UNIT – I

Introduction to classical control system

 System
A System is a combination or an arrangement of different physical
components which act together as an entire unit to achieve certain objective
 Control System
A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages,
commands, directs or regulates the behaviour of other device(s) or system(s) to
achieve desire results.
A control system is a system, which controls other system.
 The main feature of control system is, there should be a clear
mathematical relation between input and output of the system.
 When the relation between input and output of the system can be
represented by a linear proportionality, the system is called linear control
system.
 when the relation between input and output cannot be represented by single
linear proportionality, rather the input and output are related by some non-
linear relation, the system is referred as non-linear control system.
 Requirement of Good Control System
 Accuracy : Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the
instrument and defines the limits of the errors made when the
instrument is used in normal operating conditions. Accuracy can be
improved by using feedback elements. To increase accuracy of any
control system error detector should be present in control system.

 Sensitivity : The parameters of control system are always changing

with change in surrounding conditions, internal disturbance or any
other parameters. This change can be expressed in terms of
sensitivity. Any control system should be insensitive to such
parameters but sensitive to input signals only.
 Noise : An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control
system should be able to reduce the noise effect for better
performance.
 Stability : It is an important characteristic of control system. For the
bounded input signal, the output must be bounded and if input is zero
 then output must be zero then such a control system is said to be
stable system.
 Bandwidth : An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth
of control system. Bandwidth should be large as possible for
frequency response of good control system.
 Speed : It is the time taken by control system to achieve its stable
output. A good control system possesses high speed. The transient
period for such system is very small.
 Oscillation : A small numbers of oscillation or constant oscillation
of output tend to system to be stable.
Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop
control systems based on the feedback path.

 Open Loop Control System

A control system in which the control action is totally independent of
output of the system then it is called open loop control system.
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the
control action is independent of the desired output.
Manual control system is also an open loop control system.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a

controller and it produces an
actuating signal or
controlling signal. This
signal is given as an input to
a plant or process which is to
be controlled. So, the plant
produces an output, which is
controlled. The traffic lights
control system which we Figure 1.1: Block diagram of open loop control system

discussed earlier is an
example of an open loop
control system.
 Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System
1. Electric Hand Drier - Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your
hand under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.
2. Automatic Washing Machine - This machine runs according to the pre-
set time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
3. Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of
toasting is completed or not.
4. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker - These machines also function for pre
adjusted time only.
5. Timer Based Clothes Drier - This machine dries wet clothes for pre-
adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
6. Light Switch - Lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of
light is required or not.
7. Volume on Stereo System - Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of
output volume level.
 Advantages of Open Loop Control System
1. Simple in construction and design.
2. Economical.
3. Easy to maintain.
4. Generally stable.
5. Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.
 Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System
1. They are inaccurate.
2. They are unreliable.
3. Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.
 Closed Loop Control System
Control system in which the output has an effect on the input quantity in
such a manner that the input quantity will adjust itself based on the output
generated is called closed loop control system.
 In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the
control action is dependent on the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop
control system.

The error detector

produces an error
signal, which is the
difference between
the input and the
feedback signal.
This feedback
signal is obtained
from the block Figure 1.2:Block diagram of closed loop control system
(feedback
elements) by considering the output of the overall system as an input to this
block. Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a
controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we
get the desired response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called
the automatic control systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the
input is an example of a closed loop control system.

 Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System

1. Automatic Electric Iron - Heating elements are controlled by output
temperature of the iron.
2. Servo Voltage Stabilizer - Voltage controller operates depending upon
output voltage of the system.
3. Water Level Controller - Input water is controlled by water level of the
reservoir.
4. Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar - The direction of missile
is controlled by comparing the target and position of the missile.
5. An Air Conditioner - An air conditioner functions depending upon the
temperature of the room.
6. Cooling System in Car - It operates depending upon the temperature
which it controls.

 Advantages of Closed Loop Control System

1. Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-
linearity.
2. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of
feedback signal.
3. Bandwidth range is large.
4. Facilitates automation.
5. The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more stable.
6. This system is less affected by noise.

 Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System

1. They are costlier.
2. They are complicated to design.
3. Required more maintenance.
4. Feedback leads to oscillatory response.
5. Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.
6. Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable
closed loop system.
  Comparison of Closed Loop And Open Loop Control System

 Feedback
If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and
utilized as part of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays
an important role in order to improve the performance of the control systems. In
this chapter, let us discuss the types of feedback & effects of feedback.

Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback −

 Positive feedback
 Negative feedback
Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output. The
following figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.
The concept of transfer
function will be
discussed in later
chapters. For the time
being, consider the
transfer function of
positive feedback
Figure 1.3: Block diagram of positive feedback system
control system is,

T=G/(1−GH) (Equation 1)
Where,

 T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control

system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.

 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the
error between the reference
input, R(s)R(s) and system
output. The following figure
shows the block diagram of
the negative feedback control
system.

Figure 1.4: Block diagram of negative feedback system

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

T=G/(1+GH) (Equation 2)
Effects of Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback
closed loop control system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall
gain may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this
case, 'GH' value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is
negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In
this case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is
positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase
the overall gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other
frequency range.

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system
T
(T) to the variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as S GT  T (equation 3)
G
G

Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

T G
We can rewrite Equation 3 as S GT  (equation 4)
G T

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

From Equation 2, you will get

G
 1  GH (equation 6)
T
Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.

So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the
reciprocal of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the
value of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case,
'GH' value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this

case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the
sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other
frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the values of 'GH' in such a way
that the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.

Effect of Feedback on Stability

 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is
said to be unstable.

 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the

output of the control system will be infinite. So, the control system
becomes unstable.

Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control
system stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function
relations with and without feedback due to noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

C ( s)
 Gb
N ( s) (Equation 7)
It is obtained by making the other input R(s)R(s) equal to zero.
Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

C (s) Gb

N ( s ) 1  G a Gb H (Equation 8)
It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.
Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8, In the closed loop control system, the gain
due to noise signal is decreased by a factor of (1+GaGbH) provided that the
term (1+GaGbH) is greater than one.
Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are
used to represent the control systems in pictorial form.

Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the
take-off point. Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system
as shown in the following figure to identify these elements.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s)
and H(s). It is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows
indicate the direction of the flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements
one by one.

Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single
input and single output.

The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the
transfer function G(s).

Y ( s)
G( s) 
Transfer Function, X ( s) ⇒Y(s) = G(s)X(s)
Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with
input.

Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has
two or more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs.
It also performs the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and
subtraction of the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three
operations one by one.

The following figure shows the summing point

with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here,
the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the
summing point produces the output, Y as sum of
A and B.

i.e.,Y = A + B.

The following figure shows the summing point

with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here,
the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e.,
A is having positive sign and B is having
negative sign. So, the summing point produces
the output Y as the difference of A and B.

Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

The following figure shows the summing point

with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having positive
signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the
summing point produces the output Y as

Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
Take-off Point
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed
through more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we
can apply the same input to one or more blocks, summing points.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s)
to two more blocks.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as
one of the inputs to the summing point.

Disadvantages of Block Diagram Representation

 No information about the physical construction

 Source of energy is not shown

Advantages of Block Diagram Representation

 Very simple to construct block diagram for a complicated system

 Function of individual element can be visualized

 Individual & Overall performance can be studied

 Over all transfer function can be calculated easily.

Block diagram reduction technique

Because of their simplicity and versatility, block diagrams are often used by
control engineers to describe all types of systems. A block diagram can be used
simply to represent the composition and interconnection of a system. Also, it can
be used, together with transfer functions, to represent the cause-and-effect
relationships throughout the system. Transfer Function is defined as the
relationship between an input signal and an output signal to a device.
Block diagram rules
Procedure to solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems

Step 1: Reduce the blocks connected in series

Step2: Reduce the blocks connected in parallel
Step 3: Reduce the minor feedback loops
Step 4: Try to shift take off points towards right and Summing point towards left
Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 till simple form is obtained
Step 6: Obtain the Transfer Function of Overall System
Problem 1
1. Obtain the Transfer function of the given block diagram
2. Obtain the transfer function for the system shown in the fig
3. Obtain the transfer function C/R for the block diagram shown in the fig

Solution
The take-off point is shifted after the block G2
4. Obtain the transfer function C/R for the block diagram shown in the fig
using the block diagram reduction rules.
Step 1− Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for
blocks G3 and G4. The modified block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-
off point after the block G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block
diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

Y ( s) G1G2 G52 (G3  G4 )


R( s) (1  G1G2 H 1 )(1  (G3  G4 )G5 H 3 )G5  G1G2 G5 (G3  G4 ) H 2

 Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems

In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram.
Electrical systems contain mainly three basic elements — resistor, inductor
and capacitor.

Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in the following figure. Where, V i(t)
and Vo(t) are the input and output voltages. Let i(t) be the current passing through
the circuit. This circuit is in time domain.

By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain.
The circuit is as shown in the following figure.
From the above circuit, we can write

Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And
then combine those block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block
diagram of series of RLC Circuit (s-domain).
1
Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function,
R  SL
.The input and output of this block are {Vi(s)−Vo(s)} and I(s). We require a
summing point to get {Vi(s)−Vo(s)}. The block diagram of Equation 1 is shown
in the following figure.

Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, 1sC1sC.

The input and output of this block are I(s)I(s) and Vo(s)Vo(s). The block
diagram of Equation 2 is shown in the following figure.
The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in
the following figure.

Similarly, you can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system
just by following this simple procedure.

 Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical

circuit by applying Laplace transform.

 Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch
elements and voltage across all shunt branches.

 Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.

 Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block
diagram of the electrical circuit (s-domain).

The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems.
Because, we have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each
step. So, to overcome this drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation) i.e.,
how to represent signal flow graph from a given block diagram and calculation
of transfer function just by using a gain formula without doing any reduction
process.
  SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

For complex control systems, the block diagram reduction technique is

cumbersome. An alternative method for determining the relationship
between system variables has been developed by Mason and is based
on a signal flow graph. A signal flow graph is a diagram that consists
of nodes that are connected by branches. A node is assigned to each
variable of interest in the system, and branches are used to relate the
different variables. The main advantage for using SFG is that a straight
forward procedure is available for finding the transfer function in which
it is not necessary to move pickoff point around or to redraw the
system several times as with block diagram manipulations.
SFG is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations which describe a system. Let us consider an equation, y = a x.
It may be represented graphically as,

Definitions:

Node: A node is a point representing a variable or signal.

Branch: A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes.

Transmittance: It is the gain between two nodes.

Input node: A node that has only outgoing branche(s). It is also, called as
source and corresponds to independent variable.

Output node: A node that has only incoming branches. This is also called as
sink and corresponds to dependent variable.

Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch

arrow.

Loop: A loop is a closed path.

Self loop: It is a feedback loop consisting of single branch.

Loop gain: The loop gain is the product of branch transmittances of the loop.

Nontouching loops: Loops that do not posses a common node. Forward path: A
path from source to sink without traversing an node more than once.

Feedback path: A path which originates and terminates at the same node.
Forward path gain: Product of branch transmittances of a forward path.

Properties of Signal Flow Graphs:

1) Signal flow applies only to linear systems.

2) The equations based on which a signal flow graph is drawn must be algebraic
equations in the form of effects as a function of causes. Nodes are used to
represent variables. Normally the nodes are arranged left to right, following a
succession of causes and effects through the system.

3) Signals travel along the branches only in the direction described by the arrows
of the branches.

4) The branch directing from node Xk to Xj represents dependence of the

variable Xj on Xk but not the reverse.

5) The signal traveling along the branch Xk and Xj is multiplied by branch gain
akj and signal akjXk is delivered at node Xj.

Guidelines to Construct the Signal Flow Graphs: The signal flow graph of a
system is constructed from its describing equations, or by direct reference to
block diagram of the system. Each variable of the block diagram becomes a node
and each block becomes a branch. The general procedure is

1) Arrange the input to output nodes from left to right.

2) Connect the nodes by appropriate branches.

3) If the desired output node has outgoing branches, add a dummy node and a
unity gain branch.

4) Rearrange the nodes and/or loops in the graph to achieve pictorial clarity.
Algebra Addtion rule The value of the variable designated by a node is equal
to the sum of all signals entering the node.

Transmission rule The value of the variable designated by a node is transmitted

on every branch leaving the node.

Multiplication rule A cascaded connection of n-1 branches with transmission

functions can be replaced by a single branch with new transmission function
equal to the product of the old ones.

Masons Gain Formula The relationship between an input variable and an

output variable of a signal flow graph is given by the net gain between input and
output nodes and is known as overall gain of the system. Masons gain formula
is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of signal flow graphs.

Gain P is given by

Where, Pk is gain of kth forward path, ∆ is determinant of graph

∆=1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible

combinations of two nontouching loops – sum of gain products of all possible
combination of three nontouching loops) + ∙∙∙

∆k is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching kth
forward path. It is obtained from ∆ by removing the loops touching the path Pk.