple, apricot, grape

fruit etc),(2) those in which it is water soluble (Rasp berry, straw berry, red plum and

colored grapes).Fruits of group (1) are packed in plain cans and those of (2) group in

lacquered cans.

Sulpher resistant: This lacquer is also of golden colour enamel, and the cans coated with

it, are called C-enamel cans (Or) S.R Cans. These cans are used for non-acid products

like peas, corn, beans etc.to prevent discolouration of the contents and the staining of the

inside container. These cans should not be used for any highly acid product as acid eats in

to the lacquer.

Testing for defects: In a factory, the finished cans should be finally tested for leak or

imperfect seals. The simple methods employed are:

1. Tap the top of the can with a short steel rod. A clear ringing sound indicates a perfect

seal, while a dull and hollow sound shows a leaky or imperfect sealed can. Although it

is rapid, seldom fails to detect a defective seal.

2. Test the vacuum inside the cans by means of vacuum gauge fitted with a sharp point,

which is protected with a thick rubber gasket. The sharp point is pierced in to the lid of

the can, and a short twist given, when rubber gasket presses against the puncture

made and gives air tight seal. The vacuum in the can is directly read on the dial of the

gauge. Faulty cans don’t show any vacuum.

3. The vacuum can also be tested with a vacuum tester with out puncturing the can. This

is a non-destructive type. This is based on the measurement of concavity of the lid of

the can, which is proportional to the degree of vacuum inside the can. A battery

operated electrical circuit with a ringing bell facilitates the measurement of concavity

and hence the vacuum inside (Method of CSIRO, Australia).

4. A Flip tester is also employed to determine the vacuum inside the can by placing the

can in a glass chamber and evacuating it. The can lid will give a flip sound when the

vacuum out side becomes slightly more than that inside the can. It is also a non-

destructive type and can be operated on the mains or with a dry cell. It is portable and

handy (Method of CFTRI-INDIA).

Spoilage in canned foods

Canned foods are liable to spoilage in storage for various reasons. The two important kinds

of spoilages are: (1) Spoilage by micro-organisms (2) spoilage due to physical and

chemical changes.Variuos indications (Symptoms) of spoilage in cans are –

1. Swell: In swelled can, the ends are tightly bulged due to the formation of CO2 or other

gas inside the can as a result of decomposition of the contents by micro-organisms.

The decomposed food in the can has an offensive and sour odour and is discoloured.It

is not fit for consumption and even may contain toxins produced by bacilli like

Clostridium botulinum.

2. Hydrogen swell: Hydrogen formed by the action of the acids present in the fruit on the

tin plate causes the can to bulge at both the ends. In such cases, the food remains free

from harmful micro-organisms and is still fit for consumption.

3. Springer: A mild swell at one or both ends of a can is called a ‘Springer’. It may be an

initial stage of hydrogen swell or may be caused by insufficient exhausting or by over

filling of the can. Food generally remains fit for consumption.

4. Flipper: The cans appear normal, but when struck against a table top one or both ends

become convex and spring or flip out, but can be pushed back to normal condition by a

little pressure. Such a can is termed as ‘flipper’. It may be an initial stage of swell or

hydrogen swell, but does more frequently, owe to over filling or under exhausting.

5. Flat sour: it is caused mostly in non-acid foods like vegetables by micro-organisms like

thermophyllic bacteria (B.coagulens and B.sterothermophilus) which produce acid with

out formation of gas. The thermophyllic bacteria thrive at a high temperature of

100OC.If cans are stored without adequate cooling, the contents remain at a

temperature favourable for incubation of such bacteria for fairly long time, which results

in their multiplication and spoil the product. It is therefore difficult to detect from the

external appearance. It may be due to by under sterilization (processing).Therefore the

thermophillic bacteria would be of significance. The product has a sour odour, and its

acidity much be higher than that of the normal product. It is not fit for consumption.

6. Leakage: A leaking can is known as leaker. A very small leak may appear in the can

owing to (1) defective seaming, (2) nail holes caused by faulty nailing of cases while

packing (3) excessive internal pressure due to microbial spoilage sufficient to burst the

can (4) internal or external corrosion (5) mechanical damage during handling.

7. Breathing (Breather): There may be a very tiny leak in the can through which air may

pass in and destroy the vacuum but not the micro-organisms. Consequently the

vacuum in the can is always nil, and the pressure inside the can is equal to that of

atmosphere. The damage to food is usually owing to rusting of the can caused by

oxygen in the air but still the food remains fit for consumption.

8. Bursting of the can: Cans may some times burst. This may be due to excess of

pressure caused by the gas inside, produced by the decomposition of the food by

micro-organisms, or by hydrogen gas formed by chemical action of acids of the food on

the tin plate. Thus the canned product becomes a total loss.

Discolouration of the fruit products:

Discoloration of the canned foods may be owing to bio-logical causes or metallic

contamination or both.

Biological causes:Cut and peeled apples and pears when kept in air, turn brown due to

oxidation. This change is induced by co-oxidases (enzymes) present in the fruit and can

be avoided by placing them in 2 or 3 per cent common salt solution.

Poly phenol oxidase

(enzyme)

Poly phenols (in cells) + Oxygen (air) Brown (in cells)

Brown discolouration of the fruit products may also be caused by reactions other than

enzymatic.

The colour changes may be caused by reactions between:

Nitrogenous matter and sugars

Nitrogenous matter and organic acids

Sugar and organic acids and

Organic acids among themselves.

These reactions, generally known as’Maillard’ reactions (also known as Millard browning

).Due to these reactions colour,flavour,odour and some times texture changes occur,

which results from a chemical reaction between the above) are of great importance to

food preservation. It is named after the French man Millard who discovered it.

Metallic contamination: This type of discolouration is caused by iron and copper salts

mostly. The following are important among them.

1. Ferric tannate: Some fruits and vegetables contain tannins which on contact with

the exposed iron of the tin plate form ferric tannate.This is black and spoil the

appearance of the product.

2. Iron sulphide: Sulpher dioxide either from the source of sugar or formed owing

to the decomposition of the proteins in the product may react with the hydrogen
 formed by fruit acid acting on the tin plate and gets reduced to H2S.This H2S, in

turn will react with the iron of the can and form black iron sulphide.Therefore,

the product appearance is spoiled and the obnoxious smell of H2S will also

persist.

3. Copper sulphide: When the plant is shut down for some time, even for a few

days, a thin film of copper oxide will be formed on the surface of the equipment

made of copper or brass. Although the equipment may be cleaned thoroughly

before use again, small traces of copper oxide or copper salts may still remain

sticking to the surface of the metal. When the plant is started again, the first lot

of product will react with copper compounds and dissolve the copper. The

product coming into contact with hydrogen sulphide which may be formed inside

the can due to several causes will form black copper sulphide, which will

discolour the product.

4. Hydrogen: Fruit acids, reacting on the metal can produce hydrogen. The

hydrogen thus formed will react with the red or purple pigments of fruits like

straw berries, red plums, damsons etc. and bleach them. The remedy for this is

to ensure that lacquering is complete and perfect.

Bottling of Fruits and Vegetables

Bottles have proved to be very good containers for home preservation of fruits.
Although their initial cost is high, they can be used several times and last for many
years if care fully handled. The fruits look attractive through the glass and don’t
develop metallic flavour.Bottling doesnot need a sealing machine but is not
suitable from the manufacturers point of view as the initial capital required is high.
Cans are cheaper, quite hardy and lighter and loss due to breakage is less.Hence,
on commercial scale tin cans are preferred to glass jars or bottles.

There are many types of glass containers of different shapes and sizes and with
various types of hermitic seals. Jars fitted with wire clamps are considered to be
the best. The products remain in a very hygienic condition and does not come into
contact with rubber or metal.
Essential equipment and method of selection of the fruit, grading, sorting, washing,
peeling, slicing and coring are the same as for canning of fruits and vegetables.

Drying and dehydration of fruits and vegetables

Drying preserves foods by removing enough moisture from food to prevent decay
and spoilage. Water content of properly dried food varies from 5 to 25 percent
depending on the food. Successful drying depends on:
• Enough heat to draw out moisture, without cooking the food;
• Dry air to absorb the released moisture; and
• Adequate air circulation to carry off the moisture.

W hen drying foods, the key is to remove moisture as quickly as possible at a

temperature that does not seriously affect the flavor, texture and color of the food.
If the temperature is too low in the beginning, microorganisms may grow before
the food is adequately dried. If the temperature is too high, affect the flavor, texture
and color of the food.
Dehydration is an alternative to canning / bottling and freezing fruits and
vegetables.

The practice of drying food stuffs especially fruits and vegetables for preserving them

are very old.

The term drying and dehydration means the removal of water. The former term drying

is generally used for drying under the influence of non-conventional energy sources like

sun and wind. If fruits or vegetables are to be sun dried, they or their pieces should be

evenly spread in single layer on trays or boards and exposed to the sun. In sun drying

there is no possibility of temperature and humidity control. The hottest days in summer

are therefore chosen so that the foods dry very fast thus producing them from getting

spoiled due to souring. Souring or turning acidic is usually due to growth of micro

organisms which converts the carbohydrates in the food to acid. Quick removal of

moisture prevents the growth of the micro-organisms.

Dehydration means the process of removal of moisture by the application of artificial

heat under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and air flow. In this process,

a single layer of fruits or vegetables are spread on trays which are placed inside the

dehydrator. The initial temperature of the dehydrator is usually 43OC which is gradually

increased to 60-66OC in the case of vegetables and 50-71OC for fruits.

On account of the concentrated form, low cost, convenience and easy transportability

dried / dehydrated fruit and vegetable products become highly popular among the

armed forces.

Dehydration techniques have been greatly improved to get over defects like undesirable

changes in colour, taste and flavour during storage and distribution.

The rate of drying of fruits and vegetables depends on:

x The exposure of a large surface area of the produce, which speeds drying;
The produce should be cut into strips not more than 5 mm thick;
x Drying time is lengthened if the produce has very high water content, a
small surface area or waterproof skin.
x The temperature should be high enough (50-70OC) to give rapid moisture
removal; temperatures over 70 degrees cause discoloration of the product;
x Drying time is increased if the relative humidity of the air is high. In other
words, if the air already holds nearly all the water it possibly can, it will
unable to take much more, and the fruit will not be able to lose enough
moisture to become dehydrated.
x As water evaporates from a piece of fruit or vegetable, the air surrounding
the fruit or vegetable becomes saturated with water, causing the rate of
evaporation to slow down and eventually stop. To prevent this from
happening and to keep the rate of evaporation as high as possible, it is
essential that air be kept in constant motion near the fruit/vegetable to carry
away the moisture laden air. So to increase the rate at which fruits and
vegetables force warm, dry air over produce being prepared to enhance the
evaporation of water.

Advantages of dehydration over sun drying:

The process of dehydration is very rapid

Dehydration requires less floor area
Dehydration is done under hygienic condition
Mechanical dehydration is not dependent on the weather
The colour of dehydrated product remains uniform

Advantages of drying /Dehydration over other methods of Preservation:

1) The weight of the product is reduced to 1/4th to 1/9th of its original or fresh
weight and thus ,the costs associated with its further operations is reduced
drastically.
2) Due to reduction in bulk of the produce, it requires less storage space.
 3) No preservative is added for its preservation

4) Cost of processing is very low

5) Per unit weight of fruit or vegetable nutrients concentration is very high.

6) Many fruits and vegetables are available only during seasons. With the help of

dehydration /drying preserve them for all seasons.

7) Dehydration produces are convenience items. For example instant coffee, fruit

juice concentrate, fruit juice powders, instant mashed potatoes etc.The

consumer simply add water and stir or mixes.

8) Spoilage of foods is easily controlled in drying process.

9) It retains the size and shape of the original food.ex.Freeze dried food.

Principles of drying and dehydration: The micro organisms require plenty of

free water for their survival. Drying or dehydration removes biologically active
water, thus growth of micro organisms is stopped. This also results in reduced rate
of enzyme activity and chemical reactions. The food value, natural flavour and
characteristic cooking quality of fresh material are retained after drying. Fruits
show no sign of moisture or stickiness and vegetables become brittle on drying.
The residual moisture should not be more than 6-8 percent in vegetables and 10-
20 percent in fruits. Dried fruits can be used as such or after soaking, while dried
vegetables are usually soaked in water over night before cooking.

Process of drying:

During Preparation

1. Select the best fruit and vegetables- As with canning and freezing,
dehydrated foods are only as good as the fresh fruit or vegetables. When
selecting fruits and vegetables for dehydration, choose ones that are ripe,
unbruised and at peak-eating quality.
2. Prepare fruits or vegetable to be dehydrated --Apples, for example, may
be sliced, cut into rings, or pureed for fruit leather.
3. Keep pieces uniform in size and thickness for even drying-- Slices cut
1/8 to 1/4-inch in thickness will dry more quickly than thicker pieces.
4. Some foods should be washed before drying-- Foods such as herbs,
berries and seedless grapes need only be washed before dehydrating.
5. To prevent browning-- Try steaming, sulfuring or coating light-coloured
fruits and vegetables with acids such as lemon juice or ascorbic acid
before drying. Steaming or blanching is recommended for vegetables to
 inactivate enzymes that cause vegetables to mature, or toughen during
drying.

During Drying

1. Select the right drying method and equipment-. Foods can be dried in a
conventional oven, a commercial dehydrator, or in the sun. Drying times
vary with the method and foods chosen. Be sure to read the instructions
with your dehydrator.
2. Maintain 130OF to 140OF with circulating air: Remove enough moisture
as quickly as possible to prevent spoilage. A drying temperature of 130O F
to 140OF allows moisture to be removed quickly without adversely affecting
food's texture, color, flavour and nutritive value.If the initial temperature is
lower, or air circulation is insufficient, foods may undergo undesirable
microbiological changes before drying adequately. If the temperature is
higher, or humidity too low, nutrients can be lost or moisture may be

FLOW-SHEET FOR DRYING / DEHYDRATION OF FRUITS

 removed too quickly from the product's outer surface. This causes the outer
surface to harden and prevents moisture in the inner tissues from escaping.
When testing for sufficient dryness, cool foods before testing.

3. Know whether food is dry or not: Some foods are more pliable when cool
than warm. Foods should be pliable and leathery, or hard and brittle when
sufficiently dried. Some vegetables actually shatter if hit with a hammer. At
this stage, they should contain about 10 percent moisture. Because they
are so dry, vegetables do not need conditioning like fruits.

After Drying (for fruit only)

1. Allow dried FRUIT (not vegetables) to "condition": W hen dry, allow fruit
to "condition" for four to 10 days before packaging for storage. The moisture
content of home dried fruit should be about 20 percent. W hen the fruit is
taken from the dehydrator, the remaining moisture may not be distributed
equally among the pieces because of their size or their location in the
dehydrator. Conditioning is the process used to equalize the moisture. It
reduces the risk of mould growth.
2. To condition the fruit take the dried fruit that has cooled and pack it
loosely in plastic or glass jars.
3. Seal the containers and let them stand for 7 to 10 days. The excess
moisture in some pieces will be absorbed by the drier pieces.
 4. Shake the jars daily to separate the pieces and check the moisture
condensation. If condensation develops in the jar, return the fruit to the
dehydrator for more drying.
5. After conditioning, package and store the fruit.

Blanching: Most vegetables and some fruits are blanched before drying to inhibit
enzyme activity and to help preserve the colour. The material is cut into
appropriate sized pieces and plunged into boiling water for up to 5 minutes. They
should be blanched in small batches to ensure that each piece is properly heated
through. If too many pieces are put into the water at one time, the water
temperature will drop and prolong the blanching time. After blanching for the
required time, vegetables are rapidly cooled by plunging into cold (or iced) water.

Sulphuring : is an optional stage of processing. The main benefit of sulphuring is

to preserve the fruit colour. Some consumers object to chemical preservatives and
prefer naturally dried fruits. Sulphur dioxide gas (SO2) is applied to the fruit pieces
by placing them in a cabinet or tent in which sulphur is burned. The gas is
absorbed by the fruit. For most fruits, 5-6g sulphur per kg food is adequate. The
gas given off is toxic and corrosive. Therefore, sulphuring should be carried out in
a well ventilated place, using appropriate equipment.

FLOW CHART FOR FREEZING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Fully mature fruits /Vegetables

Washing

Trimming

Cut into pieces

Scalding or Balanching

Keeping in syrup or brine

(Except Straw berry which is paqcked after freezing)
 Packing

Freezing

Freezing of Fruits and Vegetables

Freezing as a preservation method probably was observed by pre-historic people

during cold weather; and ;until frozen storage cabinets were developed in the
late1980’s,naturally occurring snow and ice were used to freeze foods out side.

With the development of mechanical refrigeration and quick freezing techniques,

the frozen food industry has expanded rapidly. Even in homes, freezing of foods
has now become common because home deep freezers are readily available
.Under the usual conditions of storage of frozen foods microbial growth is
prevented completely and action of food enzymes greatly retarded. The lower the
storage temperature, the slower will be the rate of a chemical or enzymatic
reaction, but most of them still continue at any temperature. Therefore, it is a
common practice to inactivate enzymes in vegetables by scalding or blanching the
latter before freezing when practicable. The rate of freezing of food depends upon
a number of factors such as the method employed, the temperature, circulation of
air or refrigerant, size and shape of package, kind of food etc.
When compared to most other food preservation methods, freezing requires the
least amount of food preparation before storage and under optimum conditions it
has the best nutrient, flavour and texture retention. Since food remains micro
biologically safe during freezing, its shelf life is determined by chemical and
physical changes that occur during storage.
At Oo F(-18OC) fruits can usually retain good quality for 12 months and vegetables
for 8-12 months. Increasing storage temperature results in shorter shelf lives. For
each 18OF (10OC) increase in temperature, the storage time is approximately cut
in to half.
Freezing is cheaper than canning, frozen products are of better quality than
canned products, but for storage of frozen products uninterrupted supply of
electricity is essential which is a problem at least in homes.

Methods of freezing:
1. Sharp/slow freezing: It involves freezing by circulation of air, either naturally or
with the aid of fans. The temperature may vary from -15 to -29OC and freezing
may take from 3 -72 hours. The ice crystals formed are large and rupture cells.
The thawed tissue cannot regain its original water content. The first products to be
sharp frozen were meat and butter.

2. Quick freezing: In this process the food attains the temperature of maximum
ice crystal formation (0 to - 4OC) in 30 minutes. Such a speed results in formation
of very small ice crystals and hence minimum disturbance of cell structure.
Most of the foods are quick frozen by one of the following 3 methods.

(a)By direct immersion: Since, liquids are good heat conductors, food can
frozen rapidly by direct immersion in a liquid such as brine or sugar solution
at low temperature. Berries in sugar solution. Packed fruit juices and
concentrates are frozen in this manner.
(b) By direct contact with refrigerant: Indirect freezing may be defined as
freezing by contact of the product with a metal surface which itself is cooled
by freezing brine or other refrigerating media. This is an old method of
freezing in which the food or package is kept in contact with the passage
through which the refrigerant flows at -18 to-46OC.
(c)By air blast freezing: This refers to vigorous circulation of cold air in
order to freeze the product. Freezing is done by placing the food stuffs on
trays or on belt which are then passed slowly through an insulated tunnel
containing air in it. Here the air temperature is approximately -18 to -34OC
or even lower. This process is economical and a variety of sizes and
shapes can be accommodated.

3. Dehydro- freezing: This is a process where freezing is preceded by partial

dehydration. In case of some fruits and vegetables about 50% of the moisture is
removed by dehydration prior to freezing. This has been found to improve the
quality of food. Dehydration does not cause deterioration and dehydro frozen
foods are relatively more stable.
4. Freeze drying: In this process food is frozen at -18OC on trays in the lower
chamber of a freeze drier and the frozen material dried (Initially at 30OC for 24
hours and then at 20OC) under high vacuume (0.1mm Hg) in the upper chamber.
Direct sublimation of the ice takes place without passing through the intermediate
liquid stage. The product is highly hygroscopic, excellent in taste and flavour and
can be reconstituted readily. Mango pulp, orange juice concentrate, passion fruit
juice and guava pulp are dehydrated by this method.

5. Cryogenic freezing: Although most foods retain their quality when quick frozen
by the above methods, a few (mush rooms, sliced tomatoes, whole straw berries
and rasp berries) require ultra fast freezing. Such materials are subjected to
cryogenic freezing which is defined as freezing at a very low temperature (below -
60OC).The refrigerants used at present in cryogenic freezing are liquid nitrogen
and liquid carbon- di- oxide.

6. Accelerated freeze drying: In this, low temperature is employed for drying and
the technique of drying the solid pieces of the product without unduly disturbing
the shape and texture, the dried material has good reconstitution properties and
possesses excellent taste and flavor and as such has been well accepted by
consumers. The dried product is highly useful in the preparation of emergency
fo o d
packs and rations for use by the defence services under difficult and adverse
conditions of climate and terrains such as high altitude, mountain regions etc.This
method is adopted for drying fish and meat and not adopted for fruits and
vegetables.AFD products are of excellent quality in every respect.

Spoilage of dried fruits and Vegetables:

Sl.No Spoilage Cause Remedy

1. Moulding High moisture above Reduce water content. Pack in
equilibrium RH to water activity hermetically sealed air tight
of 0.70 containers
2. Infestation Presence of larvae or insects Storage room disinfestations.
in dried produce Fumigation of packed products
3. Browning Maillard reactions ( Chemical Reduce the moisture content
reaction ) store at low temperature
Enzyme related reaction Enzyme inactivation by blanching
or steaming before drying
4. Reduced Too hightemperaturein storage Control the storage temperature
rehydration
 ratio

Fruit Juices

Fruit juices are preserved in different forms such as pure juices, squashes, cordials,

fermented juices etc.These are broadly defined as follows:

Unfermented fruit juice or pure fruit juice: Fruit juices which don’t undergo alcoholic

fermentation are termed as unfermented fruit juices. This is the natural juice pressed

out of the fruit and remains practically unaltered in its composition .It may be diluted

before it is served as a drink.

Fruit juice beverage: This is a fruit juice which is considerably altered in composition

before consumption. It may be diluted before it is served as a drink.

Fermented fruit beverage: This is fruit juice which has undergone alcoholic fermentation

by yeast. The product contains varying amounts of alcohol. The typical examples of this

kind of beverage are grape wines, apple ciders, berry wines etc.

Fruit juice squash: This consists essentially of strained juice containing moderate

quantities of fruit pulp to which cane sugar is added for sweetening. It contains at least

25% fruit juice or pulp and 40-50% TSS, commercially. It also contains about 1% acid

and 350ppm SO2 or 600ppm sodium benzoate. It is diluted before serving.

Eg.Orange squash, mango squash, lemon squash, pineapple squash.

Fruit juice cordial: This is a sparkling, clear sweetened fruit juice from which all the pulp

and other suspended materials have been completely eliminated. It

contains at least 25% juice and 30%TSS.It also contains about 1.5% acid and 350ppm

of SO2 .This is very suitable for blending wines.

Eg. Lime juice cordial.

Sherbat: This is a clear sugar syrup which has been artificially flavoured .

Eg.Sherbats of sandal, Sangtra, Almond, Rose, khus-khus, Sarasaparilla, Kewra etc.

Fruit juice concentrate: This is a fruit juice which has been concentrated by the removal

of water either by heat or by freezing. Carbonated beverages are made from this. They

contain pure juice with at least 32% TSS.

The major advantages of concentrates are:

 Reduced weight and bulk compared to juice result in economy in packing,

storage and transport.

  The whole crop of fruits is fully utilized during peak season, thus helping to

stabilize the price.

 The product can be used as base material for making various food and

beverage formulations.

Problems with concentrates:

 Fermentation is not prevented

 Non-enzymatic browning occurs

 Gel formation takes place.

Fruit juice powder: This is fruit juice which has been converted into a free flowing,

highly hygroscopic powder by puff drying, freeze drying, vacuum drying, and spray

drying or drum drying. The powder has the advantage of long shelf life and is soluble in

cold water. But during the drying process much of the characteristic fresh flavour is lost,

which is compensated by adding to the juice powder natural fruit flavour in powder

from. Reconstitution of the powder mixture yields full strength, full-fruit, fruit juice drink.

Freeze dried fruit juice powders form the last word among the sophisticated fruit juice

products.

Steps in processing of fruit juices: The most important steps in processing of fruit juices

are (1) selection and preparation of fruit (2) extraction of juice (3) deaeration (4)

straining, filtration and clarification and (5) preservation. The quality of the juice will

depend on the manner in which these several processes are carried out.

1. Selection and preparation of fruit: Fully ripe mid season fruits particularly citrus

fruits generally yield juice superior to that of fruits picked early or late in the

season. The fruits should be washed thoroughly with water. Scrub while

washing to any adhering dust and other extraneous matter. Residues of sprays
 of arsenic and lead should be removed with dilute Hcl (23 liters of Hcl in 455

liters of water).All mouldy and decayed parts should be removed.

2. Juice extraction: The variety of fruit, its maturity and the locality in which it is

grown have a marked effect on its flavour as well as its keeping quality. The

best juice is therefore extracted from freshly picked, sound and suitable varieties

when they are at optimum stage of maturity. Generally juice from fresh fruits is

extracted by crushing and pressing them. The admixture of the extraneous

constituents with the juice should be avoided as far as possible by adopting a

suitable method of extraction. During the extraction, the juice should not be

unduly exposed to air, as oxygen of the air will adversely affect the colour, taste

and aroma and also reduce the vitamin content of the juice. Citrus juice, tomato

juice, apple juice, and grape juice deteriorates rapidly in quality, when they are

extracted by adopting methods which expose them to air for longer periods.

3. Deaeration: Fruit juices do retain some air due to the presence of air in the inter

cellular spaces of the fruit. Most of the air is present on the surface of the fruit

particles, while some is found dissolved in the juice. Therefore immediately after

extraction, the juice is subjected to a high vacuum whereby most of the air as

well as other gases are removed. This process is known as deaeration.

4. Straining, filtration and clarification: Fruit juices always contain varying amounts

of suspended matter, which consists of broken fruit tissue, seed and skin and

also various gums, pectic substances and proteins in colloidal suspension.

The coarse particles of pulp, seeds and pieces of skin are removed by means of

non-corrodible metal sieves or by sedimentation. The presence of these generally

causes deterioration in the quality of the final product. Recently a high speed
 centrifuge having an automatic sediment discharge device has been introduced for

removal of pulp from orange juice.

The complete removal of all suspensions is effected either by filtration or by

clarification. For this enzymes and fining agents are employed .Filtration is

necessary for removing completely all the fine and colloidal suspensions .In this

process the strained fruit juice is forced through a filtering medium which consists of

fibre cloth ,asbestos pads, cotton pulp, porous porcelain or wood pulp. The colloidal

suspension tends to clog the filters in the press. To prevent this filter aids such as

diatomaceous or infusorial earth (kieselguhr, Kaolin, Spanish clay etc.) are added

to the juice to facilitate filtration .However, earth material tends to impart to the juice

a sort of earthy taste. These aids therefore, should be used with caution and in little

quantities. For clarification of apple juice, use of ignited kaolin as filter aid -1 kg per

100 kg of juice was recommended. The resulting juice will be clear and sparkling.

Use of fining agents: This method aims at producing a voluminous flocculent

precipitate which settles gradually, carrying down with it finely divided particles and

colloidal suspensions that are responsible for cloudyness.Fining agents are of three

kinds (1)enzymes which destroy the colloids present in the juice,(2)finings which

are purely physical in their action(infusorial) and (3)chemical finings which act on

the gummy and colloidal substances present in the juice to form insoluble

coagulates that settles down easily (gelatin, albumin and casein).

1.Enzymes: Enzymes such as proteolytic ,pectin decomposing ,hydrolytic, starch

liquefying enzymes etc are used to remove pectin, protein and starch from fruit juices.

They are marketed in trade as pectinol, filtragol, ido, pectasine etc.Pectynol enzymes

are prepared from the mould Pennicilium glaucum, which is found growing on
grapes.Pectinol breaks down pectin in to soluble form, there by freeing the suspended

particles, which subsequently settles down speedily, leaving the solution clear.

Filtragol is another pectin decomposing enzyme developed for the clarification of fruit

juices of kernel fruits, stone fruits and grapes. If the juice is to be filtered soon after the

addition of the enzyme ,a slightly larger quantity of filtragol should be added.

The following are the advantages of using filtragol:

 The heating of the fruit juice is not necessary if filtragol is employed while it
is necessary to heat the juice if other enzymes are used.

 The filtration takes less time

 In the presence of filtragol, the colouring matter of the fruit is solubilised

with out any heating, which would otherwise be necessary to extract the
colour from the fruit tissues.

 The efficiency of filtragol is not impaired by the addition of sulpher- di-oxide

to the juice at 30-60ppm concentration which is necessary to prevent any
fermentation.

Doses of filtragol: 0.5to1.5 g per litre of kernel fruit, stone fruit and grape juice.

1.5 to 2.0 g per litre of raspberry, black berry, currants etc.

2. Physical or mechanical fining agents: The infuserial earths such as spanish clay,

china clay, kaolin, and bentonite are suitable for this purpose. These should not react

with the acids of the juices, should not impart any undesirable taste and flavour to the

juice and should not form any colloidal suspension. To ensure these, these earths are

heated to dull red to burn away all the organic matter present and subsequently treated

with 1.0 -1.5 % of citric or tartaric acid .Finally washed in water, dried and powdered

before use. Usually 0.5 to 0.6% of the earth is mixed with the juice. However in the

case of unfermented apple juice, kaolin is added @ 1kg to 100 kg of juice.

3. Chemical finings: The colloidal substances such as proteins and pectin’s carry

negative electrical charge on them. These are precipitated when this charge is

neutralized by the addition of positively charged colloids like gelatin and casein. The

precipitates thus formed settles down carrying with them other suspended particles too.

Gelatin is an excellent fining material and is widely used for the clarification of fruit

juices. Sufficient tannin is also added to the juice to minimize the bleaching action of

gelatin.

Albumen: It is the white of eggs and can be liberated by heating in a small quantity of

water. Usually 2% solution of albumen gives satisfactory results.

Casein It is prepared from skimmed milk by precipitating it with hydrochloric acid. The

precipitated casein is washed in water, dried and powdered. It is dissolved in liquor

ammonia, boiled and diluted to 2% strength solution. This solution is mixed with the

fruit juice.

Clarification by freezing: Colloidal suspensions when subjected to freezing are readily

precipitated on thawing. Apple juice responds very well to this treatment followed by

grape juice. The clear juice is then bottled.

Clarification by heating: Colloidal material in fruit juices usually coagulates, when the

juice is heated and settles down readily. The juice is heated to 82OC for a minute or

less and then cooled down rapidly. The heating is effected in flash-heaters to avoid

oxidation by air. Afetr cooling the juice is mixed with the filter aid and passed through

the filter press. Clarification of pomegranate juice is a typical example of this process.
Preservation of fruit juices: To retain natural taste and aroma of the juice, it is

necessary to preserve it soon after extraction. The methods generally used are:

a) Pasteurization: preservation of fruit juices by heat to 100OC for sufficient time to kill

micro organisms is called pasteurization. Fruit juices can be psteurisized in two ways:

1) By heating the juice at low temperature for a long period.

2) By heating the juice at a high temperature for short time only (HTST) method.

Methods of pasteurization:

1) Bottle method (Holding pasteurization): The bottles are filled with juice leaving a

head space for expansion on heating. The bottles are sealed air tight.

2) Pasteurization by over flow method: The juice is heated to a temperature about

2.5OC higher than that of Pasteurization temperature, and filled into the

sterilized bottles up to the brim and sealed. The sealed bottles are pasteurized.

3) Flash Pasteurization: The juice is heated to 5.5OC higher than the

Pasteurization temperature rapidly and is held at that temperature for a minute

and then filled into the containers. The containers are sealed and pasteurized.

b) Preservation with chemicals: Pasteurized squashes and cordials have a cooled

flavour.After the container is opened, they ferment and spoil with in a short period. To

avoid this chemicals are used. The two important chemical preservatives permitted in

many countries as well as in India according to FPO of 1955 are:

 Benzoic acid (including benzoates).

 Sulpher Dioxide (including sulphites).

Sodium benzoate: It is a salt of benzoic acid and is an effective agent. As it is sparingly

soluble in water, its sodium salt, which is water soluble, is generally used. In the case
of fruit juices which have a pH of 3.5 to 4.0.Addition of 0.06 to 0.10 %( 600-1000mg)

of sodium benzoate is sufficient per litre of juice.

Potassium meta bi-sulphite (K2O, 2SO2, or K2S2O5): It is commonly used as a stable

source of sulpher di-oxide .Being a dry chemical ,it is easier to use than a liquid or

gaseous sulpher di-oxide. Potassium meta bi-sulphite a crystalline salt and is fairly

stable in neutral or alkaline media. When it is added the potassium radical reacts with

the acid of the juice forming the corresponding potassium salt (as potassium citrate or

potassium tartarate etc.) and the sulpher di-oxide which is liberated, forms sulphurous

acid with the water of the juice. According to FPO, the maximum sulpher di-oxide

allowed is 350ppm. This corresponds to 28 g of KMS to 454 kg of squash or cordial. It

has a strong effect in retarding oxidation, prevents discoloration and loss of falavour in

the product. However, it cannot be used in naturally coloured juices like phalsa, jamun,

pomegranate, strawbwrry, grapes etc. on account of its bleaching action.

C) Preservation by addition of sugar: Sugar absorbs most of the available water with

the result that the latter is not available for the growth of micro-organisms. The sugar

acts a s a preservative by osmosis and not as true poison for microorganisms. Sugar

syrup of 66% sugar inhibits the growth of micro-organisms.

d) Preservation by freezing: It is the best method of preserving fruit juices as it retains

its freshness, colour and aroma for a long time. The juice is first de-aerated and the

vacuum released with nitrogen gas. The juice is then transferred into containers which

are hermitically sealed and frozen at -12OC to -10OC.The juice is defrosted before its

consumption.

e) Preservation by drying: The juice is sprayed in the from of a very fine mist into an

evaporating chamber through which hot air is passed. The dry juice falls on the floor of
the chamber in the form of a fine powder. The powder collected and packed in dry

containers, which are then sealed air-tight.

f) Preservation by carbonation: The filtered juice is carbonated which will keep the juice

without fermentation. The oxygen of the air which is present in the solution is displaced

with carbon dioxide. This prevents the growth of moulds and yeasts. High carbonation

should be avoided as it destroys the delicate flavours of the juice.

g) Preservation by filtration: The juice which has been clarified is passed through

specialized filters which are capable of retaining yeasts and bacteria. Various types of

germ proof filters are used for this purpose in USA and Germany.

h) Other methods: Methods of sterilizations such as use of electric current, UV rays,

Olygodynamic properties of silver et5c. have been recently used in developed

countries.
Chutneys and Pickles

Chutney: Chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices and
herbs. Although originally intended to be eaten soon after production, modern
chutneys are often made to be sold and so require preservatives - often sugar and
vinegar - to ensure it has a suitable shelf life. Chutney of good quality should be
palatable and appetizing.

The fruit or vegetable is cut into slices of suitable size and softened by boiling in water. Slow
cooking at low temperature yields better product. Onion and garlic are added at the start to
mellow their strong flavours.Spices are coarsely powdered and added to the product. Spices
as well as vinegar extract should be added just a little before the final stage of boiling to
avoid the loss of essential oils of these spices and vinegar.

Pickles: The process of preservation of food in common salt or in vinegar is called pickling.
Spices and edible oils may be added to the product .Pickles are good appetizers and add to
the palatability of a meal. They aid in digestion by stimulating the flow of gastric juice. The
pickles contain nutrients of varying amounts. The food value of cucumber pickle exceeds
that of eggs, rice, fresh onions and tomatoes.

Pickling process: Pickling is done in two stages.

1. by curing or fermentation with dry salting or fermentation in brine, or salting without
fermentation.
2. by finishing and packing.

1. Dry salting: The vegetable is treated with dry salt. The salt extracts the juice from the
vegetable and forms the brine, which is fermented by lactic acid forming bacteria. The
method is as follows:
The vegetable is prepared .For every 100 kg prepared vegetable, three kg of salt is used.
The vegetable is placed about 2.5cm deep in the keg or barrel and is sprinkled with salt.
Another layer of vegetable is added and again sprinkled with salt. Like this salt and
vegetable are added layer by layer till the keg is 3/4th full Then one or two fold cheese cloth
is spread over the salted vegetable. Place a wooden board on the top of it. A clean stone or
weight is placed on the wooden board to press the vegetable. The brine is formed in 24
hours generally.
The keg is placed in a warm and dry place and fermentation is allowed to proceed. As soon
as the brine is formed, the fermentation starts and bubbles of CO2 begin to rise.
Fermentation is usually completed in 8 to 10 days under favourable conditions of 30OC.The
product is now ready for preserving by excluding air ,which can be done by three ways. (1)
Pouring edible oil (2) Pouring brine and (3) Placing hot molten paraffin wax.
2. Fermentation in brine: Steeping of vegetable in a salt solution of predetermined
concentration for a certain length of time is called brining. This method is adopted in
cucumber pickles which don’t contain sufficient juice to form brine with dry salt.

Raw materials used in Pickling

Salt: Free from impurities and salts such as lime (Cao), iron (blackening),
magnesium (results in bitter taste) and carbonated (makes the product soft in
nature).
Vinegar: Vinegar of good quality should contain at least 4% acetic acid. Synthetic
low quality vinegar is not suitable for pickle preparations. Usually maleic and citric
vinegar is used. In order to ensure good keeping quality pickle, the final
concentration of citric acid in the pickle should not be less than 2%. Citric acid
(Commercial) is used because it is highly concentrated.
Sugar: Used in the preparation of sweet pickles.
Spices: Spices are added to all the pickles. The quality added depends upon the
type of fruit or vegetable taken and the kind of flavour desired. The spices
generally used are bay leaves, cardamom, chillies, cinnamon, clove, coriander, dill
herb, ginger, mace, mustard, black pepper, cumin, turmeric, garlic, mint,
fenugreek, asafetida etc.
Water: Only potable water should be used for the preparation of brine. Hard water
contains the salts of Ca, Mg, Na etc,. These interfere with the normal salt curing of
vegetable. If hard water is to be used, a small quantity of vinegar should also be
added to the brine to neutralize its alkalinity. Iron should not be present in the
water in appreciable quantity as it causes the blackening of the pickle.
Cooking utensils: Metallic vessels should not be corrodible. Vessels made of iron
and copper are not suitable. Glass lined vessels and stainless steel vessels are
preferred. The laddels, spoons and measuring vessels should also be made of
non-corrodible materials.

Causes and kinds of spoilage in pickles:

1) Shriveling: vegetable like cucumber when placed directly in a very strong
solution of salt, shriveling occurs.
2) Bitter taste: The use of strong vinegar or cooking the spices for a long time and
over spicing are the causes.
3) Blackening: It is due to iron, which enters through the brine or equipment.
4) Dull or faded product: Insufficient curing or using inferior quality material may
be responsible.
5) Softness or slipperiness: This is due to the action of bacteria. In adequate
covering of pickle with brine or using weak brine are responsible.
6) Scum formation: In the presence of air, the growth of wild yeast may form on the
surface. It retards the formation of lactic acid. This action helps the growth of
 putrefactive bacteria, which makes the vegetable soft or slippery. Addition of 1
% acetic acid helps to prevent the growth of wild yeast on the brine.
7) Cloudiness: In case of onion and other vegetables, the acetic acid in the vinegar
may not penetrate deep enough to prevent the activity of bacteria or other
microorganisms that may not present in them. Therefore, fermentation starts
from inside, rendering the vinegar cloudy. This activity of microorganisms can
only be checked by brining. Cloudiness may also be caused by the use of inferior
vinegar or by possible chemical reaction between the vinegar and the impurities
such as calcium, magnesium and iron compounds of salt.
8) Blemishes in pickles: In onion pickles, a white blotch under the first layer of skin
is seen. This is owing to a kind of fermentation or non-removal of all the brine
prior to the final pickling of cured onion in vinegar.

Flow Chart for Preparation of Chutney

Flow Chart for Preparation of Mango Pickle (Preservation in oil)

Flow Chart for Preparation of Mango Pickle (Preservation in Salt)

 Ketchup,Sauces and Puree

Sauces: Sauce is a product similar to ketchup, prepared from pulps of tomato or other fruits
/ vegetables having TSS not less than 15% and cooked to a suitable consistency with added
sugar, salt, spices and vinegar (acetic acid). Sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid all act as partial
preservatives. According to the FPO fruit should have a minimum of 15% TSS and 1.2%
acidity. To ensure its keeping quality the sauces should contain 3% acetic acid. The sugar
content may vary from 15-30% according to the kind of sauce made. Preservative and
colours may also be added in sauces for increasing storability. Sauces may or may not be
prepared from tomato, but ketchups are essentially prepared from tomato.
Some examples of sauces are tamarind sauce, pumpkin sauce, chilli sauce, Soya sauce etc.
Sauces are of two kinds and they are the thin and thick sauces. Thin sauces mainly consist of
vinegar extract of various flavouring materials like spices and herbs. A sauce which doesn’t
flow freely and which is highly viscous is called a thick sauce.

Ketchup: It is a product made by concentrating tomato juice or pulp without seeds

and skin, with added spices, salt, vinegar, onion, garlic etc.so that it contains not
less than 12% tomato solids and generally 28% or more total solids (not less than
25% TSS as per FPO specifications)

Procedure: For preparing 1 kg of tomato pulp, the following ingredients are

required.
Sugar -75g Red Chilli Powder -5g
Salt -10g Cinnamon,cardamom, -10g
Anil seed,Black Pepper,(all each
powdered)
Onion(Chopped) -50g Clove(Headless) -5g
Ginger(Chopped) -10g Vinegar 25m l
Sod.Benzoate 0.25g/kg of final product

1. Selection of fruits: Select sound ripe tomatoes having deep red

colour. Remove all green and yellow portions. Green fruits make the
ketchup inferior in colour and flavour.
2. Preparation of pulp: Take the selected tomatoes in an aluminum or
stainless steel vessel and crush thoroughly with a wooden handle.
Cook the crushed mass for 5 minutes and mash it well while cooking.
While it is sufficiently soft. Strain through the fine mosquito net cloth
or 1mm mesh stainless steel sieve. Discard the sheds and skins.
3. Cooking: To the pulp add about 1/3rd of sugar given in the
receipe.Place the spices (onion, garlic, cloves, cardamom, black
pepper, jeera, mace, cinnamon and chili powder) in a muslin cloth
bag (Jelly bag) and immerse it into the pulp. Heat the pulp till it
 thickens and is reduced to about 1/3rd of its volume. Remove the bag
and squeeze it well to extract the aroma and flavour of the spices.
Add vinegar, salt and the remaining sugar .Heat the mass for a few
minutes so that the volume of the finished product is about 1/3rd of
the original pulp.
4. Addition of preservatives: To a small quantity of finished product,
add the preservative sodium benzoate, at the rate of 295mg/kg of
finished product and mix thoroughly. This can be increased up to
885mg/kg as per specifications of FPO, 1955.Transfer the dissolved
preservatives to the rest of the product and mix thoroughly.
5. Cooling and Mixing: Pour the finished product into a medium size
sterilized bottles, seal them air tight with crown cork and pasteurize
in boiling water for 30 minutes. Cool the bottle in air and store in a
cool dry place.
Judging end point: End point is determined by hand refractometer.when TSS
reaches desired level (28-30%) sauce or ketchup is considered ready. Judging
end point by volume is very simple and common in practice. The volume is
measured by stick. If the volume of the produce remains 1/3rd of its original volume
sauce/ketchup is considered ready.
Note:
1) Chilly powder, spices, onion, ginger and garlic should be tied loosely in a muslin
cloth bag.
(2)Vinegar and colour may be added towards the end of boiling.
(3)1/3rd of sugar may be added in the beginning to preserve the red colour of pulp.
(4)Instead of clove, cinnamon and cardamom, their essences may be added more
conveniently.
(5)Garlic may or may not be added, depending upon consumer’s acceptance.
(6)Acid magenta II colour is avoided. Choose other red colors or orange colors
such as erythrosine, carmoisines, sunset yellow etc.

Bottling: Ketchup is filled in bottles at 88OC and is pasteurized for 30 minutes in

hot water at 85OC-90OC after cooking. It is preferable to add 250ppm sodium
benzoate and then pasteurize the product.

FLOW CHART FOR TOMATO SAUCE/KETCHUP

Tomato Puree: Tomato pulp without skin and seeds, containing not less than
8.37% of salt free from tomato solids is called as “medium tomato puree”.It is
further concentrated to 12% solids to form heavy tomato puree.Pulp is extracted
and concentrated in open cookers or vacuume pans and packing is done in glass
bottles or cans.

Flow Chart: Tomato fruits ---W ashing---Sorting---Cutting into 4-8 pieces—Heating

in SS pan for 4-5 mionutes---pulping---Juice---(Discard seeds and skin)---Heating
or boiling till end point(9-12OBrix)---Hot filling at 85OC---Sealing/Crown corking---
Sterilization in boiling water for 25-30 minutes---Cooling---Labeling and storage.
 Preserves, candies and crystallized fruits

Preserve: A preserve is made from properly matured fruit, by cooking it whole or

in the form of large pieces in heavy sugar syrup, till it becomes tender and
transparent. As per FPO specifications, preserve must have 68% TSS and 55%
portion of prepared fruit.
A jam differs from a preserve in that it doses not contain pieces of whole fruit as in
the case of preserve.
Suitable fruits for making preserve are aonla, apple, karonda, pineapple, papaya,
carrot, ginger, petha (ash gourd) and other firm textured thick pulped fruits.
For 1kg fruit 1 litre of water and 1 kg of sugar is required.

Procedure: The fruit should be washed thoroughly and prepared. The fruit is first
cooked slightly in water to make it soft enough to absorb sugar. Cooking of the
fruit in syrup is rather a difficult process, because the syrup is to be maintained at
a proper degree of consistency so that it can permeate the entire body of fruit
without causing it either to shrink or to toughen. If the fruit is cooked straight away
in heavy syrup, its juice will be drawn out rapidly due to osmosis; with the result it
would shrink and there would consequently be very little absorption of sugar
subsequently.
Cooking in syrup: There are 3 ways of cooking the fruit in syrup.
1) Open kettle one period process
2) Open kettle slow process
3) Vacuume cooking process.

Cooling and packing: The fruit is drained from the syrup and filled into any
containers. Freshly prepared boiling syrup of 68OB is then poured into containers
and clinched. Later they are exhausted for 8-10 minutes at 100OC in a steam and
then hermitically sealed.

Candied fruit: It is a product prepared after draining and drying of sugar syrup
from preserve.

Glazed fruit: Covering of candied fruits with thin transparent coating of sugar
imparting it a glossy appearance is termed as glazing. The product thus prepared
is termed as glazed fruit.

Crystallized fruit: When a candied fruit is coated with crystals of sugar, either by
rolling it in finely powdered sugar or by allowing the sugar crystals from dense
syrup to deposit on it, it becomes what is called crystallized fruit.
 Preservatives and Colours permitted and prohibited in India

The acceptance of a food depends to a large extent upon its attractive colour.The
characteristic colour of raw food is due to the pigments naturally present in it.
Some times, artificial colour is added during the preparation and processing of
foods to make them more attractive.

The colours or dyes used in food products should be pure and free from all
harmful impurities. They should not contain more than 10ppm of copper,20ppm of
chromium,1ppm of arsenic and 10ppm of lead and should satisfy government
regulations. In the selection of dyes, it is desirable to choose those which have
high solubility in order to obtain a concentrated solution of a particular colour.

Colours are generally available in the form of powders or to use solutions. The
powder should first be made into a paste with a little cold water and the requisite
quantity of almost boiling water is added to the paste with constant stirring. The
solution is allowed to stand still cool and any sediment formed is removed by
filtration. To prevent sedimentation glycerin is usually added to the solution to
increase its density.isopropyle alcohol also helps in increasing the solubility of the
powder.

Dye solutions can be preserved by addition 10% alcohol (V/V), 25% glycerin for
short period storage or 50% glycerin for prolonged storage.

The amount of any permitted coaltar dye or mixture of permitted dyes which may
be added to any fruit product should not exceed 0.2g per kg of of the final product.
Although colours are added to the attractiveness of food products, it is better to
avoid their use as far as possible and educate the consumer to use products not
containing colourents.Colours can often be used to cover defects in the natural
products.

A number of naturally occurring substances are used for colouring foods.

According to the fruit products order, India(1955),the following natural colouring
matters, whether isolated from a natural source or synthesized, are permitted to be
added to any article of food.
Caramine, Carotene and carotenoides, Chlorophyll, Lactoflavin, Caramel, Annato,
Ratanjot, Saffron and Curcumin.

Banned Colours: According to the public health (preservatives etc. in food)

regulations, 1925(amended 1926 and 1927) of the ministry of heath, UK the
following colouring matters are not permitted to be added to articles of food
Metallic colours: Compounds of any of the metals, antimony, arsenic, cadmium,
chromium, copper,, mercury,lead and zinc.

Vegetable colouring matter: Gamboge

Coaltar colours: Picric acid, Victoria Yellow, Manchester’s Yellow, Aurantia and
Acerine.
Recently the use of some colours in foods has been banned. In India, Acid
MagentaII and Blue VRS, which are used in tomato ketchup and canned pear
respectively, have been deleted from the list of permitted colours. Both are
triphenylmethane dyes. Instead of blue VRS. , Fast green S and Green FCF have
been recommended. Red 6 FB and Brilliank Black have also been deleted as
being harmful.