SAE2B

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
& MICROPROCESSOR
Unit : I - V
 Unit : I – Overview
 Number System
 Binary System
 Binary Code
 Logic Gates
 Boolean Algebra
 Truth Tables
 Universal Gates
 Simplification of Boolean functions
 Karnaugh Map
 Combinational Logic

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 TM

Number System
 Number System is a system of representing letters or numbers in
computer understandable form.
 Examples – Binary, Decimal, Octal and Hexadecimal

Number System Base Digits or Symbols

included
Binary 2 0,1
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,
B,C,D,E,F

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 Binary System
A binary number system is made up of only 0s and 1s. Example : 001010

Code Conversion
• Conversion from any Number system to Decimal
• Conversion from decimal to other system
• Conversion from Binary to Octal / Hexadecimal
• Conversion from Octal / Hexadecimal to binary
• Conversion from Decimal to other system

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 Binary Codes
 Codes are alternate representations for the binary numbers.
 Different codes are used for binary numbers. Commonly used are
1. BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) Code
a) 8421
b) 2421
c) 4221
2. Excess-3 Code
3. Gray Code

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 Logic Gates
Symbol set 1 Symbol set 2
(ANSI/IEEE Standard 91-1984)
a a
AND a.b & a.b
b b

a a
OR a+b + a+b
b b

NOT a 1 a'
a a'

a a
(a.b)' & (a.b)'
NAND b b

a a
NOR (a+b)' 1 (a+b)'
b b

a a
EXCLUSIVE OR ab =1 ab
b b

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 Boolean Algebra

 Commutative Law
A+B=B+A
A.B=B.A
 Associative Law
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A (BC) = (AB) C
 Distributive Law
A (B + C) = AB + AC

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 Rules specific to Boolean Algebra
1a. A + 0 = A 1b. A . 1 = A
2a. A + 1 = 1 2b. A . 0 = 0
3a. A + A = A 3b. A . A = A
4a. A + A’ = 1 4b. A . A’ = 0
5a. A’’ = A 5b. A’’ = A
6a. A + AB = A 6b. A (A + B) = A
7a. A + A’B = A + B 7b. A (A’ + B) = AB
8a. A + BC = (A + B) (A + C) 8b. A (B + C) = AB + AC
9a. AB + A’C + BC = AB + A’C 9b. (A+B) (A’+C) (B+C) = (A+B) (A’ + C)

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 Demorgan’s Laws

• The AND and OR functions can be shown to be related to each other

through the following equations.

Theorem 1:
―The complement of a product is equal to the sum of individual
complements.‖ In other words,

(AB)‘ = A‘ + B‘ or
NAND = Bubbled OR

Theorem 2:
―The complement of a sum is equal to the product of individual
complements.‖ In other words,

(A + B)‘ = A‘ . B‘ or
NOR = Bubbled AND

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 Truth Table
A truth table is a mathematical table used in logic—specifically in
connection with Boolean algebra and Boolean functions - which sets
out the functional values of logical expressions on each of their
functional arguments, that is, for each combination of values taken by
their logical variables.

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 Universal Gates
 Universal gates are the ones which can be used for implementing
any gate like AND, OR and NOT, or any combination of these basic
gates.

 NAND and NOR gates are universal gates.

 But there are some rules that need to be followed when

implementing NAND or NOR based gates.

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 Sum of Products and
Product of Sums
Any given truth table can be converted into a logical expression, by
either SOP or POS method.
• To obtain SOP expression,
a) Take the cases where output is a logical 1
b) Represent each case as a product of the variables, such that output is 1.
This product is known as a minterm.
c) ORing the minterms gives us the SOP expression.
• To obtain POS expression,
a) Take the cases where output is a logical 0.
b) Represent each case as a sum of the variables, such that output is 0.
This product is known as a maxterm.
c) ANDing the maxterms gives us the POS expression.
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 Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps)

• Karnaugh maps provide a systematic method to obtain simplified sum-of-

products (SOPs) Boolean expressions.
• This is a compact way of representing a truth table and is a technique that
is used to simplify logic expressions.
• It is ideally suited for four or less variables, becoming cumbersome for five
or more variables.
• A K-map of n variables will have 2n squares.
• Each square represents either a minterm or maxterm.
• For a Boolean expression, product terms are denoted by 1's, while sum
terms are denoted by 0's - but 0's are often left blank.

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 Combinational Logic
A combinational circuit can have an n number of inputs and m number of
outputs.

Some of the Combinational circuits are

1. Half Adder
2. Full Adder
3. Half Subtractor
4. Full subtractor
.

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 Combinational Logic Design

Combinational Logic Design also holds

1. Decoder
2. Encoder
3. Multiplexer
4. Demultiplexer

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 Unit : II – Overview
 Sequential Logic
 Flip-Flops
 Shift Register
 Counters

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 Sequential Logic

 The outputs of a sequential logic circuit depend on both the current inputs and
on previous inputs and outputs of the circuit.
 Sequential elements have storage elements that record the state of the circuit.
In other words, the state information combined with the inputs is generating the
outputs.
 The state and inputs also combine to generate a new state of the circuit.
 The same inputs in a sequential circuit may generate different outputs and
different new states, depending on the circuit’s current state.

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 Flip-Flops

 A bi-stable device i.e. a circuit with only 2 stable states, namely the ‘0’ state
and the ‘1’ state.
 Ability to retain its state and store a bit of information.
 It is one-bit memory cell.
 A flip-flop has 2 outputs and they complement each other.
 Types of Flip Flop – SR Flip Flop, JK Flip Flop, D Flip Flop, T Flip Flop.

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 Shift Register

 A common form of register used in computers and in many other types of

logic circuits is a shift register.
 It is simply a set of flip flops (usually D latches or RS flip-flops) connected
together so that the output of one becomes the input of the next, and so on in
series.
 It is called a shift register because the data is shifted through the register
by one bit position on each clock pulse.

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 Serial-in Serial-out Register

 On the leading edge of the first clock pulse, the signal on the D input is
latched in the first flip flop.
 On the leading edge of the next clock pulse, the contents of the first flip-
flop is stored in the second flip-flop, and the signal which is present at the D
input is stored is the first flip-flop, etc.
 Because the data is entered one bit at a time, this called a serial-in shift
register. Since there is only one output, and data leaves the shift register
one bit at a time, then it is also a serial out shift register.

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Parallel-in Parallel-out Register
 Parallel input can be provided through the use of the preset and clear
inputs to the flip-flop.
 The parallel loading of the flip-flop can be synchronous (i.e., occurs with
the clock pulse) or asynchronous (independent of the clock pulse)
depending on the design of the shift register.
 Parallel output can be obtained from the outputs of each flip-flop as
shown in Figure.

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 Counters

 Counter is a register which counts the sequence in binary form.

 The state of counter changes with application of clock pulse.
 The counter is binary or non-binary.
 The total number of states in counter is called as modulus.
 If counter is modulus-n, then it has n different states.
 State diagram of counter is a pictorial representation of counter states
directed by arrows in graph.

000
111
001

110 010 State diagram of mod-8 counter

101 011
100

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 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters
 All Flip-Flops are in toggle
mode.
 The clock input is applied.
 Count enable = 1.
 Counter counts from 0000 to
1111.

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 Synchronous Counter
In synchronous counters, the clock inputs of all the flip-flops are connected
together and are triggered by the input pulses. Thus, all the flip-flops
change state simultaneously (in parallel).

 The J and K inputs of FF0 are connected to HIGH. FF1 has its J
and K inputs connected to the output of FF0, and the J and K inputs of
FF2 are connected to the output of an AND gate that is fed by the
outputs of FF0 and FF1.
 After the 3rd clock pulse, both outputs of FF0 and FF1 are HIGH. The
positive edge of the 4th clock pulse will cause FF2 to change its state due
to the AND gate.
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 Up / Down Counter

Bidirectional counters, also known as Up/Down counters, are

capable of counting in either direction through any given count
sequence and they can be reversed at any point within their count
sequence by using an additional control input

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 Unit : II – Overview
Microprocessors
Microprocessor Architecture
Peripheral/Externally Initiated Operations
Memory and its classification
8085 Instruction Set
 Addressing Modes

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 Microprocessors

 Multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based electronic device.

 Reads binary instructions from memory.
 Accepts data as input.
 Process data according to instructions.
 Provides result as output.

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 Micro Computer
A microcomputer is a small, relatively
inexpensive computer with a microprocessor as its central
processing unit (CPU).
 It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal
input/output (I/O) circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit
board.

Assembly Language
 An assembly language is a low-level programming language
for microprocessors and other programmable devices.
 An assembly language implements a symbolic representation
of the machine code needed to program a given CPU
architecture.
 Assembly language is also known as assembly code.

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 Microprocessor Architecture
 Microprocessor is digital device designed with
 Register
 Flip-flop
 Timing element

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 8085 Bus Structure

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 Address Bus
 Group of 16 lines generally identified as A0 to A15.

 It is unidirectional (bits flow in one direction).

 Identifies the peripherals or a memory location through these

line.

 Carry a 16-bit address.

 Capable of identifying 216 = 65,536 (64K) memory locations.

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 Data Bus

 Group of 8 lines used for data flow (D0 to D7)

Bidirectional : data flow both direction between MPU and memory
and peripherals.

 The largest number that can appear on the data bus is 1111 1111
(i.e. 25510)

Handles up to 28=256 (i.e 00 to FF ) numbers.

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 Control Bus

 Comprised of various signal lines that carry synchronization

signals.

 MPU generates specific control signal for every operation.

 Used to identify the device type which MPU intends to

communicate.

 Eg: To read data from the memory MPU sends the control signal
called Memory Read.

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 8085 Pin Diagram and Signals

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 Classifications of the functions

1. Microprocessor-initiated operations.

2. Internal operations.

3. Peripheral (or externally) initiated operations.

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 Internal Data Operations

Internal architecture of the 8085 microprocessor determines how

and what operations can be performed.

The operations are:

 Store 8-bit data.
 Perform arithmetic and logical operations.
 Test for conditions.
 Sequence the execution of instruction.
Store data temporarily in the Stack.

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 Peripheral/Externally Initiated Operations

 External devices can initiate the MPU operations.

 Individual pins on the MPU chip are assigned for various

operations like:
 Reset

 Interrupt

 Ready

 Hold

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 Memory and its classification

 Two basic categories of computer memory:

– Primary stores small amounts of data and information that will be

immediately used by the CPU.

– Secondary stores much larger amounts of data and information

(an entire software program, for example) for extended periods of
time.

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 Memory and Instruction Fetch

 All instructions are stored in memory.

 To run a program, the individual instructions must be read from the

memory in sequence, and executed.
 Instruction fetch
 Decode instruction
 Get operands
 Execute operation

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 Instruction Fetch Operation

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 8085 Instruction Set

 An instruction is a binary pattern designed inside a

microprocessor to perform a specific function.

The entire group of instructions that a microprocessor

supports is called Instruction Set.

 8085 has 246 instructions.

Each instruction is represented by an 8-bit binary value.

These 8-bits of binary value is called Op-Code or Instruction

Byte.

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 Addressing Modes
 Every instruction has to operate on a data.

The method of specifying the data to be operated by the instruction is

called Addressing.

The 8085 has 5 types of addressing:

1. Immediate Addressing
2. Direct Addressing
3. Register Addressing
4. Register Indirect Addressing.
5. Implied Addressing

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 Arithmetic Operations
The 8085 microprocessor performs various arithmetic operations,
such as addition, subtraction, increment, and decrement.

1.ADD
2.ADI
3.SUB
4.SUI
5.INR
6.DCR

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 Logical Operations

 Microprocessor is basically a programmable logic chip.

It can perform all the logic functions of the hard-wired logic through
its instruction set.

They are:
 AND
 OR
 Ex OR
 NOT

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 Branching Instructions

 Most powerful instructions because they allow the

microprocessor to change the sequence of a program.

 Change may be unconditional or under certain test conditions.

 Instruct the microprocessor to go to a different memory location.

 Types:
1. Jump Instructions.
2. Call and Return instructions.
3. Restart instructions.

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 Jump Instructions

 Specify the memory location explicitly.

 They are 3-byte instructions.

 One byte for operation code, followed by a 16-bit memory

address.

 Classified into:
1. Unconditional Jump.
2. Conditional Jump.

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 Unconditional Jump

JMP 16-bit address:

 Jump unconditionally

 The program sequence is transferred to the memory location

specified by the 16-bit address given in the operand.

Example: JMP 2034H or JMP XYZ(Label name)

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 Conditional Jumps
 Allow the microprocessor to make decisions based on certain
conditions indicated by flags.

 Check the flag conditions to change or not.

 Flags used by jump instructions:

1. Carry flag
2. Zero flag
3. Sign flag
4. Parity flag

SAE2B– Digital Electronics & Microprocessor 48

 Unit : IV – Overview
 Time Delay Using One Register
 Time Delay Using a Register Pair
 Using a Loop within Loop Technique
 Counter Design with Time Delay
 Stack and Subroutines
 BCD to Binary Conversion and Vice-versa
 BCD to HEX Conversion and Vice-versa
 Binary to ASCII Conversion and Vice-versa
 BCD Addition and Subtraction

SAE2B– Digital Electronics & Microprocessor 49

 Time Delay

 Procedure used to design a specific delay.

 A register is loaded with a number , depending on the time delay
required and then the register is decremented until it reaches zero
by setting up a loop with conditional jump instruction.

 Time delay using

One register:

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Time Delay using Register Pair
Label Opcode Operand Comments T state
LXI B,2384H Load BC with 16-bit count 10
LOOP: DCX B Decrement BC by 1 6
MOV A,C Place contents of C in A 4
ORA B OR B with C to set Zero flag 4
JNZ LOOP if result not equal to 0 , 10/7
jump back to loop
Time Delay in Loop TL= T * Loop T states * N10
= 0.5 * 24* 9092
= 109 ms
Time Delay using LOOP within a LOOP
MVI B,38H 7T Delay in Loop TL1=1783.5 μs
LOOP2: MVI C,FFH 7T Delay in Loop TL2= (0.5*21+TL1)*56
LOOP1: DCR C 4T =100.46ms
JNZ LOOP1 10/7 T
DCR B 4T
JNZ LOOP 2 10/7T

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 Flowchart of a counter with time delay

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 The Stack
 STACK is a group of memory location in the R/W memory that is
used for temporary storage of binary information during the
execution of a program.

 The programmer can store and retrieve the contents of a register

pair by using PUSH and POP.

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 SUBROUTINE

 A subroutine is a group of instructions that will be used repeatedly

in different locations of the program.

 Rather than repeat the same instructions several times, they

can be grouped into a subroutine that is called from the
different locations.

 Instructions used in subroutine are CALL, RET,RTE and RST

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 BCD - TO - BINARY CONVERSION
Example:7210=01110010BCD

SOLUTION:
 Step 1: 0111 0010
-> 0000 0010 Unpacked BCD1.
-> 0000 0111 Unpacked BCD2.

 Step 2: Multiply BCD2 by 10 = (7x10)

 Step 3: Add BCD1 to the answer in step2

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 BCD - TO - BINARY CONVERSION
Example:7210=01110010BCD
SOLUTION:

 Step 1: 0111 0010

-> 0000 0010 Unpacked BCD1.
-> 0000 0111 Unpacked BCD2.

 Step 2: Multiply BCD2 by 10 = (7x10)

 Step 3: Add BCD1 to the answer in step2

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 BINARY-TO-BCD CONVERSION
Example : Assume the binary number is
1111 1111 2(FFH)=25510

To represent this number in BCD requires twelve bits or three

BCD digits, labeled here as BCD3 (MSB) ,BCD2 and BCD1(LSB).
=0010 0101 0101
BCD3 BCD2 BCD1

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 BCD to HEX conversion
 Initialize memory pointer to 4150H.

 Get the most significant Digit(MSD)

 Multiply the MSD by ten using repeated addition

 Add the least significant digit (LSD)to the result to obtained in

previous step.

 Store hex data in memory.

 Input :4150:02(MSD), 4151:09(LSD)

 Output:4152:1DH

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 HEX to BCD Conversion
 Initialize memory pointer to 4150H.
 Get the hexa decimal number
 Perform repeated addition for n number of times
 Adjust for BCD in each step
 Store BCD data in memory.

Input :4150:FF

Output: 4151:55(LSD)
4152:02(MSD)

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 BINARY TO ASCII

LDA 2050H : Take the binary number in the accumulator

CPA 0AH : Compare the given number with 0AH
JC SKIP 7 : If number < 9 no need to add 7
ADI 07H : Else, add 7 to the accumulator
SKIP 7 : ADI 30H :Add 30h to accumulator
STA 2051H :Store the ASCII result in memory
HLT :End the program

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 BCD ADDITION
 The 8085 provides a special instruction DAA(decimal adjust
accumulator) to perform BCD addition.

 The DAA instruction is included immediately after an addition or

increment instruction.

 The maximum in two digit BCD(8 bits) is 99.

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 BCD Subtraction
 The DAA cannot be used directly to perform BCD subtraction
because DAA instruction requires an addition to be performed
first.
 So, 10‘s complement method is employed.

Example : 85-39

9‘s complement of 39=99-39=60

(each digit is subtracted from 9)

10‘s complement of 39=9‘s complement+1=60+1=61

Therefore 85+61=46(with carry 1(should be omitted))

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 Unit : V – Overview
 Interrupt
 Vectored Interrupts
 Interfacing I/O Devices
 Basic Interfacing Concepts
 DMA

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 Interrupts
 Interrupt is a process where an external device can get the attention of
the microprocessor.
◦ The process starts from the I/O device
◦ The process is asynchronous.

TYPES OF INTERRUPT

SOFTWARE HARDWARE

VECTORED AND NON VECTORED

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 The 8085 Interrupts
VECTOR
Interrupt name Maskable Vectored
ADDRESS

TRAP No Yes 0024H

RST 7.5 Yes Yes 003CH

RST 6.5 Yes Yes 0034H

RST 5.5 Yes Yes 002CH

INTR Yes No --

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 8085 Interrupts

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 The 8085 Vectored Interrupt Process

In vectored interrupts, the processor automatically branches to the specific

address in response to an interrupt.

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 The 8085 Non-Vectored Interrupt Process
1. The interrupt process should be enabled using the EI instruction.
2. The 8085 checks for an interrupt during the execution of every
instruction.
3. If INTR is high, MP completes current instruction, disables the interrupt
and sends INTA (Interrupt acknowledge) signal to the device that
interrupted
4. INTA allows the I/O device to send a RST instruction through data bus.
5. Upon receiving the INTA signal, MP saves the memory location of the
next instruction on the stack and the program is transferred to ‗call‘
location (ISR Call) specified by the RST instruction

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 The 8085 Non-Vectored Interrupt Process

6. Microprocessor Performs the ISR.

7. ISR must include the ‗EI‘ instruction to enable the further
interrupt within the program.
8. RET instruction at the end of the ISR allows the MP to
retrieve the return address from the stack and the program is
transferred back to where the program was interrupted.

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 Basic Interfacing Concepts
Interface is the path for communication between two components.
Interfacing is of two types, memory interfacing and I/O interfacing.

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 Direct Memory Access

 Process of communication or data transfer controlled by an

external peripheral.

 Ex: Data transfer between a floppy and R/W memory of the

system.

 8085A has two pins for this type of communication

• HOLD
• HLDA

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 Direct Memory Access

Time to do 1000 xfers in 1 msec:

CPU sends a starting address, 1 DMA set-up sequence: @ 50 msec
direction(R/W), and word count 1 interrupt: @ 2 msec
to DMAC. Then issues "start". 1 interrupt service sequence: @ 48 msec
100msec
CPU .0001 second of CPU time

0
ROM

Memory DMAC IOC

Memory
Mapped I/O RAM
I/O device

DMAC provides; Peripherals

Peripheral controller Handshake signals
Memory Addresses
Handshake signals DMA
n C
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