380 Radiation Heat Transfer

The basic practical difficulty in the analysis of systems with nonblack surfaces is what
absorptivity value should be used. In the light of this problem, discussed in Section 11.4,
let us analyze the various forms that Eq. (11.21) takes depending on the manner in which we
evaluate all. The gray assumption which would apply for Inconel-X plates, if both were
between 300 and 900 K, makes a 12 = all = E~o a 21 = a 22 = e2 , and p 12 = Pll = 1 - E~o and
P21 = p22 = 1 - e2 • In this case, Eq. (11.21) simplifies to

(11.22)

For metal plates, we can improve Eq. (11.22) by

evaluate the emissivity of the cooler surface at T* =
je approximation of Eq. (11.14); we
T1T2 • For example, if surface 2 is
hotter than 1, we write Eq. (11.22) as

(11.23)

We accomplish the evaluation of radiant heat transfer between nongray surfaces with the
most precision only by considering the best approximation for their absorptivities, and, also
the variation in properties with direction. Fortunately, many industrial materials, especially
refractories used in furnaces, behave as gray diffuse radiators so that these details may be
omitted from analysis. We shall consider nonblack surfaces as gray in this chapter. More
details regarding nongray surfaces and directional properties can be found in the more
advanced treatments of radiation heat transfer listed in Section 11. 3. The presentations of
radiation heat transfer in Holman8 and Incropera and DeWitt9 are also more comprehensive
and should be consulted when it is apparent that the surfaces under consideration cannot be
assumed gray and diffuse.

Example 11.1 We can use the above results

Aluminum
to illustrate the principle of radiation shields. plate
Multiple shields are very effective when used
as high-temperature insulation against thermal
radiation. To illustrate the principle, develop
an expression for the reduction in radiant heat
transfer between two infinite and parallel Refractory Refractory
wall wall
refractory walls, when a thin plate of
aluminum is placed between them. Assume
that all surfaces are gray; the emissivity of the
walls is 0.8 and the emissivity of the
aluminum is 0.2.
The system with appropriate subscripts is
r,
shown to the right.

8J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, sixth edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1986, Chapter 8.

9F. P. Incropera and D. P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat

and Mass Transfer, third edition, John
Wiley, New York, NY, 1990, Chapters 12 and 13.
 Radiation Heat Transfer 381
Solution. First, we examine the case in the absence of the aluminum sheet, that is, direct
radiant transfer from surface 1 to surface 3. Equation (11.22) applies with appropriate
change of subscripts. Therefore

ql,n« (no shield) = (ebl - ebJ) llel + lleJ - 1 .

Now in the presence of the shield, we apply Eq. (11.22) to the net radiant flux from
surface 1 to surface 2. Hence
1
ql,nel = (ebl - eb2) lie + 1/e - 1 .
1 2
Similarly, we write the radiant flux from surface 2 to surface 3 as
1
q2,DD. = (eb2 - ebJ) lie + lie - 1 .
2 3

Since q2 ,ne~ = q 1,net (steady state), we eliminate eb2 from these equations:

(ebl - eb3)

The ratio of radiant flux with the shield to that without the shield is
q 1.nct (with shield)
q 1.net (no shield)

With e1 = e3 = 0.8, and e2 = 0.2, this ratio equals 0.143. Insertion of more shields would
lower the ratio even more considerably.

11.6 VIEW FACTORS

Having discussed the complexities of property evaluation, we now consider geometric

arrangements in radiation heat transfer. In this connection, we introduce the view factor.
In the engineering literature different terms are used for this factor, such as configuration
factor, direct-exchange factor, angle factor, or simply factor, and perhaps others which are
unknown to us.
The simplest case for calculating the net loss of energy from a body due to radiation is
to visualize a body at temperature T1 which is completely surrounded by an environment at
T2 • Since the environment completely surrounds the body, the radiation impinging on
surface 1 is black (as in a cavity). The thermal flux (or emissive power) from the body is
e 1 = e1uT:, and that absorbed by the body from the large isothermal cavity is a 1 ~b2 =
al 2uTt. Then

ql,net[ ....4 .,..4]

= (] elll - al2'2 '
(11.24)

and when we assume that the body is gray, a 12 = e1, and we write Eq. (11.24) as
q 1.... = ue 1 (T;' - Tt). (11.25)

The more general case of radiation exchange is a system composed of several surfaces at
different temperatures and of different emissivities. Such a situation involves the use of the
386 Radiation Heat Tnmsfer
Example 11.2 Calculate the net heat flow by radiation to the furnace wall at 530 K from the
furnace floor at 810 K. Both surfaces can be considered to be black radiators.

--+--Side wall
surface 2

Furnace floor
surface I

1 3.7m ~1~
4

Solution. The energy emitted by the black surface 1 and intercepted by 2 is E 12 = e61 A 1F 12 •
Similarly, the energy emitted by surface 2 and intercepted by surface 1 is ~ 1 = e62A2F21 •
The net exchange of energy from surface 1 to surface 2 is Q1.net = E 12 - E2 ~o and, since
A2F21 = A 1F 12 , we can finally write the net exchange of energy from surface 1 to surface 2
as

Qt.net = AtFdebt - ebz) = AtFt2u[T;' - ~].

Figure 11.14(c) is used to evaluate F 12 with N = 5.5/1.8 = 3.06, L = 3.7/1.8 = 2.06, and
q, = 90°. The view factor F 12 is approximately 0.16. Recalling that u = 5.699 X 10-8
W m-2 K- 4 , we determine that

= =
4 4
Q1.net (1.8 X 3. 7)(0.16)(5.669) [[ 810)
100 - [ 5301
100 ] 21 240 W.

11.7 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALOG

Consider an all-black surface enclosure (Fig. 11.16(a)) in which

(11.37)

'II H1-:--<2....----..f'I/V\,....-----.:i33 HII•

ebl AlFB eb
3

~) ~)

Fig. 11.16 (a) A black enclosure. (b) Its electrical analog.

388 Radiation Heat Transfer
Example 11.3 Consider the exchange of energy between two parallel and gray plates. For
infinitely long plates, 1 and 2, use the method of electric analogs and develop an expression
for the heat flux if the plates are at T1 and T2 , and have emissivities of e1 and e2 , respectively.

Solution. The system and the appropriate analog are shown below.

~
I - e,
T,~
"'

~
A, F, 2
k ••

~
~

J, J.

By examining the analog circuit, the reader can see that each surface is represented by
the nodes shown in Fig. 11.17. The analog circuit is completed by connecting the radiosity
nodes with the resistance between the surfaces. Therefore, when dealing with gray surfaces,
connect the radiosities; when dealing with black surfaces, connect the black body emissive
powers, as shown in Fig. 11.16(b).
To solve the problem, simply determine the total resistance between eb 1and eb2. The total
resistance is
1 - £2
+--+---
AlFl2 A2e2 .

Then by using Ohm's law, we can immediately write an expression for the net heat flow from
1 to 2:
(eb, - eb2)
Ql,net 1 - e, 1 1 - £2
+ -- + ---
~ A 1F 12 A2e2

In this case, A1 = A2, and F 12 = 1. Therefore

This expression is the same as Eq. (11.22). After having treated a few situations by using
electric analogs, the reader will become quite apt at developing expressions involving
radiation exchange between gray and/or black surfaces.

Example 11.4 In Example 11.2, we were very careful to say that the calculation was "the
net exchange of energy from surface 1 to surface 2." But with other surfaces in the radiation
circuit, the result we obtained would not have been the total power delivered to surface 2.
With this in mind, let us consider the two surfaces in Example 11.2 to be plates with gray
surfaces, while insulating the bottom side of plate 1 and the left side of plate 2. The plates
are placed in a large room at 300 K. Calculate the net power gain or loss to each plate.
Data: e1 = e2 = 0.5.
 Radiation Heat Transfer 389

Solution. The room is a black radiator and each plate is gray. The radiation circuit,
therefore, has three nodes.

Let's take care of the view factors first. From Example 11.2, F12 = 0.16. Thus,
F 13 = 1 - F 12 = 0.84. Also,
(3.7 X 1.8)(0.16)
0.108,
(5.5 X 1.8)

so that F23 = 1 - F21 = 0.892.

The resistances in the circuit are calculated as
1 - e1 (1 - 0.5)
(3.7 X 1.8)(0.5)
= 0.150 m- 2 ,
Aiel

1 - e2 (1 - 0.5)
(5.5 X 1.8)(0.5)
= 0.101 m- 2 ,
Azez

1
(3.7 X 1.8)(0.84)
= 0.179 m- 2 ,
AIF13

1
(5.5 X 1.8)(0.892)
= 0.113 m- 2 ,
AzFzJ

1
(3.7 X 1.8)(0.16)
= 0.938 m- 2 •
AIFI2

Now we apply Kirchoff's law at nodes J 1 and 12 ,

0.
 390 Radiation Heat Transfer
After substituting the values of eb 1, eb2 and eb3, we have two equations, with two unknowns
1 1 and 12 , which are solved to give

eb 1 al't = (5 .669)(8.10)4 = 24 400 W m -z,

ebz (5.669)(5.30)4 = 4470 W m -2,

eb3 (5.669)(3.0)4 = 459 W m -2 ,

12 3120 W m- 2 .

The power losses of plates 1 and 2 are

ebr - lr 24 400 - 12 600

El.nc• = (1 - e 1)!e IA = 0.150 78 300 w'
I

and
ebz - 12 4470 - 3120
= 13400W.
£2.nct
(1 - e2)/ezA2 0.101

As a check, we calculate the power received by the room.

12 - ebJ 11 - eb3 3120 - 459 12 600 - 459

E = --- + --- = + ----,_--,-;:;;;-- 91 700 w.
3 ""' l!A 2F23 l!A 1FIJ 0.113 0.179

The overall energy balance must satisfy

and we are within 0.01 %.

11.8 FURNACE ENCLOSURES

As an application of radiant heat transfer, consider furnace design. We often encounter a

situation in which energy is transferred from a heat source to a heat sink with intermediate
refractory walls. For example, the heat source might be a row of electric resistors to heat
a metal part placed in a furnace. In normal furnaces, the radiation incident on the refractory
walls is so large compared to the heat conduction through the walls that we may approximate
the conduction as zero when calculating radiant fluxes. Such walls are examples of no-net-
flux surfaces. This assumption greatly simplifies the problem of transferring radiant heat
from a source to a sink.
As an example, consider the transfer from face 1 (the source) to the opposite face 2 (the
sink) with intermediate refractory walls (Fig. 11.18(a)). All surfaces are assumed to be gray,
and the electric analog is given in Fig. 11.18(b). First, simplify the circuit by combining all
the resistances between 11 and 12 , remembering that in parallel circuits conductances are
 Radiation Heat Transfer 393
where C/D is defined in Fig. 11.20. If no reradiating surface (no back-insulated refractory
wall) exists, then .9"PE = FPE in this expression. Finally, we can consider the elements
equivalent to the plane Ap with an emissivity Ep = .9"PE at the operating temperature of the
elements.

Example 11.5 A furnace has a floor 1 m x 2m, and located at the top, 1.5 m away, are
heating elements, 50 mm in diameter, 1 m long on 100 mm centers backed by a well-
insulated refractory roof. The heating elements are Nichrome IV (e = 0.74), which operate
at a surface temperature of 1370 K. The side walls are insulated refractory (no-net-flux)
surfaces. Find the rate at which heat can be transferred to a sheet of aluminum at 300 K
(1 m x 2m, e = 0.15) placed on the floor of the preheated furnace.

Solution. To demonstrate only the aspects of radiant heating, we shall ignore convective
heating on the upper surface of the aluminum sheet and heat transfer that might occur by
conduction across minute contact points between the sheet and the furnace floor.
To calculate the rate at which heat is transferred by radiation to the upper surface of the
sheet, we divide the system into four zones: (1) an equivalent gray plane to represent the
elements, (2) the side walls of dimensions 1.5 m X 2 m, (3) the side walls of dimensions·
1.5 m x 1 m, and (4) the upper surface of the aluminum sheet. The analog circuit (showing
conductances) is shown below.

In this particular example, to solve for A 1F 14 , the equivalent conductance for the entire
circuit between 1 1 (source) and 14 (sink), would be a messy task if done by algebraic means.
A 4 X 4 matrix could be set up and solved on a computer rather easily, or one could set up
an actual analog circuit. For our purposes, we refer the reader to Fig. 11.21, from which
F 14 can be found directly. In Fig. 11.21, the total exchange factor is presented for several
geometries of source-sink combinations connected by perfect reradiating walls (i.e., no-net-
flux surfaces). Naturally, we have selected a geometry represented on the figure!
By using Fig. 11.21, we can represent the circuit very simply as shown here.

A, "•
I=£;"

Using Fig. 11.21, we find, for the geometry of a 2:1 rectan~lar opening with D = 1 m and
X = 1.5 m, that
394 Radiation Heat Transfer

No-net-flux walls
/

D ~nk
Sou ~

)
~ ?
,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,

Cylindrical Square 2:1 Rectangular

opening opening opening

Very long slot

(a)

1.0

-
2:1 Rectangular opening
0.9
Very long slot ........_ k::::: :.---
w
~
lt2 0.8 ..........
~
:5
v
0.7 .&""'
1/A!"" Square opening
~
~ 0.5
0.6
v v ..-::: ~ ""'-.. Round
-
-e Iv ? (cylindrical)

'li v
0.4 opening
I. -
:l
...; 0.3
iS 0.2
/,'!/ I
Scale changes here

0.1 1/IJ I I
If
o
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6
Ratio, diameter or least width D
thickness of wall =X
(b)

Fig. 11.21 Total exchange factors between parallel source and sink connected by no-net-flux
walls. (a) Various geometries included, and (b) values of the total exchange factor. (From
H. C. Hottel and A. F. Sarofim, ibid., page 110.)
 Radiation Heat Transfer 395
Next we proceed to determine e 1 . From Fig. 11.20 (curve 5) with CID = 2, we obtain
FPE = 0.88. Then, from Eq. (11.46),

Now using Eq. (11.44) with A1 = A4 , we get

1 - e1 1 - e4 1 - 0.735 1 - 0.15
+-=-+--
el FI4 e4 0.735 0.15

714 0.125.

Therefore,

4 4
(1 X 2)(0.125)(5.669) [ [ 1370}
100 - [ 300}
100 ]

= 49 800 w.

To this, we could add the heat transferred to the bottom of the plate; assume that the furnace
floor had been preheated to 1370 K prior to the insertion of the aluminum plate, and that all
the heat transferred across the furnace floor-aluminum sheet interface is via radiation across
a gap of two infinitely long parallel plates. Using Eq. (11.22), and assuming that the
emissivity of the refractory floor is 0.8, we obtain

300 1]
4 4
(2 X 1)(5.669) [ [ I00
1370 } - [ lOO
Q 57 600 W.
1/0.8 + 1/0.15 - 1

Q (total) = 49 800 + 57 600 = 107 400 W.

The heat flow rates calculated above are the initial values, and apply only when the cold
sheet has been inserted in the oven. We deal with the more general problem of describing
the transient heating of a sheet in Section 11.12.

11.9 RADIATION COMBINED WITH CONVECTION

In the preceding sections of this chapter we considered energy transfer by radiation as an

isolated phenome,non. Indeed, in many high-temperature applications, problems should be
tackled in this manner because, at high temperatures, radiation can completely dominate since
radiant heat flow depends on the fourth power of the absolute temperature. In many practical
situations, however, we cannot neglect convective heat transfer, and it is necessary to
consider both modes of energy transport.
When we include radiation in a calculation of a situation which also involves convection,
we realize that the total heat flow is the sum of the convective heat flow and the radiant heat
396 Radiation Heat Transfer
flow. Thus, we conveniently use the total heat transfer coefficient h,, which comprises the
heat transfer coefficient h, in the usual sense, and the radiant heat transfer coefficient h,:

h, = h + h,. (11.47)
We define the radiant heat transfer coefficient as

(11.48)

in which T1 - T2 is a temperature difference and T2 is chosen as a convenient temperature in

the system.
We often encounter the situation in which surface 1 is completely surrounded by or
exposed only to some fluid whose bulk temperature is at T1 . In this case, it is convenient to
select T2 as If, and since 9"; 2 = e~> we write

_ [ a(T:
h, - el
- Ti)l .
T - T
(11.49)
I 2

The square-bracketed part of Eqs. ( 11. 48) and (11.49) is sometimes called the temperature
factor, Fr.

Example 11.6 A thermocouple with an emissivity of 0. 7 measures the temperature of a gas

flowing in a long duct whose internal wall surfaces are at 533 K. The temperature indicated
by the thermocouple is 811 K, and the convective heat transfer coefficient between the gas
and the surface of the thermocouple is 110 W m-2 K- 1• Determine the true temperature of
the gas.

Solution. The temperature of the thermocouple is less than that of the gas because the
thermocouple radiates to the wall. We can write an energy balance for the steady state in
which the radiant heat flow from the thermocouple to the wall equals the convective heat flow
from the gas to the couple. Assuming that the thermocouple can be approximated as a gray
surface, we write

where A 1 is the thermocouple surface area; If, T 1, and T2 are the temperatures of the fluid,
thermocouple, and duct walls, respectively. Since the thermocouple is completely surrounded
by the duct walls, F 12 = 1. The gas temperature is then found by

127 K,

and 1f = 938 K.
 Radiation Heat Transfer 397
Errors such as those indicated by the above example have induced engineers to pursue
thermocouple designs which incorporate radiation shields and/or means of increasing h
between the fluid and the them10couple. Some devices are illustrated in Fig. 11.22.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.22 Measurement of flowing gas temperatures. (a) Simplest device most liable to errors.
(b) Incorporation of a radiation shield. (c) Incorporation of a radiation shield and use of the increased
fluid velocity past the thermocouple's surface.

Process engineers should recognize that the gas temperature in an oven or furnace might
not be equal to the temperature of a major source of radiation. If this is overlooked, serious
problems of overheating in materials processing can develop. The source of the heat for the
process can be a combustion flame, an electric arc, or a resistance-heating element;
consequently, the source is often at a very high temperature, where radiation from the source
to any surface at a lower temperature is significant. For example, it may be that a gas-fired
combustion chamber for a tempering furnace produces a gas that is not too hot by adding
excess air to the combustion gases, but if the piece to be tempered "sees" the flame, the
radiation from the flame at its temperature will tend to raise the temperature of the piece
above that of the gas alone. This can result in "burned" material. Sometimes material can
be accidentally melted in this way, as in annealing lines for aluminum. Failed water-cooling
jackets, whose surfaces are subjected to radiation from an arc, are not uncommon.

Example 11.7 Ribbon silicon, 25 mm x 150 mm, intended for a photovoltaic application,
is to be stn:ss-relieved at 800 K by heating in flowing argon. The set-up shown below is
used. The graphite tube is heated by an induction coil. Before the ribbon is introduced, care
is taken to measure the true gas temperature, and it is found to be 800 Kat a given flow rate.
During a few trial runs, the temperature of the ribbon is found to be 850 K, even though the
argon is maintained at 800 K. Estimate the temperature of a graphite tube. The convective
heat transfer coefficient is 50 W m-2 K- 1•
00000000000000000000
~~~~

~ Si • -Flowing
~"~~~"w Ar(S~~)
oooo:a;.:~ ~~ :_:_:__/ oooool
P

at unknown
temperature
Induction coil
398 Radiation Heat Transfer
Solution. We make a radiation circuit to get started. Assume that the area of the graphite
tube (node J 2) is infinitely larger than that of the silicon ribbon (node 11).

The total equivalent resistance is

1 1 1 - ez
+--+---
At~z A1Fl2 Azez

or

But F 12 = 1 so that ~ 2 = e1 and

ql,nn = Ql,nn = uel {T{ - Ti).
At
We could have recognized this immediately because the silicon "sees" only graphite by the
assumption that AtfA2 = 0. As written, q 1 ,~~<~ < 0 because T1 < T2 • For convenience, let
qrad = -q1,D<l. For simplicity, we ignore the energy conducted through the quartz, which
supports the silicon; then at steady state:

With e1 = 0.15, we have

50(850 - 800) + 850"

(5.669 X 10-8)(0.15)

Therefore, T2 = 950 K.

11.10 RADIATION FROM GASES

The methods given in the preceding sections are applicable only to systems involving gases
which are transparent to radiation. Gases with simple symmetrical molecules, such as H2 ,
He, 0 2 , and N2 , are essentially transparent to radiation, but heteropolar gases (CO, C02,
H 20, S02 , NH3 , HCl), which interact with radiation sufficiently, must sometimes be made
part of the system for calculations.
Solids emit radiation at all wavelengths, whereas gases emit and absorb radiation only
between narrow regions of wavelengths called bands. Analysis of radiation participation
should be made for each band, and the total effect can be obtained by summation. However,
 Radiation Heat Transfer 401
Table 11.2 Beam lengths for gas radiation. (From H. C. Hottel, Chapter IV in Heat Transmission,
by W. H. McAdams, McGraw-Hill, 1954.)

Factor by which X is
multiplied to obtain
Characterizing mean beam length, L
Shape
dimension, X For average
values of
p,L
Sphere Diameter 2/3 0.60
Infinite cylinder Diameter 1 0.90
Semi-infinite cylinder, radiating to center of base Diameter 0.90
Right-circular cylinder, height = diameter,
radiating to center of base Diameter 0.77
Same, radiating to whole surface Diameter 2/3 0.60
Infinite cylinder of half-circular cross section,
radiating to spot on middle of flat side Radius 1.26

Rectangular parallelepipeds
1:1:1 (cube) Edge 2/3

I
1: 1:4, radiating to 1 x 4 face } 0.90
radiating to 1 x 1 face Shortest edge 0.86
radiating to all faces 0.89
1:2:6, radiating to 2 x 6 face 1.18
radiating to 1 x 6 face 1.24
Shortest edge
radiating to 1 X 2 face 1.18
radiating to all faces 1.20
1: oo: oo (infinite parallel planes) Distance 2
between planes
Space outside
Space outside infinite bank of tubes with centers
on equilateral triangles; tube diameter =
clearance Clearance 3.4 2.8
Same as preceding, except tube diameter =
one-half clearance Clearance 4.45 3.8
Same, except tube centers on squares,
diameter = clearance Clearance 4.1 3.5

Example 11.8 Determine the emissivity of a gas containing 50% N 2 and 50% C02 at a total
pressure of 2 atm with r. = 1110 K. The gas is contained in a very long cylindrical space
having a 0.6 m diameter.

Solution. From Table 11.2, assuming radiation to its base:

L = (0.90)(0.6) = 0.54 m (1.77 ft),

and

PeL = (0.50)(2)(1.77) = 1. 77 atm ft.

From Fig. 11.23, the reduced emissivity of C02 , with T = 1110 K = 1998 °R, is
e; = 0.17.Fig. 11.24 gives Cc = 1.10. Finally, e.= Cce; = (1.10)(0.17) = 0.19.
402 Radiation Heat Transfer
11.11 ENCLOSURES FILLED WITH RADIATING GAS

By evaluating the emissivity and absorptivity of a gas by the method outlined in

Section 11.10, we now evaluate the interchange of radiant energy between a gas and the
surface of its enclosure. First, consider a black bounding surface. The gas emits energy
which is entirely absorbed by the black surface, but, on the other hand, the gas absorbs only
a fraction of the radiation from the surface. Thus we write the flux of energy from the gas
g to the surface 1 as
(11.50)

When the bounding surface is gray, it reflects part of the energy emitted by the gas which
is partially absorbed in successive passes back through the gas. In this case, we give the flux
of energy by the right side of Eq. (11.50) multiplied by a factor between e 1 and 1. For
surfaces with e1 of 0.7 or greater, it is sufficient to use the following equation:

(11.51)

where the factor is simply (e 1 + 1)/2.

In order to incorporate participating gases into a system containing surfaces, the gas is
a floating node of potential ebg and there is a conductance A;e8 ; between the gas node and the
surface i. Due to the presence of the gas which absorbs some of the radiation between
surface nodes, the conductances between the surfaces themselves are multiplied by the gas
transmissivity; for example, the conductance between surfaces i and j is AF;1 r; 81 . The
following example demonstrates the use of such an electric analog for a system with a
participating gas.

Example 11.9 Two large parallel plates (with emissivity of 0.6) at temperatures of 922 K
and 700 K, transfer radiation across a 76 mm gap filled with C02 at 1 atm pressure.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer from the hot plate to the cold plate.
 Radiation Heat Transfer 403
In order to evaluate the emissivities and transmissivities of the gas, we must know its
temperature. Assume the gas temperature is 810 K (this can be checked later). From
Table 11.2, L = (2)(0.076) = 0.152 m (0.499 ft). Next, Figs. 11.23 and 11.24, with
PeL = 0.499 atm ft, give e;
= 0.125 and Cc = 1.05, respectively. Thus
e81 = e82 = (0.125)(1.05) = 0.131 ,

and
r 182 = 1 - e 81 = 1 - 0. 131 = 0. 869 .

The network can be reduced to a single equivalent resistance between 1 and 2. Here,
A1 = A2 =A and F 12 = 1, so that
1 - e1 1 - e2
--+ +--
7..z et ez
+ lle82
F12T1g2
lle 81 +

0.4 0.4
+ + 0.6
0.6 (1)(0.869) +
1/0.131 + 110.131

= 2.40.
Then,

712a ( Tt
4 _ r:)z -_ (5.669)
(2.40)
[( 922 )
100
4
_ (
700 ) 4]
100
= 11400 w m- 2

Now we check the assumption that T8 = 810 K. eb 1 = (5.669)(9.224) = 40 967 W m-2 ;

similarly, eb2 = 13 611 W m-2 •
11 400
40 967 - 0.6/0.4

and
11 400
12 =13 611-0.6/0.4 =6010 wm- 2 .
Since A 1e81 = A 2eg2, eb8 must be the average of 1 1 and 12 , so that
33 400 + 6 010
ebg = 2 = 19 700 W m- 2 ,

and
1/4

19 700
u
[ ebg ] 114

Tg = = [5.669 x 10-8 ) = 767 K.

The problem could be solved again with this as the gas temperature; in this case, however,
767 K is sufficiently close to the assumed 810 K, so that no significant improvement in the
result would be gained.
404 Radiation Heat Transfer
It is instructive to extend the above example, by comparing it to the case of no
participating gas (see Example 11.3). In this case

1 1
- 1 = 0.6 + 0.6 - 1 = 2.33.

This is hardly different from the factor (2.40) determined in Example 11.9. Therefore, even
though we have selected an example involving an atmosphere of 100% C02, we could still
consider the atmosphere to be transparent for many calculations. Only at partial pressures
greater than about 4 atm of the participating species and/or with very large enclosure
dimensions, would the effect of the gas be more evident.
The likely application of these principles to processes, which might involve combustion
gases at 1 atm total pressure, requires only small corrections to heat fluxes. For example,
a typical combustion gas at 1670 K could contain 12% C02 • From Fig. 11.23, the reduced
emissivity for a rather large L (e.g., 1 m) is only 0.08.

11.12 RADIATION IN TRANSPARENT SOLIDS

In Chapter 6 we saw that an important contribution to the effective thermal conductivity in

transparent ceramics and glasses at high temperatures is the radiation heat transfer. Now we
examine the transfer of radiant energy through such a medium.
Consider two surfaces with the space between them occupied by a solid that is
transmitting and absorbing. For the solid we use the subscripts and assume that as = es, so
that
Cis + Ts = es + Ts = 1. (11.52)

The power leaving surface 1 is J 1A,F12Ts, and that leaving surface 2 is J2A 2F21 T,; therefore,
the net power from 1 to 2 is
(11.53)

or
(11.54)

Inspection of Eq. (11.54) reveals that A1Fd1 - es) is the conductance or [A 1Fd1 - es)]- 1 is
the resistance between 1 1 and 12 , as indicated by Fig. 11.25.

Fig. 11.25 Resistance for partially transmitted

radiation between nodes J 1 and J 2•

Now at the surface itself, there is an exchange process with the partially transmitting
solid, which we assume is nonreflecting. A power balance at surface 1 is
 Radiation Heat Transfer 405
where the first term on the right hand side is the power emitted by the solid and the second
is the radiation emanating from surface 1 that is absorbed by the solid (recall ex, = e,). With
A 1 F~s = A.£,1 we have

(11.55)

This exchange between the partially transmitting solid and surface 1 is represented by
Fig. 11.26.

Fig. 11.26 Resistance between a partially

transmitting solid and a surface with a radiosity of J,.

Example 11.10 Two large plates with emissivity of 1 are at 1001 K and 999 K, respectively.
They are separated by 1 mm of glass with an absorption coefficient of 0.1 mm-•. Calculate
the "radiation" thermal conductivity of the glass.

Solution. The radiation circuit, with conductances, is constructed:

The absorption coefficient is not the same as the absorptivity, ex,, but it is used to estimate
ex,. From basic optics, the fraction of energy absorbed by a solid of thickness o with an
absorption coefficient>. is exp (-M). Therefore,
ex, = exp (-M) = exp (-0.1 x 1) = 0.905.
We assume e, = ex,. The equivalent resistance for the circuit is

or
406 Radiation Heat Transfer
because A1 = A2 and F 12 = F~s = F2 , = 1. The radiant flux is

Q!.2

but also

By comparing the two equations, we get

[1 - ~) (5.669)(10.01 4 - 9.994)(1)
125 W m -1 K -1 •
(1001 - 999)

Before you leave this example, you should also show that, if T1 -+ T2 , then

krnd -+ 4u [ 1 - j] T3 •

The spectral absorptivity of several glasses can be found in Hottel and Sarofim. 11 From
these data the total hemispherical emissivity of glass of different thicknesses over a wide
temperature range has been obtained (Fig. 11.27). As the glass thickness goes to infinity,
the limiting value of e is 0.91 (and not 1.0), because some of the energy emitted within the
glass is reflected internally at the glass surface.

0 400 800 1200

Temperature, •c

Fig. 11.27 Total hemispherical emissivity of window glass as a

function of thickness and temperature. (From H. C. Hottel and A. F.
Sarofim, ibid., page 243.)

"H. C. Hottel and A. F. Sarofim, ibid., pages 240-241.

 Radiation Heat Transfer 407
11.13 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION WITH RADIATION AT THE SURFACE

In Chapter 9, we discussed some solutions to transient problems involving solids with heat
applied to, or withdrawn from, the surface via convective h. In several operations, notably
heat treating processes, stock is heated with radiation. The condition of heat input at the
receiver (stock) surface from a heat source at constant temperature Ts is

~/' [T,
4 4
- T (O,t) -
l _-k ----ax-.
aT(O,t) (11.56)

We determine 7, 1 according to the methods discussed in previous sections, depending on the

spatial relationship between the source and stock and their respective emissivities. We can
put Eq. ( 11. 56) in a dimensionless form
ae(O,Fo) (11.57)
M[e; - B4(0,Fo)]
a(xll) '

where

~ 1 uTgz at
M -k- Fo
If•
T Ts
e es To .
To '

T0 is the initial temperature of the stock, and l is its characteristic dimension.

Consider specifically the temperature response of a sheet, 0 ~ x ~ l, thin enough for
Newtonian conditions (no internal gradients) to apply, which is heated at x = 0 by a radiation
heat source at constant temperature. The back face (x = l) loses a negligible amount of heat
so that [aT(l,t)!ax] = 0. We give the solution to this problem in Figs. 11.28(a) and (b) for
heating and cooling, respectively. For other closely related situations we refer the reader to
Schneider. 12 •13

Example 11.11 (from Schneider) We heat treat a continuous sheet of steel (1 mm thick) by
passing it through a radiant furnace designed to provide a heat and cool cycle. The furnace
consists of 3.05 m long ceiling heat-source section (7, 1 = 0.72) at 1478 K followed by a
ceiling heat-sink section (~ 1 = 0.86) at 144 K. If the sheet enters the furnace at 294 K, must
be heated to 1367 K, and then cooled to 533 K before leaving the oven, calculate a) the
required feed velocity, and b) the length of the cooling section. Data: density of steel =
7788 kg m-3 ; heat capacity = 460 J kg K- 1 •
Heating Cooling

0 0 0 0 0 0
12P. J. Schneider, Temperature Response Charts, Wiley, New York, NY, 1963, pages 143-149.
13 P. J. Schneider, J. Aero/Space Sciences 27, No. 7, 546-548 (1960).
408 Radiation Heat Transfer

10

Plate
8 r-- k-+oo
I
!Jel, = rJ, I I I
/

f..."' 6
v vv~.1-s
I
0.05
Jl / I
;:;-
"
"' 4 / v 0.20 I
V
~ ~ -:-
I
,....vo.3o I
2
-.-- I II
:::;;-_...,
,:...---oAo o.5o-+--
0.601 0. 701 0.801 0.901
0.05 0.1 0.5

(a) Heating, 0, = T. I T 0 >I

1.0
r-
0.8
~~ ~~ E::t-- ~tl
, ~ !

~ 0.(>1--
Pluto ~~ ~
r--... ,
3- .5' """
"R
k-+oo
l>s 4
;::- 0
76,1'- ::::~
;;:
11 0.4 8 '"
"' I I ~~
1!8,=T0 /T,
0.2

II"'
'"
0.0 1111 niil
0 "' "'
V) V)
0
0 0
c 0
0 0 0 C! 0 0 ci
0 0 0
0
0
0
C! 0 0
0 c 0 0
0 0
0 ci Me:Fo = (a .oF,, r:;pC,Ilr

(b) Cooling, 11, = T, I T0 <I

Fig. 11.28 Temperature of a plate, 0 ~ x ~ l, with no internal thermal gradients and an insulated
back face, at x = l, after sudden exposure to (a) a radiation heat source (heating) or (b) a radiation
heat sink (cooling). (From P. J. Schneider, Temperature Response Charts, John Wiley, New York,
NY, 1963, pages 147 and 148.)

Solution.
a) For the heating section, we apply Fig. 11.28(a) with

I To 294
8 = T = 1478 = 0 ·199
' '
T (leaving) 1367
()
To = 294 = 4.65.

From Fig. 11.28(a)

3
[ TT.0, ] kt
pCp lz
0.980.
 Radiation Heat Transfer 409
Then the heating exposure time is
0.980 pCP l _ (0.980)(7788)(460)(0.001)
t = - ) ) = 26.6 s .
.9".1uT} (0.72)(5.669 X 10-8 (14783

Thus, the feed velocity is (3.05/26.6) = 0.115 m s- 1•

b) Figure 11.28(b) is used for the cooling section with

}
s
= ~
s
= 1{:; = 9.49

8 = T (leaving) 533
To 1367 = 0 ·390 .

Then from Fig. 11.28(b)

from which we determine the cooling exposure time:

(0.0072)(7788)(460)(0.001)
t = 177 s.
(0.86)(5.669 X 10-8)(1443)

Thus, the required length of the cooling section is

(0.115)(177) = 20.4 m.

11.14 TRANSIENT HEATING WITH THERMAL STRESSES

In the case of heating material with large cross-sections for subsequent hot-working, such as
forging, extrusion, piercing, etc., blooms or ingots are heated in large furnaces, which are
usually gas-fired by radiant burners. If placed cold into a hot furnace enclosure, the surface
of the piece is immediately subjected to intense radiant heat and increases in temperature
rapidly, governed by Eqs. (9.43) and (11.49). As the surface is heated, it expands. During
the period when the interior is still at a low temperature, this causes a constraint on the
expansion of the hot surface region, and a compressive stress develops at and near the
surface, while a tensile stress develops in the interior.
Sun14 calculated the principal stresses and determined that the maximum tensile stresses
were found to be at the center after 4.2 hours of heating an ingot with a diameter of 100 em.
The calculated principal stress in the axial direction (u,) is shown in Fig. 11.29, where it can
be seen that the tensile stress is a maximum at the center of the ingot, neutral near the
surface, and compressive at the surface.
Sun hypothesized that if u, at the center exceeds 90 percent of the yield strength of the
material, then internal cracks result. To avoid reaching these stress levels, the heating must
be controlled so that thermal stresses are limited to below the yield strength of the material.