Three Phase Electrical Circuit Analysis PDF

CRAIG SCHECKLE
THREE PHASE
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS
2
Three Phase Electrical Circuit Analysis
1st edition
© 2018 Craig Scheckle & bookboon.com
ISBN 978-87-403-1987-3
Peer review Prof. Ivan Hofsajer, Dept of Electrical Engineering University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
3
THREE PHASE ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Contents
CONTENTS
Preface 6
1 AC Generation 7
1.1 Objective: 7
1.2 Single phase AC generation: 7
1.3 Three phase AC generation: 12
1.4 Exercises 19
2 Single Phase Circuits 20

2.1 Objective: 20
2.2 Impedance: 20
2.3 RLC circuits: 22
2.4 AC Power: 26
2.5 Exercises 38
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CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Contents
3 Balanced Star Connected Three Phase Circuits 39

3.1 Objective: 39
3.2 Assumptions and notation: 39
3.3 Balanced Star connected three phase load: 41
3.4 Exercises: 51
4 Balanced Delta Connected Three Phase Circuits 52

4.1 Objective: 52
4.2 Balanced Delta connected load: 52
4.3 Delta-Star Transformation 56
4.4 Exercises 59
5 Unbalanced Three Phase Loads 60

5.1 Objective: 60
5.2 Unbalanced Delta Connected Circuits: 60
5.3 Unbalanced Star Connected Loads: 62
5.4 Unbalanced Star Connected Load Without a Neutral Connection: 65
5.5 Exercises: 69
References 70
Annexure 1 71
Answers to Exercises 71
5
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Preface
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to introduce the concepts of three phase electrical circuit
analysis to undergraduate engineering students, probably in their first or second year of
tertiary education. Its purpose is to supplement the prescribed text book. Some pre-requisite
knowledge of electrical circuits is required, and is reviewed briefly in Chapters 1 and 2,
which cover the generation of AC sources and the analysis of single phase AC circuits. Those
students who are familiar with these concepts can proceed to Chapter 3, but it is advised
that students should read these first two chapters to become familiar with the notation
used in the rest of this book.
The subsequent chapters of the book cover the analysis of three phase circuits connected in
both Delta and Star configuration. (These connections are sometimes referred to as Π and
Wye connections in other texts). Chapter 3 covers the analysis of balanced Star connected
circuits, with and without a neutral connection. Chapter 4 examines balanced Delta
connected circuits. Chapter 5 shows how unbalanced loads can be analysed in Delta and Star
configuration, with the final section explaining how an unbalanced Star connected circuit
without a neutral connection can be analysed without the use of advanced mathematics.
The author, Craig Scheckle, graduated from Wits University in 1981 with a degree in
Electrical Engineering (BSc (Eng) Electrical). He did his training at the South African
Transport Services and in 1987 he joined Sappi Fine Papers as the Electrical Engineer at
the Stanger Mill. In 1987 he registered as a Professional Engineer, in 1988 he attained the
Government Certificate of Competency in Electrical Engineering and in 1989 he completed
the Management Development Program through UNISA. In 1990 he was promoted to
Engineering Manager at Sappi Fine Papers, Adamas Mill in Port Elizabeth. In 1991 he
moved to Delta Motor Corporation as a Plant Engineer and in 1997 was appointed as a
Maintenance Manager at Volkswagen. In 2005 he left industry to join the Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University as a lecturer in the Mechatronics Department. He retired at the
end of 2016.
6
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AC Generation
1 AC GENERATION
1.1 OBJECTIVE:
The aim of this chapter is to explain how AC emfs (electromotive-forces) are generated, to
explain why the AC waveform is sinusoidal, and how to determine the correct average value
of the sine wave to be able to analyse the circuit. The generation of three phase sources is
also explained, and shows how they can be connected.
1.2 SINGLE PHASE AC GENERATION:

When electricity was first discovered to be a useful source of energy, DC cells were
produced based on an electro-chemical principle. These energy sources were very effective,
but the energy source only lasted as long as the chemical reaction did, and then had to be
replenished or replaced. (This is still applicable to modern electro-chemical DC sources).
A more sustainable source of electrical energy was needed.
In the early 19th century Michael Faraday discovered that if an electrical conductor is moved
through a magnetic field, an electro-motive force (emf ) is produced. (Hughes 2002, p. 193)
This is illustrated in Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1
7
The diagram shows that a conductor formed into the shape of a loop (known as a coil or
winding) is rotating inside a static magnetic field. It is illustrated this way because most
AC sources are generated like this because it is the most convenient way of moving the coil
through a magnetic field. A source of energy is needed to rotate the coil, and this source
could be in the form of a diesel internal combustion engine or wind in the case of small
generators, but usually a steam turbine is used in the case of large generators. The energy
sources for generating the steam could be coal, diesel or other hydro-carbon fuels, or also
the more modern nuclear energy sources. The basic principle is that a fuel is burnt to boil
water (to generate steam), which is then used to drive a turbine, which in turn rotates the
electrical coils inside a magnetic field. The means by which the coils are rotated is beyond
the scope of this book. For now assume that the coils are rotated by some mechanical device.
Faraday also found that it was only the vector component of the velocity that was
perpendicular to the magnetic field that produced an emf. Figure 1.2 shows a coil rotating
inside a magnetic field at various points during a single revolution.
N N N
S S S
Figure 1.2a Figure 1.2b Figure 1.2c
In Figure 1.2a the direction of the velocity of the conductor is parallel to the magnetic
flux, and so no emf is produced. In Figure 1.2b the coil has rotated by 45o, and the vector
component of the velocity perpendicular to the flux is shown by the red arrow. Since this
velocity is not zero an emf is produced (as discovered by Faraday). In Figure 1.2c, the coil
has rotated by 90o, and so the total vector velocity is perpendicular to the flux and the
emf produced is at its maximum (or peak) value. When the coil has rotated by 180o, the
emf produced is again 0 (Figure 1.2a), and when rotated by 270o, the black dot on the
winding is now at the bottom. The magnitude of the emf is again at its maximum, but
of the opposite polarity because the direction of the velocity is in the opposite direction
(Figure 1.2c). If a graph is then plotted showing the magnitude of the emf on the vertical
scale, and the angle of rotation on the horizontal scale, the resultant waveform of the emf
as a function of the angle of rotation is shown in Figure 1.3.
8

Figure 1.3
If the coil is then rotated a second time, the waveform of the emf is repeated. See Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4
The cycle of the emf generated is repeated for each revolution of the coil.
In these graphs the horizontal axis is the angle measured in degrees. This axis could also be
time, but usually it is shown as an angle measured in radians. This is done for convenience
sake because any calculus required in an analysis would require the angles to be in radians.
The most common scale for this axis is ωt, where ω is the angular frequency (ω=2πf), where
f is the frequency in cycles per second, and t is time.
The magnitude of the emf produced is proportional to the number of turns in each coil.
Figure 1 shows a loop of 1 turn of conductor. If the number of loops in the coil is increased,
then the total emf produced would increase proportionately. The magnitude of the emf is
also proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic flux density, which is produced by the
magnetic north and south poles of the stationary magnet.
9
The frequency of the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed at which the coil is
rotated. If the coil is rotated at a speed of 3000 RPM, (= 50 revolutions per second), then
the frequency of the generated emf would also be 50 cycles per second (= 50 Hz).
What is more important at this stage is to consider the effect that a sinusoidal emf waveform
would have on how to analyse an electrical circuit.
It would be useful to first review how a simple DC circuit would be analysed. Figure 1.5
shows a 12 VDC
V source connected to a series connected resistor circuit.
4Ω 8Ω 12 Ω
12 V I
Figure 1.5
In this case the total resistance connected to the source is 24 Ω, and so from Ohm’s law
the current would be;

The volt drop across each resistor is;

Kirchoff’s voltage law states that the sum of the voltages in the circuit is zero.
i.e.
The power dissipated in each resistor is then;

10
And the total power delivered by the source;
(= the total power dissipated in the resistors)
In this case if the source was an AC source the same principle would apply, but what value
of V should be used? Since V is varying continuously, using the average value would not
work because the calculation of the average value would be;

= 0

This is obviously wrong because it implies that no power is provided by the source, which
we know is not correct. The effective value of the sine wave is the value of voltage that
would produce the same power dissipated in a resistor as a DC source would. This is known
as the root mean square (RMS) value and is calculated as follows;

=

Solving this integral will yield the result;

=

For an AC source to deliver the same power as the circuit shown in Figure 1.5, an AC source
with an RMS value of 12 V would be required. The required AC source needed is therefore;
V
The notation used in this book is that if the voltage is given as
V
implies that 17 is the peak value of the sine wave. If the voltage is given as
V = 12 V

implies that 12 is the RMS value. (
)
11
1.3 THREE PHASE AC GENERATION:

The major cost of installing power generators is the cost of the plant to generate the steam.
It therefore makes good economic sense to generate more than one phase from the same
turbine. Also, by referring to Figure 1.2, it can be seen that there are times when the motion
of the conductor is parallel to the magnetic field. No power is generated during these
periods, which means that the machine is not being used effectively. This can be solved by
installing an additional two coils, offset by 120o, so that power is generated all the time.
For this reason it is common to produce a three phase AC supply. Other advantages of
three phase systems over single phase systems are;
• Three times the power can be transmitted on one transmission line, compared to
a single phase system.
• The constant power flow associated with 3 phase systems (compared to the pulsating
power flow in a single phase system) leads to the wires being used more effectively
and so lees copper is needed, leading to reduced cost.
• The thinner conductors also have lower mass so the transmission line structures
can be smaller.
• Three phase motors are self starting and also provide higher torque.
• Three phase rectifiers produce a lower harmonic content and thus a better quality
DC supply and less harmonic filtering is required.
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The generation of a three phase supply is the same principle as a single phase supply.
Consider the drawing in Figure 1.2, but instead of having one coil rotating in the magnetic
field, three independent coils are fitted as shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6
The three coils are mounted with a 120o angle between them. The AC waveform generated
by each coil is then 120o removed (or displaced) from the other two. As the coils rotate the
same principle applies as described for Figure 1.2. The three coils are electrically isolated.
The generated waveform is illustrated in Figure 1.7

Figure 1.7
13
The three generated phases are displaced by 120o, as can be seen in both Figures 1.6 and
1.7 It can be seen by inspection that the potential difference between any two phases is
greater than the voltage generated in each phase. This is caused by the 120o phase shift.
By comparing Figures 1.6 and 1.7 at 0o, it can be seen that the blue coil is at zero in
both diagrams, the green coil has passed its peak and dropping to zero, and the red coil is
approaching its negative peak.
There are two different ways of connecting the three phases as shown in Figure 1.8, known
as Star connected (Figure 1.8a) and Delta connected (Figure 1.8b). The letters A, B and C
are referred to as phase A, phase B and phase C and N is the neutral connection. There is
no neutral in a delta connection.
A B C A B C
Figure 1.8a Star connection Figure 1.8b Delta connection
In order to examine the effect of a three phase system, it becomes very cumbersome to use
the three sine waves as shown in Figure 1.7. A rotating vector, called a phasor is used to
simplify the analysis.
This is best illustrated by example. Consider a generator providing 220 V( RMS) per phase,
and connected in Star as shown in Figure 1.8a. We will use phase A as the reference. The
reference is drawn on the positive x-axis representing angle 0.
14
This is shown as VAN in Figure 1.9
VCN
120o
120o VAN
120o
VBN
Figure 1.9:
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These vectors rotate anti-clockwise, so the next vector to reach the reference is phase B,
120o later. Phase C reaches the reference 240o later (or 120o before). This is referred to as
“rotation ABC”. The three phases are then represented as;

In mathematical form this would be written as;

In this example it was given that the potential difference between phase and neutral was
220 V. We now need to determine what the potential difference between two phases would
be. The potential difference between phase A and phase B would be;

and are both vectors and so we refer to the phasor diagram in Figure 1.10.
VAN
120o
VBN
Figure 1.10
16
Since , then . Refer to Figure 1.11
-VBN
VAB
60o
VAN
Figure 1.11
is then the vector sum of and . To determine the magnitude of , the phasor
diagram is re-drawn in Figure 1.12 to simplify the explanation of the geometry.
b c
α
a d
Figure 1.12
Line ab is parallel to line dc,

Line ad is parallel to line bc, and
The length of ab = the length of ad.
abcd is therefore a rhombus, and so line ac bisects the 60o angle shown in Figure 1.11. α
is therefore 30o. The line bd is the perpendicular bisector of ac, and so the angle aed is
90o. The length of ae is then;

Since ae = ec, the length of ac is then
Referring this back to Figure 1.11,
17
In this example the generated voltage was 220 V per phase. It is therefore possible to increase
this to 380 V simply by changing the connection of the three phases. A star connected
system has 220 V per phase, and a delta connected system has 380 V between phases.
The normal way to represent star and delta connected systems is shown in Figure 1.13.
Vline Vphase = Vline
Vphase
Figure 1.13a: Star Figure 1.13b: Delta
A more detailed study of how star and delta connected circuits are analysed will be covered
in later chapters of this book.
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18
1.4 EXERCISES
1.4.1 A single turn coil is rotated at a speed of 3600 RPM in a static magnetic field. What
is the frequency of the generated emf?
1.4.2 A coil is rotating in a magnetic field and generates an emf of . W
What is the RMS value of the emf, and what is the frequency of the generated emf?
1.4.3 A 12 V DC source is connected to a 12Ω resistor and a 6Ω resistor, which are

connected in parallel. Determine the total current delivered by the source, and the
total power consumed by the load.
1.4.4 Three independent coils are physically displaced by 120o and rotated in a static
magnetic field at a speed of 3600 RPM. The three coils are referred to as A,B and
C, and the neutral is N. Each coil has the same number of turns. The three coils are
Star connected and phase A generates an emf of 110 V relative to the neutral. The
phase rotation is ABC. If VAN is used as the reference, determine the magnitude and
phase angle of VCA . What is the frequency and period of the generated emf?
19
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Single Phase Circuits
2 SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS

2.1 OBJECTIVE:
The purpose of this chapter is to review the concept of impedance in a circuit, the phase
displacement between the voltage and the current, and the power factor of a circuit. The
concepts of apparent power, real power and reactive power are also reviewed. It is best to
review these concepts using a single phase system before examining three phase circuits.
2.2 IMPEDANCE:
The basic principle of any electrical circuit is that the applied voltage causes a current to
flow, and the magnitude of the current is determined by the resistance of the circuit. This
was discovered by George Ohm in 1827. (Boylestad 2007, p. 102). In the case of AC
circuits the effect of inductance and capacitance (called reactance) also needs to be taken into
account. The resistance of the circuit, combined with the reactance is known as impedance.
A current flowing through an inductor causes a magnetic field, and the voltage applied to
a capacitor causes an electric field. These magnetic and electric fields make no contribution
to the work being done by the circuit, and so for the purposes of analysis are represented
by . an imaginary number. This is done by multiplying these quantities by In
mathematical texts is represented by the symbol i. However in electrical systems the symbol
i represents current, and so to avoid confusion, the symbol j is used to represent .
A combination of a real number and an imaginary number is known as a complex number

and is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Imaginary axis jb
V
r
θ
a
Real axis
Figure 2.1
The number can be represented in rectangular co-ordinates as;

20
Or in polar co-ordinates as;

Conversion from one system of co-ordinates to the other is then done using Pythagoras’
theorem and trigonometry.

Inductive reactance is defined as

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where , ω is the angular frequency ( , and L is the inductance, measured
in Henry.
Capacitive reactance is defined as;

where , , and C is the capacitance, measured in Farad.
The impedance in a series circuit is then;
(Note that and are both imaginary numbers)
2.3 RLC CIRCUITS:

2.3.1 RESISTIVE LOAD:
Figure 2.2 shows an AC source connected to a purely resistive circuit.
V = 220 V R = 10 Ω
50 Hz
Figure 2.2
The current in the circuit can be determined from Ohm’s law;

And the power dissipated is

Note that RMS values of the voltage and current (which are both sinusoidal) must be used
for this calculation.
The waveform of the voltage and current is shown in Figure 2.3.
22

Figure 2.3
Figure 2.3 shows that for the period 0o to 180o both V and I are positive and so the resultant
power () is positive. For the period 180o to 360o, both V and I are negative, and the
resultant power () is also positive. The positive value of power indicates that the transfer
of energy is from the source to the load. In this case where the load is purely resistive, all
of the power is transferred from the source to the load.
2.3.2 INDUCTIVE LOAD:
Figure 2.4 shows a circuit where the load is purely inductive.
220 V L= 30 mH
50 Hz
Figure 2.4
The impedance in this case is
Using the voltage as the reference, the current is then;

23
The wave form of the voltage and current is then;

Figure 2.5
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Figure 2.5 shows that for the period 90o to 180o, V and I are positive, so the power transfer
is from the source to the load. From 180o to 270o, V is negative and I is positive, so the
power transfer is from the load to the source. From 270o to 360o, both V and I are negative
and the power transfer is again from the source to the load. From 360o to 90o, V and I are
again of opposite polarity and the power transfer is from the load to the source. The nett
result is that for a quarter of the cycle energy is transferred from the source to the load, stored
as magnetic energy, and then for the next quarter cycle, the magnetic energy is recovered.
(Boylestad 2007, p. 840) Over a complete cycle no real work is done because the current
lags the voltage by 90o. In mathematical terms this can be expressed as;

2.3.3 CAPACITIVE LOAD:
Figure 2.6 shows a circuit where the load is purely capacitive.
220 V C = 300 µF
50 Hz
Figure 2.6

The impedance in this case is

The current is then

25
The V-I waveform is then;

Figure 2.7
In this case the current is leading the voltage by 90o, and the power transfer is the same
principle as for an inductive load. For a quarter of a cycle energy is transferred from the
source to the load, stored as an electric field in this case, and for the next quarter cycle this
energy is recovered. The nett result is that no real work is done. In mathematical terms this is;

2.4 AC POWER:
AC power consists of apparent power, reactive power and real power. Determining these
quantities in an AC circuit is best described by example.
Example 1:
Figure 2.8 shows a series RLC circuit connected to a single phase AC source. The source
has an RMS value of 220 V at 50 Hz, the resistor is 68 Ω, an inductance of 100 mH, and
a capacitor of 470 µF.
26
68 Ω 100 mH 470 µF
220 V
50 Hz
Figure 2.8
j31,4 Ω

= j6,8 Ω

The impedance of the circuit is then;
Ω
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It is convenient to convert these rectangular co-ordinates to polar co-ordinates.
so
If we choose the voltage to be the reference, then

and

The phasor diagram for this circuit is shown in Figure 2.9.

o
19,9

Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10 shows the same information, but plotted as a sinusoidal waveform.

Figure 2.10
28
Both diagrams show the phase displacement of approximately 20o, with the current lagging
the voltage. By examining Figure 2.10 it can be seen that between 0o and 20o, the voltage
is positive and the current is negative. From 180o to 200o, I is positive and V is negative.
This could imply a negative impedance, but this is not the correct interpretation. The
correct interpretation is that since power is the product of V and I, the power during these
periods is negative. This means that the power transfer is from the load to the source. This
is called re-active power, and is the magnetic/electric field energy being recovered. It is not
useful power and cannot do any work. This concept is best described by a power triangle
as shown in Figure 2.11.
Apparent power (VA) Reactive power (VAR)
Real power (W)
Figure 2.11
The apparent power
The reactive power
The real power
The power factor is defined as .
It is important to note at this stage that the angle θ can vary from -90o to +90o, and that
will then vary from 0 to 1 regardless of whether θ is positive or negative. When stating
the value of power factor it is then important to state whether it is a leading power factor
(for a predominantly capacitive circuit) or a lagging power factor (for a predominantly
inductive circuit).
In this case the angle θ is easy to identify because it is simply the angle between the voltage
and the current. In three phase systems this angle is not as easy to identify (as will be seen
in later chapters) An alternative method to determine the power is to recognise that the real
power is dissipated by the resistance, and the reactive power processed by the reactance, so;
29
The real power
The apparent power
The minor discrepancies in the final answer are due to rounding errors in the calculation. It
can be seen that there is no possibility of getting the angle θ confused using this method.
Example 1 shows a circuit where the reactance is predominately inductive. If the impedance
is changed, the circuit could become predominately capacitive, and the results would be
significantly different. This is illustrated in example 2.
Example 2:
Consider the same circuit as shown in Figure 2.8, but the value of the capacitor has changed
from 470 µF to 470 µF. The circuit is redrawn in Figure 2.12. The analysis is then repeated
with this new value of capacitance.
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68 Ω 100 mH 47 µF
220 V
50 Hz
Figure 2.12
j31,4 Ω

= j67,7 Ω

The impedance of the circuit is then;
Ω
And in polar co-ordinates,

If we choose the voltage to be the reference, then

and

28,09o

Figure 2.13
In this example the reactance is predominately capacitive so the current leads the voltage.
The power factor is (Leading)
and the real power
31
(or Again the minor discrepancy is due to rounding

errors in the calculation.
The reactive power can be calculated by;

The apparent power is;

The power triangle is shown in Figure 2.14. Note that in this case the reactive power has
a negative value due to the leading power factor.
W
θ
VAR
VA
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15 shows the voltage and current waveforms. Again during the periods where V and
I are of opposite polarity the power transfer is from the load to the source and represents
the reactive power. This is shown more clearly in Figure 2.16, where the instantaneous
power is plotted as a function of angle. The negative value of power is the reactive power.
The average power which is also shown on the graph is the product of the RMS values of
V and I, and multiplied by the power factor. In mathematical terms this would also be the
integral of the power over one cycle, divided by the period.
32

Figure 2.15
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Figure 2.16
Example 3:
Illustrating the application of Kirchoff’s laws is best shown by analysing a parallel connected
circuit. This principle will be used in later chapters when Delta connected three phase
circuits are examined.
Figure 2.17 shows a 220 V 50 Hz single phase supply connected to a parallel connected
network. To determine the power delivered by the source we need to know the applied
voltage, the current I1 and the phase angle between the voltage and the current. The power
delivered is then;

The applied voltage V is given so it would be convenient to use this as the reference. To
calculate I1 the equivalent impedance of the circuit is needed.
This can be done by grouping the 72 Ω resistor and the 470 µF capacitor and calling this
Z1. Z2 is then the combination of the 100 Ω resistor and 50 mH inductor, and Z3 is the
combination of the 39 Ω resistor, the 100 mH inductor and the 680 µF capacitor.
34
72 Ω 470 µF 39 Ω 100 mH
I1 I2 I3
100 Ω
220 V 680 µF
50 Hz
50 mH
Figure 2.17

At this point in the calculation it is always useful to have these values in both polar and
rectangular notation because both forms will be needed at a later stage.
Referring again to Figure 2.18 it can be seen that Z2 and Z3 are in parallel. If we define Z4
as these two impedances in parallel, then;

35
The equivalent impedance of the whole circuit is then;

The current I1 is then

Figure 2.18 shows a simplified version of the original circuit.
Z1 V1 Z3
I1 I2
220 V I3
50 Hz Z2
Figure 2.18

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36
Kirchoff’s voltage law states that the sum of the voltages in any closed circuit is zero. Therefore
in Figure 2.18 the volt drop across Z1 + V1 equals the applied voltage.
The volt drop across Z1 is (I1)(Z1);
So

V1 is then;

-
The current I2 is then;

And I3 is;

Kirchoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents at a node is zero. Therefore at
node V1,
I1 = I2 + I3
Since all of these quantities are known, it would be a good idea to check the calculations
at this point.

And so;

37
The original calculation of I1 showed a result of 2,05 +j0,373. Again it can be seen that
there is a minor discrepancy in the calculated results, but this can be attributed to rounding
errors in the calculations.
The real power delivered to the circuit is then;

So (2,08) 450,13 W
2.5 EXERCISES
2.5.1 Th
e real power dissipated in an AC circuit is . Show that the real
power can also be calculated as
2.5.2 A
series connected AC circuit consists of a resistance of 4 Ω and an inductive reactance
of 8 Ω. Determine the equivalent impedance in polar co-ordinates.
2.5.3 A series connected 50 Hz AC circuit has a resistance of 120 Ω and a capacitance of

100 µF. Determine the equivalent impedance of the circuit.
series connected RLC circuit comprises a resistance of 470 Ω, an inductance of 10 mH

2.5.4 A
and a capacitance of 100 µF. The supply has an RMS value of 220 V at a frequency
of 1 kHz. Determine the real power consumed, the reactive power consumed and the
apparent power consumed.
series connected RLC circuit comprises a resistance of 470 Ω, an inductance of 10 mH

2.5.5 A
and a capacitance of 100 µF. The supply has an RMS value of 220 V at a frequency
of 10 Hz. Determine the real power consumed, the reactive power consumed and the
apparent power consumed.
38
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Balanced Star Connected Three Phase Circuits
3 BALANCED STAR CONNECTED

THREE PHASE CIRCUITS
3.1 OBJECTIVE:
This chapter shows how to analyse a balanced three phase Star connected load. It also
explains the difference between phase quantities and line quantities, and how to calculate
the total power delivered to the load. It also explains the advantages and disadvantages of
Star connected systems, and when a Star configuration should be used.
3.2 ASSUMPTIONS AND NOTATION:

A balanced system is one in which the supply voltage has an equal magnitude in each phase
with a phase displacement of 120o between them, and the impedance in each phase is equal.
It is reasonable to assume that the source is always balanced. For this to happen all that is
required is for the three coils in the generator to be physically displaced by 120o (which is
always the case), and each coil to have the same number of turns. The only time this will
not happen is under fault conditions, which is beyond the scope of this book.
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39
At this point it would be useful to explain the notation used in this book. Upper case
letters are used for the source, while lower case letters are used for the load. The current
from the source to the load in phase A is then represented by IAa, The current in phase B
is then IBb, and so on. The notation Aa implies from A to a. Where the currents are shown
in the circuit, the direction of the arrow indicates the assumed direction of the current for
the purposes of analysis. It is normal to show all these currents as flowing from the source
to the load. If the calculated value of the current is then found to be a negative value, this
means that the assumed direction was wrong, but the magnitude of the current is correct.
Referring to Figure 1.7 (in chapter 1), it can be seen by inspection that at least one of the
currents will be flowing in the opposite direction to that assumed.
Similarly the symbol VAN means the potential at A relative to N, with the upper case letters
referring to the source. Vcn would then refer to the potential at c relative to n, with the
lower case letters referring to the load.
It is also necessary to differentiate between phase quantities and line quantities. The phase
quantities VPhase and IPhase refer to the voltage and the current within the source or the load.
The line quantities VLine and ILine refer to the voltage and the current in the circuit connecting
the source to the load. In this case it is clear to see that ILine = IPhase and VLine ≠ VPhase. These
quantities are shown in Figure 3.1
The source is represented as an inductor because the emf is generated by rotating a coil in
a magnetic field, as explained in Chapter 1.
Iline
a
Iphase
A
Vphase Vphase
Vline
Iphase
N n
C B
c b
Figure 3.1:
40
3.3 BALANCED STAR CONNECTED THREE PHASE LOAD:

A Star connected system has three “live” phases and a neutral connection and so is a 4-wire
system. It is used when a neutral connection is needed (usually for safety reasons, where
the Star point is earthed) but has the disadvantage that that since 4 wires are needed, more
copper is needed and so becomes more expensive.
Since a Star connected load requires the three live phases and a neutral, the source in this
case must also be Star connected.
Example 1:
Figure 3.2 shows a Star connected source connected to a Star connected load. The load
in this case is a balanced series connected RL circuit with an impedance value of 2 + j6 Ω
per phase. The phase rotation is ABC. In this first example it is assumed that the electrical
connection between the source and the load has negligible impedance. The phase voltage
in the source is 220 V per phase, and we will use VAN as the reference.
If VAN is the reference, and the phase rotation is ABC, then;

IAa
a
INA
A VAN Van Z = 2 + j6 Ω per phase
VAB
n Ian
N
VAC
C B
c b
IBb
ICc
Figure 3.2:
41
In Chapter 1 (Figure 1.11) it was shown that
If VAN is the reference, then;

Similarly
And
Note that the factor of and the phase shift of 30o is only applicable to balanced three
phase systems. (Refer to the geometry in Figure 1.12 in Chapter 1)
It is known that . Then it can be seen by inspection that .
The impedance of the load is given as 2 + j6 Ω per phase. Then the current Ian can then
be determined from;

42
Similarly;

And;

The magnitude and phase angle of these quantities is best illustrated with a phasor diagram
as shown in Figure 3.3
VCN
VCA VAB
Icn
Ibn +30o
VAN
o
-71,57
Ian
VBN
VBC
Figure 3.3:
It should be noted that the line voltages (blue) are equal in magnitude and displaced from
each other by 120o. The phase voltages (red) are also equal in magnitude and displaced
from each other by 120o. Similarly the phase currents (which for a Star connected system
are equal to the line currents), the magnitudes are equal, and phase displaced by 120o.
If we now apply Kirchoff’s current law at the node “n” in Figure 3.2;

43
The sum of the currents is then

Therefore

The significance of this is that because the supply voltage is balanced, and the load is
balanced, the phase currents are also balanced. The sum of the phase currents at the
neutral connection “n” is therefore zero. The same applies to the neutral connection at the
source node “N” (Refer to Figure 3.2). Since there is no current in the neutral connection
between the source and the load, in theory it is then not necessary to have any physical
connection between the two neutral points. For a balanced load it is then not necessary
to have any physical copper connection between the neutral points and both can then be
connected directly to earth at a considerable reduction in the cost of the installation. (The
earth connection of the neutral point in both the source and the load is necessary so that
a path for the current can be provided under abnormal or fault conditions, where the load
currents are no longer balanced)
The power consumed by the load in this example is then, for phase A;

Where is the angle between and
Similarly for phase B

is the angle between
And for phase C

44
The total power delivered by the source is then the sum of the power consumed by the
three phases;

The total power consumed can also be written as;

Or in line quantities;

Note that for this last equation the voltage and the current are line quantities, but θ is the
angle between the phase values. [Stevenson Page 33]
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45
An alternative method to calculate the real power is to remember that real power is consumed
by the resistance in the load and so the power consumed is then;

Note that for this last equation the voltage and the current are line quantities, but is the
angle between the phase values. [Stevenson Page 33]
By using this method it is not possible to choose the wrong angle θ .
An alternative method to calculate the real power is to remember that real power is consumed
by the resistance in the load and so the power consumed is then;
Example 2:
$ $
! " # %" &' ()*& + " +',- ./ .012.03451
In this example we will consider a predominately capacitive load as shown in Figure 3.4.
The supply voltage
By using is 220
this method not per
it is V phase,
possible andtheagain
to choose wrong we . use VAN as the reference. The
anglewill
supply is balanced and the load is also balanced with an impedance of 2 – j6 Ω per phase.
We will Example
determine 2: the currents in each phase and the total power consumed by the load.
The phase rotation is ABC. Again it is assumed that the connection between the source
In this example we will consider a predominately capacitive load as shown in Figure 3.4. The
and the supply
load voltage
has negligible impedance.
is 220 V per phase, and again we will use V as the reference. The supply is
AN
balanced and the load is also balanced with an impedance of 2 – j6 per phase. We will
If VAN is chosentheascurrents
determine in each phase
the reference and because
and the total power
the consumed
source andby theload
load. are
The phase
both Star connected
rotation is ABC. Again it is assumed that the connection between the source and the load has
with thenegligible
neutralimpedance.
connected, then clearly;
If VAN is chosen asthe reference and because the source and load are both Star connected

with the neutral connected, then clearly;
;
678
" ++9:9

6<8 " ++9:=,+9 ;

6>8 " ++9:? ,+9 ;
IAa
A a
INA
VAN Van
VAB
N Ian
n
VAC Z = 2 - j6 per phase
B
C
c b
ICc IBb
Figure 3.4:
Figure 3.4:

46
From example 1 it can be seen that because the load is balanced the phase currents are
equal in magnitude but phase displaced by 120o. Ibn and Icn can then simply be stated as;

The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 3.5
VCN
VCA Ian VAB
71,57o
+30o
Icn VAN
Ibn
VBN
VBC
Figure 3.5:
The total real power transferred from the source to the load is then, using phase values;

Or using line values;

Or considering the real value of the impedance in the load;

Again the minor discrepancy in the answer is due to rounding errors in the calculation.
47
If we apply Kirchoff’s current law at the node “n” (Figure 3.4) the sum of the three currents
is

And so

Again it can be seen that for a balanced load the neutral current is zero.
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48
Example 3:
In the previous two examples it was assumed that the impedance between the source and
the load was negligible. In normal electrical engineering practice this is not always a good
assumption because the electrical connection between the source and the load can often
exceed a distance of 100 m, if not longer, and so the impedance of this connection should not
be ignored. In this example we will consider the effect of the impedance of the connection
between the source and the load. We will consider the same predominately capacitive load as
in example 2, but where the connection from the source to the load (such as a transmission
line) has an impedance of 2 + j6 Ω. It can be seen that the inductive reactance of the line
has the same capacitive reactance of the load and so the circuit becomes resonant. Again in
this example the load is balanced and so the neutral current is zero, so the impedance of
this connection can be ignored because there is no current flowing in this part of the circuit.
The line impedance has a significant impact on the real power transferred from the source
to the load and the calculations will illustrate the importance of power factor correction.
The circuit is shown in Figure 3.6
IAa
a
ZLine = 2 + j6 Ω
A
VAN Van
N Ian
n Zload = 2 - j6 Ω per phase
B ZLine = 2 + j6 Ω
C IBb
c
b
ICc
Figure 3.6
If the source is 220 V per phase, and using as the reference;

49
Because the load is Star connected and balanced the total impedance per phase is then a
simple series connection. The current in each phase is then;
m TTRR TTRR

%bo %ox = y #9<>
n T\uX \ T]uX VR

The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 3.7
Vcn
Icn
Ian
Van
Ibn
Vbn
Figure 3.7:
The total power transferred from the source to the load is then;

By comparing the total real power transferred from the source to the load in examples 2
and 3 it can be seen that there is a significant difference, and this difference is due to the
change in the reactance of the load. In example 2 the reactive power was being transferred
back and forth between the source and the load, whereas in example 3 the reactive power
was being transferred back and forth between the inductance of the line and the capacitance
of the load.
50
3.4 EXERCISES:
3.4.1 A
three phase 4 wire system with a line voltage of 208 volts is connected to a balanced
Star connected load of . The phase rotation is CBA. Given that
, determine the line currents in the circuit.
ree identical impedances of are connected to a three phase system with a
3.4.2 Th
line voltage of 150 V. The phase rotation is CBA. The neutral between the source and
the load is not connected. Determine the total real power consumed by the circuit.
It is known that

balanced Star connected source has a phase voltage of 220 V per phase. The phase
3.4.3 A
rotation is ABC. The source is connected to a balanced Star load with an impedance
of 4 + j3 Ω per phase. The neutral points are connected. Using VAN as the reference,
determine the line currents, the neutral current and the total real power delivered
by the source.
51
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Balanced Delta Connected Three Phase Circuits
4 BALANCED DELTA CONNECTED

THREE PHASE CIRCUITS
4.1 OBJECTIVE:
The aim of this chapter is to show how a Delta connected balanced three phase circuit is
analysed. It will show the advantages of a Delta connection and explain the application of
a Star-Delta transformation.
4.2 BALANCED DELTA CONNECTED LOAD:

A Delta connected load has the advantage of being a three wire system and so only three
conductors are needed to connect the source to the load, which reduces the cost. Since
no neutral connection is required the source could be either Star or Delta connected. The
connection of the source has no effect on how the load should be analysed. It will therefore
be shown simply as phase A, B, and C with the phase rotation being ABC. This is illustrated
in Figure 4.1
IAa
A a
Iab
VAB = Vab Ica
ICc c
C
IBb Ibc
B b
Figure 4.1:
The load in this case is represented by a pure inductance because a very common balanced
Delta connected load is the stator winding of an ideal AC motor. The purpose of the winding
is to convert the electrical current into a rotating magnetic field, which in turn causes the
rotor to follow the rotating magnetic field.
It can be seen from the diagram that . It can also be seen that the line currents
and the phase currents are not equal, as was the case for a Star connected load. Not all
balanced Delta loads are however purely inductive, which will be illustrated in Example 1,
shown in figure 4.2.
52
Example 1:
IAa a
A
Iab
VAB = V ab
ICc Ica
C Z = 2 + j4 Ω per phase

c
VAB = 380
IBb
Ibc
B b
Figure 4.2
Using as the reference;

Knowing that the load is balanced, the magnitude of the currents and must be equal
but displaced by from each other. Therefore

Using Kirchoff’s current law, the line current is then the sum of the currents at node
“a”, so

53
Because the load is balanced it is then clear that the magnitude of the currents and
will be equal but displaced by . So;
, and

The phasor diagram shown in Figure 4.3 illustrates the rotating vectors.
54
Vca
Ica
IBb
ICc
Ibc Vab

Iab

IAa
Vbc
Figure 4.3
From this analysis it can be seen that the phase shift between the currents Iab and IAa is 30o
and the ratio of the magnitudes of the line current to the phase current is .

The reason for this was explained in Chapter 1. Refer to Figure 1.11
The total real power consumed is then;

Or using phase values;
'ly~ow +is %is B y 7,
Or using line values;

The small difference in the answer is due to rounding errors in the trigonometry.
It should be noted that the phase shift of 30o and the ratio of is only applicable to a
balanced load. For an unbalanced load the approach is different which will be explained in
the next chapter of this book.
55
4.3 DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATION

The previous example did not take the source impedance into account. In Chapter 3 it was
shown that for a Star connected load the source impedance is in series with the load. For a
Delta connected load it is not that simple. Example 2 will illustrate how this can be done
for a Delta connected load. To simplify the analysis it will be assumed that the impedance
is purely resistive. This simplifies the mathematics involved so the student can focus on the
principle rather than the complex arithmetic involved. Figure 4.4 shows a Delta connected
system and an equivalent Star connected system.
A A
Ra
R2 R3
Rc Rb
C R1 B C B
Figure 4.4:
For the Star connection to be the equivalent of the Delta connection, the resistance between
A and B must be the same (Hughes 2002, p 81). In the Delta connection;

In the Star connection;

So;

Similarly;

And;

56
By solving these last three simultaneous equations we get;

Example 2:
Consider a Delta connected balanced load with an impedance of 9 Ω per phase. The source
impedance is 1 Ω. The supply is 380 V. VAB will be used as the reference.
The circuit is shown in Figure 4.5
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57
1Ω IAa a
A
Ica Iab Vab
1Ω ICc
C
c
VAB = 380 Z = 9 Ω per phase
1Ω IBb
Ibc
B
b
Figure 4.5:
In this case is not equal to due to the volt drop across the 1 Ω source impedance. To
determine the volt drop across this resistance IAa needs to be known. Since
and needs to be known to determine , and hence , there are too many variables
to determine the currents and voltages needed. An alternative method is required.
A method that can be used is the Delta-Star transformation, where the Delta connection
is represented by an equivalent Star connection, and the source impedance is then is series
with the Star equivalent impedance. This is shown in Figure 4.
1Ω IAa
A a
Van
Ra
1Ω ICc c
C n
Rc
Rb
1Ω IBb
B b
Figure 4.6:
From the Delta-Star transformation;

Similarly
The source impedance is now in series with the load impedance, and the analysis of the
circuit is the same as was shown in Chapter 3.
58
4.4 EXERCISES
4.4.1 A
balanced three phase supply is connected to a balanced three phase Delta connected
load of 6 – j4 Ω .The supply has a line voltage of 380 V. Using VAB as the reference,
determine the phase currents and the line currents.
three wire, three phase, 100 V system supplies a balanced Delta connected load with
4.4.2 A
an impedance of . The phase rotation is ABC. Using VBC as the reference,
determine the line currents and the total real power consumed.
ree identical impedances of are connected in Delta to a three phase,

4.4.3 Th
three wire 208 V system. The conductors connecting the source to the load have an
impedance of 0,8 +j0,6 Ω. Calculate the magnitude of the line voltage at the load.
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59
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Unbalanced Three Phase Loads
5 UNBALANCED THREE
PHASE LOADS
5.1 OBJECTIVE:
The purpose of this chapter is to explain how an unbalanced three phase load should be
analysed. An unbalanced Delta connected load will be analysed, as well as unbalanced Star
connected loads, with and without a neutral connection. The use of mesh current analysis
will also be demonstrated.
5.2 UNBALANCED DELTA CONNECTED CIRCUITS:

Unbalanced Delta connected loads are not common. An example of an unbalanced Delta
load is in the motor industry where spot welding is done. In this case the higher line voltage
is used because very high currents are needed for the welding process. Not all spot welding
machines operate at the same time and this leads to an unbalanced load. Another cause of
an unbalanced Delta load is when one of the supply phases to an electrical motor is lost
due to a fault on the supply system. This is also known as “single phasing”.
It should be noted that although the supply is balanced, the load is not so the ratio of the
line current to the phase current is not and the phase shift is not .
Example 1:
Figure 5.1 shows a balanced supply connected to an unbalanced Delta connected load. The
phase rotation is ABC. The supply has a line voltage of 380 V and we will use VAB as the
reference. The assumed direction of the currents within the Delta connection is shown in
the diagram. A negative answer in the calculation indicates that the assumed direction was
wrong, but the magnitude is correct. The same applies to the line currents. The impedances
in the three phases are;

60
Since the supply is balanced;

IAa a
A
Iab

ICc Ica
C
c Vab
IBb Ibc
B
b
Figure 5.1
The phase currents are then;

To determine the line currents we then apply Kirchoff’s current law at the nodes a,b and c
Then

61
The phasor diagram is illustrated in figure 5.2
Vca
ICc
Ica
Vab
IBb
Ibc Iab
IAa
Vbc
Figure 5.2:
It should be noted that although the supply voltage is balanced with the three vectors equal
in magnitude and displaced from each other by 120o, the phase currents are not equal in
magnitude, nor displaced from each other by 120o. The ratio of the line current to the phase
current is also not . This is because the load is not balanced.
In this case the total power consumed needs to be calculated for each individual phase.
So;

The total power consumed is then;

5.3 UNBALANCED STAR CONNECTED LOADS:

A common unbalanced Star connected load is the electrical distribution to domestic houses.
For safety reasons each house needs to have a live, neutral and earth connection so a Star
connected supply is needed. Not all households consume the same amount of power at the
same time, so the load is not balanced.
62
Figure 5.3 shows a typical supply to domestic premises;
A
VAN
B
VBN
C
VCN
ZAN ZBN ZCN
IAN IBN ICN
N
IN
Figure 5.3:
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63
Example 2:
Referring to figure 5.3, we will use VAN as the reference and the following quantities to
analyse the circuit. The supply is 220 V per phase. The impedance of each phase is;

= 3,16

Again we will assume that the supply is balanced, so;

The phase currents are then;

The neutral current (IN) is then the sum of the three phase currents.

64
The total real power consumed is then;

5.4 UNBALANCED STAR CONNECTED LOAD WITHOUT A

NEUTRAL CONNECTION:
In the case of a balanced Star connected load we have shown that the neutral current is
zero, so even though there is no neutral connection,

However if the load is not balanced this equation does not apply. An alternative method
should be used. In this case we will apply Kircoff’s laws to the circuit. (Boylestad 2007,
p. 1054)
We define the three circulating currents in the circuit to be I1, I2 and I3 as shown in Figure 5.4.
It is assumed that the supply voltage is balanced and the magnitude is known. It is also
assumed that the values of Z1, Z2 and Z3 are known.
A a
Ian
VAB VCA I3
c n Z1
I1
C
Icn Z2
VBC Z3
I2
Ibn
B b
Figure 5.4
We then apply Kirchoff’s voltage law to the three current loops;
Loop 1:

65
From Figure 5.4 it can be seen that;

And so;
Eqn (1)
Loop 2:

Eqn (2)
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66
Loop 3:

Eqn (3)
In these three equations the unknowns are Ian, Ibn and Icn. By solving these three simultaneous
equations it can be shown that;

Example 3:
In this example we will consider the case where the impedance is purely resistive. This
simplifies the mathematics involved so the student can focus on the principle rather than
the complex arithmetic involved.
Consider Figure 5.4. The supply line voltage is balanced at 380 V. The impedances per
phase are Z1 = 2 Ω; Z2= 3 Ω; Z3 = 5 Ω. The phase rotation is ABC and we will use VAB
as the reference.
Determine the total power consumed.

67

Similarly;

The power consumed in each phase is then;

68
The total power consumed by the circuit is then;
'ly~ow 'ox 'px 'qx KO MNNFE
5.5 EXERCISES:
balanced three phase 380 V supplyyis connected to an unbalanced Delta connected
5.5.1 A
load. The impedances of the load are , , and
Using VAB as the reference, determine the line currents in the system.
5.5.2 A
balanced three phase four wire supply is connected to an unbalanced three phase
Star connected load. The neutral points are connected. The supply is 220 V per phase.
The load impedances are , , and . Using
VAN as the reference, determine the total power consumed.
5.5.3 F
or the same circuit described in exercise 5.5.2, calculate the neutral current in
the circuit.
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pharma and biotech industries. to me. But busy as they are, most of my colleagues
find the time to teach me, and they also trust me.
Inés Aréizaga Esteva (Spain), 25 years old Even though it was a bit hard at first, I can feel over
Education: Chemical Engineer time that I am beginning to be taken seriously and
that my contribution is appreciated.
NNE Pharmaplan is the world’s leading engineering and consultancy company

focused entirely on the pharma and biotech industries. We employ more than
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69
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS References
REFERENCES
1. Hughes, E 2002, Electrical and Electronic Technology, 8th edition, Prentice Hall, Essex.
2. Boylestad, R 2007, Introductory Circuit Analysis, 11th edition, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey.
3. Stevenson, WD 1975, Elements of Power System Analysis, 3rd edition, McGraw
Hill, Kogakusha
4. Edminister, JA 1972, Electric Circuits, 1st edition, McGraw Hill, New York
70
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Annexure 1
ANNEXURE 1
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Chapter 1:
1.4.1 60 Hz
1.4.2 110 V, 60 Hz
1.4.3 3 A, 36 W
1.4.4 , 60Hz, 16,67ms
Chapter 2:
2.5.1 .
From Ohm’s law .
So
From the impedance diagram;

So
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4 PReal = 100,4 W; PReactive = 13 VAR; PApparent = 101,2 VA
2.5.5 PReal = 91,96 W; PReactive = 30,98 VAR; PApparent = 96,8 VA
Chapter 3:
3.4.1 ; ; ;

(Edminister 1972, p. 198)
3.4.2 1299 W (Edminister 1972, p. 208)
3.4.3 _` a ; %px y #9<>; %qx y #9<>; %h

71
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Annexure 1
Chapter 4:
4.4.1 ;
;

Amps;

;

4.4.2 %b y #9<>; %c y #9<>; %d y #9<>; 'jrow ,
4.4.3 (Edminister 1972, p 215)
Chapter 5:
5.5.1 ; ;

5.5.2 16 120 W
5.5.3
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2 Single Phase Circuits 20

3 Balanced Star Connected Three Phase Circuits 39

4 Balanced Delta Connected Three Phase Circuits 52

5 Unbalanced Three Phase Loads 60

1.2 SINGLE PHASE AC GENERATION:

Figure 1.2a Figure 1.2b Figure 1.2c

The volt drop across each resistor is;

The power dissipated in each resistor is then;

And the total power delivered by the source;

        (= the total power dissipated in the resistors)

Solving this integral will yield the result;

The notation used in this book is that if the voltage is given as

1.3 THREE PHASE AC GENERATION:

Figure 1.8a Star connection Figure 1.8b Delta connection

This is shown as VAN in Figure 1.9

Discovery means many different things at

AW-1703-170x115-ad-Route 1v3.indd 1 28/01/2019 17:24

    

        

In mathematical form this would be written as;

    

      

      

    

Line ab is parallel to line dc,

Since ae = ec, the length of ac is then 

Referring this back to Figure 1.11,    

Vline Vphase = Vline

Figure 1.13a: Star Figure 1.13b: Delta

1.4.3 A 12 V DC source is connected to a 12Ω resistor and a 6Ω resistor, which are

2 SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS

A combination of a real number and an imaginary number is known as a complex number

The number can be represented in rectangular co-ordinates as;

Or in polar co-ordinates as;

Inductive reactance is defined as

How will people travel in the future, and

Capacitive reactance is defined as;

where   ,   , and C is the capacitance, measured in Farad.

The impedance in a series circuit is then;

       (Note that  and  are both imaginary numbers)

2.3 RLC CIRCUITS:

Figure 2.2 shows an AC source connected to a purely resistive circuit.

The current in the circuit can be determined from Ohm’s law;

And the power dissipated is          

The waveform of the voltage and current is shown in Figure 2.3.

2.3.2 INDUCTIVE LOAD:

Figure 2.4 shows a circuit where the load is purely inductive.

The impedance in this case is               

Using the voltage as the reference, the current is then;

The wave form of the voltage and current is then;

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          

2.3.3 CAPACITIVE LOAD:

Figure 2.6 shows a circuit where the load is purely capacitive.

The V-I waveform is then;

        j31,4 Ω

The impedance of the circuit is then;

                 Ω

3 Balanced Star Connected Three Phase Circuits 39

4 Balanced Delta Connected Three Phase Circuits 52

5 Unbalanced Three Phase Loads 60

(= the total power dissipated in the resistors)

Since ae = ec, the length of ac is then

Referring this back to Figure 1.11,

1.4.3 A 12 V DC source is connected to a 12Ω resistor and a 6Ω resistor, which are

where , , and C is the capacitance, measured in Farad.

(Note that and are both imaginary numbers)

And the power dissipated is

The impedance in this case is

j31,4 Ω

Ω

If we choose the voltage to be the reference, then

The apparent power

The reactive power

The real power

The power factor is defined as .

The real power

The apparent power

j31,4 Ω

Ω

If we choose the voltage to be the reference, then

The power factor is (Leading)

(or Again the minor discrepancy is due to rounding

So

-

So (2,08) 450,13 W

2.5.3 A series connected 50 Hz AC circuit has a resistance of 120 Ω and a capacitance of

series connected RLC circuit comprises a resistance of 470 Ω, an inductance of 10 mH

series connected RLC circuit comprises a resistance of 470 Ω, an inductance of 10 mH

3 BALANCED STAR CONNECTED

In Chapter 1 (Figure 1.11) it was shown that

Similarly

And

Therefore

Where is the angle between and

is the angle between