WEED PLUCKING ROBOT DEPT OF ECE

CHAPTER 1

1.1. INTRODUCTION
The weed plucking robot designed here is nothing but a remote control vehicle which
can be defined as a vehicle that is remotely controlled, which moves in all directions
according to the command signals received from its corresponding transmitter. The main
purpose of this vehicle is to serve the formers in their agriculture fields to remove the
unwanted tiny weeds. Often a radio control device and RF modules operates at a high
frequency will be used. A remote control vehicle or RCV differs from a robot in that the RCV
is always controlled by a human and takes no positive action autonomously. This project
work mainly focuses about controlling of a Robot or land rover using remote using RF
technology. These kinds of radio-controlled vehicles/robots are quite useful for many
applications. To prove the concept for one useful application here this vehicle is designed to
pluck the weeds. The weed plucking mechanism is designed with spur gears. In addition
these vehicles can be equipped with other agricultural tools like plough, but since it is a
prototype module and to reduce the cost, here a simple robot is constructed with weed
plucking mechanism for the live demonstration which moves in all directions according to
the instructions passed from the transmitter i.e., a remote. The system is designed as efficient,
cost effective & easy to operate and flexible for further improvements.
Conventionally, wireless controlled robots use RF circuits, which have a limited
working range, limited frequency range, limited features and limited control options. While
operating in real applications for specific functions, the Encoder and Decoder chips used here
can offer 4 control options by which the vehicle moves in all directions. It provides the
advantages of robust control, un-limited working range depending up on the coverage area of
the wireless network, no interference with other signals. In general, any simple
communication system that uses microcontroller chip transmits the digital data will be in the
form of 8 bit data, this data will be changed by selecting the control key that is to be activated
as a input source to the controller chip, in similar manner here also the Encoder chip 12E
used for transmitting the data performs the same function. In the case of microcontroller
program must be prepared and burn the chip, where as in the case encoder chip, with the help
already pre-defined logic existed in the chip, same output can be obtained as in the case of
microcontroller.
In these days remotely operated vehicles are mostly needed in agriculture applications. The
operator controls it using the handset i.e., a remote. Mainly the system consists of RF
transmitter, RF receiver, encoder chip, decoder chip, DC motors drive circuit designed with
H-Bridge, heavy-duty battery, DC motors with reduction gear mechanism, etc.
The mechanical transmission section is designed with two 12V DC motors, these motors are
built-in with reduction gear mechanism, so that motor speed can be reduced and torque can
be increased. Interfacing and controlling of a simple DC motor is an interested subject to
many hobbyists and engineers, many of them used DC motor to move mechanical part,

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automated task, or just for fun and learning. In this project work, these motors are used to
drive the rover in all directions. DC motors are an interesting subject, any engineer or
hobbyist who desires to construct any robot or machine, these motors are essential to run the
robot, however, we should know some basic principles about these motors, the details are
provided in a separate chapter.
Remote control vehicles have various scientific uses & applications are plenty including
hazardous environments, working in the Deep forest, and space exploration. The majority of
the probes to the other planets in our solar system have been remote control vehicles,
although some of the more recent ones were partially autonomous. The sophistication of
these devices has fueled greater debate on the need for manned spaceflight and exploration.
Small scale remote control vehicles have long been popular among hobbyists. These remote
controlled vehicles span a wide range in terms of price and sophistication. There are many
types of radio controlled vehicles. These include on-road cars, off-road trucks, boats,
airplanes, and even helicopters. The "robots" now popular in television shows such as Robot
Wars, are a recent extension of this hobby (these vehicles do not meet the classical definition
of a robot; they are remotely controlled by a human).

Introduction to RF Communication
One of the main form of communication that has been in use since 19 th century is Radio
wave communication. Radio waves have found its place in each and every field whether is
being medical, electronics or space. In general it exists in every system in one or the other
form. Radio Frequency (RF) communication has a ton of applications. It can be used in
robots, home automation, special effects, or in any application that needs the wireless transfer
of data. The data transfer speed varies based on the receiver and transmitter.
The RF transmitter that is used here is intended to transmit the digital data, as the encoder
used here generates digital data in the form of bits, this data will be transmitted. The message
signal can be of an analog or digital type. An analog signal is one in which both amplitudes
and time varies continuously over their respective intervals. A speech signal, a television
signal, and a signal representing atmospheric temperature at some location are examples of
analog signals. In a digital signal, on the other hand, both amplitude and time take on
discrete values. Computer data or digital data produced by an embedded system are examples
of digital signals. As this project work mainly focuses about RF technology, the following is
the brief introduction.

Radio communication is the process of sending information from one place and receiving it
in another place without using any connecting wires. It is also called as wireless
communication system; the most important form of radio communication is radio
broadcasting. In general Radio waves are produced by rapidly changing currents flowing
through a conductor. These radio waves spread out in space like ripples produced on the
surface of a pond when a stone is dropped in the water. When these fast moving radio waves
strike some other conductor placed in their path at a distant point, they produce in the second
conductor weak currents of the same nature as the original current which produced these
radio waves. Thus a communication link will be established between two distant points.

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Radio waves belong to a particular type of waves called electromagnetic waves, a form of
energy resulting from a combination of electrical and magnetic effects of rapidly changing
electric currents. Although not visible to the eye, radio waves travel with the velocity of light
waves which is 1, 86,000 miles per second. In fact, both light waves and radio waves are
electromagnetic waves. Sound also travels in the form of waves but sound waves are not
electromagnetic waves. Compared to electromagnetic waves, sound waves travel at a much
lower speed of 1100 feet per second. This is the reason why a flash of lighting is seen first
and the sound of thunder follows a little later.
Basically, a communication system is of an analog or digital type, here digital type of
communication system is implemented. In an analog communication system, the information-
bearing signal is continuously varying in both amplitude and time, and it is used directly to
modify some characteristic of a sinusoidal carrier wave, such as amplitude, phase, or
frequency. In a digital communication system, on the other hand, the information-bearing
signal is processed so that it can be represented by a sequence of discrete messages. In analog
communication, frequency and wavelength represents a complete cycle of a radio wave. The
number of such complete cycles performed by the radio wave in one second is called the
frequency of the radio wave. The unit of frequency is hertz, which is one cycle per second.
This unit is named after Henrich Hertz, who discovered radio waves. Radio waves generally
posses a frequency of millions of hertz, thus represented by megahertz. The wavelength of a
radio wave is the distance travelled by the wave during one complete cycle.
Any source of information, either it is digital or analog, frequencies by themselves cannot
travel long distances, but when superimposed on the carrier frequency, they can cover the
same distance as the carrier wave itself. A modulated wave is like an aero-plane carrying
passengers who could not have reached their destination without the help of the aero-plane.
For modulating a radio wave, the two important characteristics of the radio wave that can be
varied are the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier wave. When the amplitude of the
carrier is varied in accordance with the variation in the amplitude of the modulating signal
(Audio frequency), the modulation is called amplitude modulation (AM). If, however, the
frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the variation in the amplitude of the
modulating signal, the modulation is called frequency modulation (FM).
The carrier generator in the transmitting module is designed to produce 433MHz
approximately; the digital information produced by the control keys is super imposed over
this carrier and transmitted as a modulated wave. In the receiving module, the received
information will be de-modulated.

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CHAPTER 2

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

2.1. TRANSMITTER
The transmitting unit is a hand held Equipment, It is designed with 12E Encoder chip and the
circuit is designed to operate at 5V DC, and the battery used in the card is 9Vpack, therefore
with the help of a voltage regulator of 7805, constant supply of +5V is derived. Supply to the
circuit is provided through the ON/OFF switch. Whenever the switch is activated, supply will
be provided to the controller to which four push to ON keys are connected to move the robot
in the desired direction i.e., forward, reverse, right and left directions. By pressing any of the
keys, digital data of the particular direction is delivered through output pin of the encoder
chip. The output of the chip is modulated at 433.92 MHz frequency produced by the RF
transmitter, transmits the binary data to space in a particular range based on the antenna used.
Any digital data generated by the transmitter is transmitted as it is, and once the code is
finalized, according to that data receiving unit designed with 12D decoder chip drives the
motors through the H Bridge IC.
The main function of the data transmitting section is to generate binary code that is to be
transmitted through RF transmitter. The binary code produced by the Encoder that is
transmitted through amplified modulated input signal. Each key in the transmitting unit has a
unique code that will be transmitted. Based on this code, the other Decoder chip used in the
receiving module decodes this data and energizes the motors through its drive circuit
designed with L293D H Bridge IC.
The output of the Encoder is fed to RF transmitter, for radiating the pulsating energy into air.
The function of a radio frequency (RF) transmitter is to modulate, up convert, and amplify
signals for transmission into free space. An RF transmitter generally includes a modulator
that modulates an input signal and radio frequency power amplifier that is coupled to the
modulator to amplify the modulated input signal. The radio frequency power amplifier is
coupled to an antenna that transmits the amplified modulated input signal.
The RF transmitter used in our project is TWS-434A. This RF transmitter transmits data in
the frequency range of 433.92 MHz with a range of approximately 200-foot (open area)
outdoors. Indoors, the range is approximately 80 foot, and will go through most walls. TWS-
434A has features which includes small in size, low power consumption i.e. 8mW and
operate from 1.5 to 12volts. DC is excellent for applications requiring short-range RF signal.
The data is to be sent through amplitude modulation with the carrier RF signal.

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2.2. RECEIVER

The data-receiving module i.e., the robot consists of 12D Decoder chip, RF receiver, H
Bridge IC, DC motors, Wheels, and other components including re-chargeable battery, etc are
arranged over a chassis mechanism to move over the floor freely. To control the robotic
vehicle based on the input information H-Bridge IC is connected at the output of 12D, and
this IC is used to control the DC motors ultimately, which controls the robot moving
mechanism. The description is as followed.
The RF signal transmitted by the transmitter is detected and received by this section. This
binary encoder data is sent to the decoder for decoding the original data. The receiver
receives an RF signal, converts the RF signal to an IF signal, and then converts the IF signal
to a base band signal, which is then provided to the base band processor. As is also known,
RF transceivers typically include sensitive components susceptible to noise and interference
with one another and with external sources. The RF receiver is coupled to the antenna and
includes a low noise amplifier, one or more intermediate frequency stages, a filtering stage,
and a data recovery stage. The low noise amplifier receives an inbound RF signal via the
antenna and amplifies it.
The RF receiver used is RWS-434. This RF receiver receives RF signal, which is in the
frequency of 434.92MHz and has a sensitivity of 3μV. The RWS-434 receiver operates from
4.5 to 5.5 volts DC, and has both linear and digital outputs.
12V DC motors are used for the vehicle movement. For this purpose, two motors with built in
reduction gear mechanism DC motors are used and are rated for of 30 rpm those will be
driven through L293D H-Bridge IC.

2.3. WEED PLUCKING MECHANISM

This mechanism is constructed with 2 spur gears and both are equal to each other in
dimensions and having similar teeth’s. One spur gear is directly coupled to the motor shaft
and the motor used here operates at 12V DC. This motor is rated for 30 RPM such that gears
will be revolved at normal speed. The other spur gear is meshed with motorized spur gear by
which both gears will be rotated in clockwise. The idea of choosing this mechanism is to
pluck the grass or weeds those encountered with this mechanism. Means as the vehicle is
moving in the field, the tiny weeds existed on its way and are under the mechanism will be
removed. Since it is a prototype module, the basic concept will be proven practically. It is not
a real working system.

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2.4. RF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Radio frequency (RF) transmitters are widely used in radio frequency communications
system. With the increasing availability of efficient, low cost electronic modules, mobile
communication system are becoming more and more widespread. A terminal apparatus used
in the radio communications system receives a radio frequency signal transmitted from a base
station, by an antenna, inputs the signal to a receiving radio-frequency unit via an antenna
duplexer, high frequency amplifies the signal, removes unnecessary waves outside the
receiving band from the signal, converts the signal to an intermediate frequency signal,
demodulates the intermediate frequency signal by a demodulator, and converts the signal into
a base band signal.
Generally, a radio transmitter is used for performing a radio transmission operation,
whereby a high frequency signal outputted from a modulator is transmitted to an antenna of
the radio transmitter and is transmitted there from to a remote radio transmitter thereby a
signal is transmitted.
The transmitting base band signal is subjected to a predetermined signal process, input to a
modulator, which modulates a carrier wave signal. The modulated carrier wave signal is
converted into a radio frequency by a transmitting radio-frequency circuit and amplified to a
predetermined transmitting power, and transmitted to the base station from the antenna via
the duplexer. Communication systems are known to support wireless and wire lined
communications between wireless and / or wire lined communication devices.
The function of a radio frequency (RF) transmitter is to modulate, up convert, and amplify
signals for transmission into free space. An RF transmitter generally includes a modulator
that modulates an input signal and a radio frequency power amplifier that is coupled to the
modulator to amplify the modulated input signal. The radio frequency power amplifier is
coupled to an antenna that transmits the amplified modulated input signal. Power amplifiers
are required in radio telecommunication system to amplify signals before transmitting,
because a radio signal attenuates on the radio path.
For efficiently, the amplifier is often a non-linear amplifier operated near its peak capacity.
To avoid distortion of the transmitted signals due to the non-linearity, the signals are pre-
distorted by a pre-distorter before they are transmitted. The pre-distortion is required to
prevent transmitter from transmitting signals on channel bands other than the band assigned
to the transmitter. The pre-distortion values are chosen such that the power amplifier to
return to a substantially linear amplification of the modulated signals will distort the product
values entering the power amplifier.
A direct conversion transmitter system to produce a transmission signal is generally
comprised of a low oscillator (LO), a phase locked loop (PLL), a quadarature generator, a
modulator, a power amplifier (PA), and one or more filters. The low oscillator, coupled to
the PLL, produces a signal with a frequency that is substantially equal to the frequency of a

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desired RF transmission signal. The quadarature generator is coupled to the low oscillator
and the modulaton.
The PA is coupled to the quadarature generator, and receives the transmission signal and
amplifies it. The amplified signal may go through a filter to reduce noise or spurious outputs
outside of the transmission band. High quality RF transmitters typically include band pass
filters; such as surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters provide excellent performance.
A typical system may employ a band pass filter following the power amplifier to reduce
undesired noise present at the antenna in different portion of RF spectrum to meet various
standards regulations and specifications.
In the transmitting section along with RF transmitter 89C2051 controller is used which gives
the data of the particular direction in which the robot should be moved to the RF transmitter.
As mentioned that the 89C2051 controller is a 20 pin IC 3 rd pin is the transmitter pin to which
the RF transmitter is connected. The RF transmitter modulates the data signal that is taken
from the controller and transmits through the antenna in the form of electro-magnetic waves.
The modulation technique followed is Amplitude modulation.

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2.5. PIN DESCRIPTION OF TRANSMITTER

Pin 1: Ground (-5V)

Pin 2: Input pin for data from encoder

Pin3: Supply (+5V)

Pin4: Pin for external RF antenna

RF Receivers for communication systems generally are designed such that they are
tuned to receive one of a multiplicity of signals having widely varying bandwidths and which
may fall within a particular frequency range. The RF receiver receives an RF signal, converts
the RF signal to an IF signal, and then converts the IF signal to a base band signal, which it
then provides to the base band processor. As is also known, RF transceivers typically include
sensitive components susceptible to noise and interference with one another and with external
sources.
The RF receiver is coupled to the antenna and includes a low noise amplifier, one or
more intermediate frequency stages, a filtering stage, and a data recovery stage. The low
noise amplifier receives an inbound RF signal via the antenna and amplifies it. The one or
more intermediate frequency stages mix the amplified RF signal with one or more local
oscillations to convert the amplified RF signal into a base band signal or an intermediate
frequency (IF) signal.

Pin description of Transmitter:

Pin 1: Ground (-5V)

Pin 2: Output pin for digital data received
Pin 3: Output pin for analog data received

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Pin 4: Supply (+5V)

Pin 6 & 7: Ground (-5V)
Pin 8: Pin for external RF Antenna

RF TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

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2.6. L293D “H” BRIDGE

The motor driver package L293D is interfaced with 12D chip through IN1 to IN4 of H Bridge
(L293D). Both the enable pins (EN1 and EN2) of motor driver L293D is combined together
and fed to controller to access the command signals. Depending up on the command signals
issued by the decoder chip, the enable pins are activated to control all the four internal drivers
of L293D respectively to drive two geared DC motors. Hear H Bridge is required, because
the controller output is not sufficient to drive the DC motors, so current drivers are required
for motor rotation.
The L293D is a quad, high current, half-H driver designed to provide bi- directional drive
currents of up to 600mA at voltages from 4.5V to 36V. It makes it easier to drive the DC
motors. The L293D consists of four drivers. Pins IN1 through IN4 and OUT1 through OUT4
are input and output pins, respectively, of driver 1 through driver 4. Drivers 1 and 2, and
drivers 3 and 4 are enabled by enable pin 1 (EN1) and pin 9 (EN2), respectively. When
enable input EN1 (Pin1) is high, drivers 1 and 2 are enabled and the outputs corresponding to
their inputs are active. Similarly, enable input EN2 (Pin9) enables drivers 3 and 4.

2.7. POWER SOURCE

To generate required power source to drive the vehicle 12V, 1 AH, rechargeable, lead acid
heavy-duty battery is used. Here we require two different DC levels of +5V & +12V, the
battery as it is delivering 12V is used to drive the DC motors & H Bridge, where as for the
remaining electronic circuitry consists of decoder chip requires +5V constant source. To
generate a stable supply of +5V, 7805 three terminal voltage regulator chip is used which
provides constant supply, though the battery terminal voltage falls down to 8V. The DC
motors are designed to operate at 12V DC & each motor consumes a maximum current of
200 milli-amps and the third DC motor used to drive the spur gear mechanism also consumes
another 200 milliamps current and there by all three motors together consumes 600 milli-
amps, the remaining circuitry including decoder chip will consume another 100 milli-amps,
hence the entire system consumes around 700 milli-amps current approximately. The battery
back up time = battery rating / consumed energy.

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CHAPTER 3

BLOCK AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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CHAPTER 4
4.1. SPUR GEARS

AN OVER VIEW:

Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or
disk with teeth projecting radially. Though the teeth are not straight-sided (but usually of
special form to achieve a constant drive ratio, mainly involute but less commonly cycloidal),
the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh
together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts. [1] No axial thrust is created by the tooth
loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds.
C profile. Most of the gears are manufactured by involute profile with 20° pressure angle.
When two gears are in mesh at one instant there is a chance to mate involute portion with
non-involute portion of mating gear. This phenomenon is known as "interference" and occurs
when the number of teeth on the smaller of the two meshing gears is less than a required
minimum. To avoid interference we can have undercutting, but this is not a suitable solution
as undercutting leads to weakening of tooth at its base. In this situation Corrected gears are
used. In corrected gears Cutter rack is shifted upwards or downwards.
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth or, in the case of a
cogwheel, inserted teeth (called cogs), which mesh with another toothed part to
transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power
source. Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage,
through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two
meshing gears all have the same shape. Two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence,
are called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a
rack, producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An
advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage.
When two gears mesh, if one gear is bigger than the other, a mechanical advantage is
produced, with the rotational speed, and the torques, of the two gears differing in proportion
to their diameters.
In transmissions with multiple gear ratios—such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars—
the term "gear" as in "first gear" refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The
term describes similar devices, even when the gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or
when the device does not actually contain gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.

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The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives (such
as traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an
exact velocity ratio. In cases where driver and follower are proximal, gears also have an
advantage over other drives in the reduced number of parts required. The downside is that
gears are more expensive to manufacture and their lubrication requirements may impose a
higher operating cost per hour.
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder
or disk with teeth projecting radically. Though the teeth are not straight-sided (but usually of
special form to achieve a constant drive ratio, mainly involute but less commonly cycloidal),
the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh
together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts. No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads.
Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds.

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CHAPTER 5

FUNCTION OF RF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Radio Frequency (RF) and wireless have been around for over a century with Alexander
Popov and Sir Oliver Lodge laying the groundwork for Guglielmo Marconi’s wireless radio
developments in the early 20th century. In December 1901, Marconi performed his most
prominent experiment, where he successfully transmitted Morse code from Cornwall,
England, to St John’s, Canada.

General physics of radio signals

RF communication works by creating electromagnetic waves at a source and being able

to pick up those electromagnetic waves at a particular destination. These electromagnetic
waves travel through the air at near the speed of light. The wavelength of an electromagnetic
signal is inversely proportional to the frequency; the higher the frequency, the shorter the
wavelength.
Frequency is measured in Hertz (cycles per second) and radio frequenciesare measured in
kilohertz (KHz or thousands of cycles per second), megahertz (MHz or millions of cycles per
second) and gigahertz (GHz or billions of cycles per second). Higher frequencies result in
shorter wavelengths. The wavelength for a 900 MHz device is longer than that of a 2.4 GHz
device
In general, signals with longer wavelengths travel a greater distance and penetrate
through, and around objects better than signals with shorter wavelengths.

What is RF?

RF itself has become synonymous with wireless and high frequency signals, describing
anything from AM radio between 535 kHz and 1605 kHz to computer local area networks
(LANs) at 2.4 GHz. However, RF has traditionally defined frequencies from a few kHz to
roughly 1 GHz. If one considers microwave frequencies as RF, this range extends to 300
GHz
Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency, or rate of oscillation, of electromagnetic radiation
within the range of about 3 Hz to 300 GHz. This range corresponds to the frequency of
alternating current electrical signals used to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of
this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to, RF

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usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits. The following tables outline the various
nomenclatures for the frequency bands.

Frequency Band Designations:

Name Symbolol Frequency Wavelength Applications

Extremely low Directly audible when

converted to sound (above
low freq ELF a 3–30 Hz k 100–10 Mm
~20 Hz), communication with
submarines

Super Directly audible when

SLF b 30–300 Hz j 10–1 Mm converted to sound, AC power
low freq
grids (50–60 Hz)

Ultra Directly audible when

ULF c 300–3000 Hz
i 1000–100 km converted to sound,
low freq
communication within mines

Directly audible when

Very
converted to sound (below
low freq VLF d 3–30 kHz h 100–10 km
~20 kHz; or ultrasound
otherwise)

Low AM broadcasting, navigational

LF e 30–300 kHz g 10–1 km
frequency beacons, and amateur radio.

Medium Navigational beacons, AM

broadcasting, amateur radio,
frequency MF f 300–3000 kHz
f 1000–100 m
maritime and aviation
communication

High Short wave, amateur radio,

HF g 3–30 MHz e 100–10 m citizens' band radio, sky wave
frequency
propagation.

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FM broadcasting, amateur
Very h 30–300
VHF d 10–1 m radio, broadcast television,
High MHz
aviation, GPR, MRI.
frequency

Broadcast television, amateur

Ultra radio, mobile telephones,
cordless telephones, wireless
High UHF i 300–3000 MHz
c 100–10 cm
networking, remote keyless entry
frequency for automobiles, microwave
ovens, GPR

Super Wireless networking, satellite

links, amateur radio, microwave
High SHF j 3–30 GHz b 10–1 cm
links, satellite television, door
frequency openers

Microwave data links, radio

Extremely
astronomy, amateur radio,
High EHF k 30–300 GHz a 10–1 mm remote sensing, advanced
weapons systems, advanced
frequency
security scanning

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The above Table shows a relationship between frequency (f) and wavelength (λ). A
wave or sinusoid can be completely described by either its frequency or its wavelength. They
are inversely proportional to each other and related to the speed of light through a particular
medium. The relationship in a vacuum is shown in the following equation:

where c is the speed of light. As frequency increases, wavelength decreases. For reference, a
1 GHz wave has a wavelength of roughly 1 foot, and a 100 MHz wave has a wavelength of
roughly 10 feet.

RF measurement methodology can generally be divided into three major categories:

spectral analysis, vector analysis, and network analysis. Spectrum analyzers, which provide
basic measurement capabilities, are the most popular type of RF instrument in many general-
purpose applications. Specifically, using a spectrum analyzer you can view power-vs. -
Frequency information, and can sometimes demodulate analog formats, such as amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
Vector instruments include vector or real-time signal analyzers and generators. These
instruments analyze and generate broadband waveforms, and capture time, frequency, phase,
and power information from signals of interest. These instruments are much more powerful
than spectrum analyzers and offer excellent modulation control and signal analysis.
Network analyzers, on the other hand, are typically used for making S- parameter
measurements and other characterization measurements on RF or high-frequency
components. Network analyzers are instruments that correlate both the generation and
analysis on multiple channels but at a much higher price than spectrum analyzers and vector
signal generators/analyzers.

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Why Operate at Higher Frequencies?

From the frequency spectrum we notice that it is quite fragmented and dense. This
encompasses one of the reasons that we are constantly pushing applications into higher and
higher frequencies. However, some of the other reasons accounting for this push into higher
frequencies include efficiency in propagation, immunity to some forms of noise and
impairments as well as the size of the antenna required. The antenna size is typically related
to the wavelength of the signal and in practice is usually ¼ wavelength.
This leads to a very interesting question. Typically, data is structured and easily
represented at low frequencies; how can we represent it or physically translate it to these
higher RF frequencies? For example, the human audible range is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
According to the Nyquist theorem, we can completely represent the human audible range by
sampling at 40 kHz or, more precisely, at 44.1 kHz (this is where stereo audio is sampled).
Cell phones, however, operate at around 850 MHz.
How this happens is much of the study of RF and high-frequency measurements occurs
in the frequency domain. There is a duality between the time-domain functions and those
same functions represented in the frequency-domain. Figure 1 depicts frequency shifting the
human audible range to transmit through cellular frequencies. The most common way to
frequency shift is called mixing, which is equivalent to multiplying your signal by a
sinusoidal signal. The following mathematical trigonometric identity demonstrates this fact.

Therefore, by beating two sine waves against each other, you get both sum and
difference frequencies. You can shift an entire signal to a new frequency range (either up or
down in spectrum) by selecting the appropriate value of . In addition, any signal can be
represented as the sum of sinusoidal signals of different frequencies. Thus, shifting a signal
simply applies the “multiplication” to all its sinusoidal components.

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Working of RF communication system

Imagine an RF transmitter wiggling an electron in one location. This wiggling electron

causes a ripple effect, somewhat a kind of dropping a pebble in a pond. The effect is
an electromagnetic (EM) wave that travels out from the initial location resulting in electron
wiggling in remote locations. An RF receiver can detect this remote electron wiggling.
The RF communication system then utilizes this phenomenon by wiggling electrons in a
specific pattern to represent information. The receiver can make thissame information available
at a remote location; communicating with no wires.In most wireless systems, a designer has
two overriding constraints: it must operate over a certain distance (range) and transfer a
certain amount of information within a time frame (data rate). Then the economics of the
system must work out (price) along with acquiring government agency approvals (regulations
and licensing).
From the frequency spectrum we notice that it is quite fragmented and dense. This
encompasses one of the reasons that we are constantly pushing applications into higher and
higher frequencies. However, some of the other reasons accounting for this push into higher
frequencies include efficiency in propagation, immunity to some forms of noise and
impairments as well as the size of the antenna required. The antenna size is typically related
to the wavelength of the signal and in practice is usually ¼ wavelength.
RF measurement methodology can generally be divided into three major categories:
spectral analysis, vector analysis, and network analysis. Spectrum analyzers, which provide
basic measurement capabilities, are the most popular type of RF instrument in many general-
purpose applications. Specifically, using a spectrum analyzer you can view power-vs. -
Frequency information, and can sometimes demodulate analog formats, such as amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
Vector instruments include vector or real-time signal analyzers and generators. These
instruments analyze and generate broadband waveforms, and capture time, frequency, phase,
and power information from signals of interest. These instruments are much more powerful
than spectrum analyzers and offer excellent modulation control and signal analysis.
Network analyzers, on the other hand, are typically used for making S- parameter
measurements and other characterization measurements on RF or high-frequency
components. Network analyzers are instruments that correlate both the generation and
analysis on multiple channels but at a much higher price than spectrum analyzers and vector
signal generators/analyzers.

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RANGE
In order to accurately compute range – it is essential to understand a few
terms: dB – Decibels. Decibels are logarithmic units that are used to represent
RF power. To convert from watts to dB: Power in dB = 10* (log x) where x
is the power in watts. Another unit of measure that is encountered often is dBm
(dB mill watts). The conversion formula for it is Power in dBm = 10* (log x) where
x is the power in mill watts.
Line-of-site when speaking of RF means more than just being able to see the receiving antenna
from the transmitting antenna. In, order to have true line-of-site no objects (includinG trees, houses or
the ground) can be in the Fresnel zone. The Fresnel zone is the area around the visua line-of-sight
that radio waves spread out into after they leave the antenna. This area must be clear or else signal
strength will weaken. There are essentially two parameters to look at when trying to determine range.

1) Transmit Power

Transmit power refers to the amount of RF power that comes out of the antenna port of the radio.
Transmit power is usually measured in Watts, mill watts or dBm.

2) Receiver sensitivity

Receiver sensitivity refers to the minimum level signal the radio can demodulate. It is convenient to
use an example with sound waves; Transmit power is how loud someone is yelling and receive
sensitivity would be how soft a voice someone can hear. Transmit power and receive sensitivity
together constitute what is know as “link budget”. The link budget is the total amount of signal
attenuation you can have between the transmitter and receiver and still have communication occur.

Example:
Maxstream 9XStream TX Power: 20dBm

Maxstream 9XStream RX Sensitivity: -110dBm

Total Link budget: 130dBm.

For line-of-site situations, a mathematical formula can be used to figure out the approximate range for
a given link budget. For non line-of-site applications range calculations are more complex because of
the various ways the signal can be attenuated.

RF communications and data rate

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Data rates are usually dictated by the system - how much data must be transferred and how often
does the transfer need to take place. Lower data rates, allow the radio module to have better receive
sensitivity and thus more range. In the XStream modules the 9600-baud module has 3dB more
sensitivity than the 19200-baud module. This means about 30% more distance in line-of-sight
conditions. Higher data rates allow the communication to take place in less time, potentially using less
power to transmit.

Radio communication
In order to receive radio signals, for instance from AM/FM radio stations, a radio antenna must
be used. However, since the antenna will pick up thousands of sine waves at a time, a radio tuner is
necessary as well to tune in to a particular frequency (or frequency range). This is typically done via a
resonator (in its simplest form, a circuit with a capacitor and an inductor). The resonator is configured
to resonate at a particular frequency (or frequency band), thus amplifying sine waves at that radio
frequency, while ignoring other sine waves. Usually, either the inductor or the capacitor of the
resonator is adjustable, allowing the user to change the frequency it resonates at.

Special properties of RF electrical signals

Electrical currents that oscillate at RF have special properties not shared by direct current
signals. One such property is the ease with which they can ionize air to create a conductive path
through air. ‘High frequency’ units used in electric arc welding, although strictly speaking these
machines do not typically employ frequencies within the HF band, exploit this property. Another
special property is an electromagnetic force that drives the RF current to the surface of conductors,
known as the skin effect. Another property is the ability to appear to flow through paths that contain
insulating material, like the dielectric insulator of a capacitor. The degree of effect of these properties
depends on the frequency of the signals.

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CHAPTER 6

6.1. DESCRIPTION OF 12D CHIP

HT12D is a 212 series decoder IC (Integrated Circuit) for remote control applications
manufactured by Holtek. It is commonly used for radio frequency (RF) wireless applications.
By using the paired HT 12E encoder and HT12D decoder we can transmit 12 bits of parallel
data serially. HT12D simply converts serial data to its input (may be received through RF
receiver) to 12 bit parallel data. These 12 bit parallel data is divided in to 8 address bits and 4
data bits. Using 8 address bits we can provide 8 bit security code for 4 bit data and can be
used to address multiple receivers by using the same transmitter.

HT 12D BLOCK DIAGRAM

HT12D is a CMOS LSI IC and is capable of operating in a wide voltage range from 2.4V
to 12V. Its power consumption is low and has high immunity against noise. The received data
is checked 3 times for more accuracy. It has built in with oscillator so we need to connect
only a small external resistor. As HT12E, it is available in 18 pin DIP (Dual Inline Package)
and 20 pin SOP (Small Outline Package) as given below.

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PIN DIAGRAM AND DESCRIPTION

HT 12D- PIN DIAGRAM

 VDD and VSS are used to provide power to the IC, Positive and Negative of the
power supply respectively. As I said earlier its operating voltage can be in the
range 2.4V to 12V
 OSC1 and OSC2 are used to connect external resistor for internal oscillator of
HT12D. OSC1 is the oscillator input pin and OSC2 is the oscillator output pin as
shown in the figure below.

OSCILLATOR OF HT 12D

 A0 – A7 are the address input pins. Status of these pins should match with
status of address pin in HT12E (used in transmitter) to receive the data. These
pins can be connected to VSS or left open.

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 DIN is the serial data input pin and can be connected to a RF receiver output .
 D8 – D11 are the data output pins. Status of these pins can be VSS or VDD
depending upon the received serial data through pin DIN.
 VT stand for Valid Transmission. This output pin will be HIGH when valid
data is available at D8 – D11 data output pins.

WORKING

HT 12D DECODER TIMING

HT12D decoder will be in standby mode initially ie, oscillator is disabled and a HIGH on
DIN pin activates the oscillator. Thus the oscillator will be active when the decoder receives
data transmitted by an encoder. The device starts decoding the input address and data. The
decoder matches the received address three times continuously with the local address given to
pin A0 – A7. If all matches, data bits are decoded and output pins D8 – D11 are activated.
This valid data is indicated by making the pin VT (Valid Transmission) HIGH. This will
continue till the address code becomes incorrect or no signal is received.

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TYPICAL APPLICATION CIRCUIT

HT12D – Typical Application Circuit

Use Rosc 51KΩ as recommended in the datasheet.

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6.2. DESCRIPTION OF 12E CHIP

HT12E is a 212 series encoder IC (Integrated Circuit) for remote control applications. It
is commonly used for radio frequency (RF) applications. By using the paired HT12E encoder
and HT12D decoder we can easily transmit and receive 12 bits of parallel data serially.
HT12E simply converts 12 bit parallel data in to serial output which can be transmitted
through a RF transmitter. These 12 bit parallel data is divided in to 8 address bits and 4 data
bits. By using these address pins we can provide 8 bit security code for data transmission and
multiple receivers may be addressed using the same transmitter.

HT 12E BLOCK DIAGRAM

HT12E is able to operate in a wide voltage range from 2.4V to 12V and has a built in
oscillator which requires only a small external resistor. Its power consumption is very low,
standby current is 0.1μA at 5V VDD and has high immunity against noise. It is available in
18 pin DIP (Dual Inline Package) and 20 pin SOP (Small Outline Package) as given below.

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PIN DIAGRAM

DESCRIPTION
 VDD and VSS are power supply pins which are used to connect positive and
negative of the power suppy respectively.
 OSC1 and OSC2 are used to connect external resistance for the internal oscillator.
OSC1 is the oscillator input pin and OSC2 is the oscillator output pin.

OSCILLATOR OF HT 12E
 TE is used for enabling the transmission and is an active low input.
 A0 – A7 are the input address pins. By using these pins we can provide a security
code for the data. These pins can be connected to VSS or left open.

 D8 – D11 are the input data pins. These pins can be connected to VSS or may left
open for sending LOW and HIGH respectively.
 DOUT – It is the serial data output of the encoder and can be connected to a RF
transmitter.

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WORKING

TRANSMISSION TIMING FOR THE HT 12E

The HT12E 212 series encoder starts a 4 word transmission cycle upon receiving
transmission enable signal on TE input. This output cycle will repeat as long as the
transmission is enabled. When the transmission enable (TE) signal switches to HIGH, the
encoder output completes the current cycle and stops as shown above. The encoder will be in
the Standby mode when the transmission is disabled.

WORKING FLOW CHART OF 12E

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Typical Application Circuit

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6.3. DESCRIPTION ON H BRIDGE IC

Whenever a robotics hobbyist talk about making a robot, the first thing comes to his mind is
making the robot move on the ground. And there are always two options in front of the
designer whether to use a DC motor or a stepper motor. When it comes to speed, weight, size,
and cost... DC motors are always preferred over stepper motors. There are many things,
which we can do with DC motor when interfaced with a micro controller. For example we
can control the speed of motor, we can control the direction of rotation, we can also do
encoding of the rotation made by DC motor i.e. keeping track of how many turns are made by
the motors etc. So we can see DC motors are better then stepper motors.
In this part of tutorial we will learn to interface a DC motor with a micro controller. Usually
H-bridge is preferred way of interfacing a DC motor. These days many IC manufacturers
have H-bridge motor drivers available in the market like L293D is most used H-Bridge driver
IC. H-bridge can also be made with the help of transistors and MOSFET’s etc. rather of being
cheap, they only increase the size of the design board, which is some times not required so
using a small 16 pin IC is preferred for this purpose. L293D is having two ‘H’ Bridges
inside, so that we can drive two DC motors simultaneously. Before discussing about this
device, first we must learn basic theory of ‘H’ Bridges. The following is the description.

BASIC THEOREY

Let's start with the name, H-bridge. Sometimes called a "full bridge" the H- bridge is
so named because it has four switching elements at the "corners" of the H and the motor
forms the cross bar. The basic bridge is shown in the figure above. The key fact to note is that
there are, in theory, four switching elements within the bridge. These four elements are often
called, high side left, high side right, low side right, and low side left (when traversing in
clockwise order).
The switches are turned on in pairs, either high left and lower right, or lower left
and high right, but never both switches on the same "side" of the bridge. If both switches on
one side of a bridge are turned on it creates a short circuit between the battery plus and

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battery minus terminals. If the bridge is sufficiently powerful it will absorb that load and your
batteries will simply drain quickly. Usually however the switches in question melt.
To power the motor, turn on two switches that are diagonally opposed. The current flows and
the motor begin to turn in a "positive" direction. Switch off these two switches and switch on
other two switches diagonally in other direction then the motor starts rotating in opposite
direction. Actually it is quite simple, the tricky part comes in when we decide what to use for
switches. Anything that can carry a current will work, from four SPST switches, one DPDT
switch, relays, transistors, to enhancement mode power MOSFET’s.
One more topic in the basic theory section is quadrants. If each switch can be
controlled independently then we can do some interesting things with the bridge, some folks
call such a bridge a "four quadrant device" (4QD). If we built it out of a single DPDT relay,
we can really only control forward or reverse. We can build a small truth table that tells us for
each of the switch's states, what the bridge will do. As each switch has one of two states, and
there are four switches, there are 16 possible states. However, since any state that turns both
switches on one side on is "bad", there are in fact only four useful states (the four quadrants)
where the transistors are turned on.

HIGH SIDE HIGHSIDE RIGHT LOW SIDE LEFT LOW SIDE RIGHT QUADRANT
LEFT DESCRIPTION
ON OFF OFF ON

OFF ON ON OFF

ON ON OFF OFF

OFF OFF ON ON

In the above table the last two rows describes condition about short circuit the
motor that causes the motors generator effect to work against it. The turning motor generates
a voltage, which tries to force the motor to turn the opposite direction. This causes the motor
to rapidly stop spinning and is called "braking" on a lot of H-bridge designs. Of course there
is also the state where all the transistors are turned off. In this case the motor coasts freely if it
was spinning and does nothing if it was doing nothing.

1. Using Relays
A simple implementation of a H Bridge using four SPST relays is shown. Terminal A
is High Side Left, Terminal B is High Side Right, Terminal C is Low Side Left and Terminal
D is Low Side Right. The logic followed is according to the table above.

Warning: Never turn on A and C or B and D at the same time. This will lead to a short
circuit of the battery and will lead to failure of the relays due to the large current.

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2. Using Transistors
We can better control our motor by using transistors or Field Effect Transistors
(FET’s). Most of what we have discussed about the relays H-Bridge is true of these circuits.
See the diagram showing how they are connected. We should add diodes across the
transistors to catch the back voltage that is generated by the motor's coil when the power is
switched on and off. This fly back voltage can be many times higher than the supply voltage.

Don't turn on A and C or B and D at the same time .

Transistors, being a semiconductor device, will have some resistance, which causes
them to get hot when conducting much current. This is called not being able to sink or source
very much power, i.e.: Not able to provide much current from ground or from plus voltage.
MOSFET’s are much more efficient, they can provide much more current and not get
as hot. They usually have the fly back diodes built in so we don't need the diodes anymore.
This helps guard against fly back voltage frying our ICs.

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To use MOSFET’s in an H-Bridge, we need P-Channel MOSFET’s on top because

they can "source" power, and N-Channel MOSFET’s on the bottom because they can "sink"
power. It is important that the four quadrants of the H-Bridge circuits be turned on and off
properly. When there is a path between the positive and groundside of the H-Bridge, other
than through the motor, a condition exists called "shoot through". This is basically a direct
short of the power supply and can cause semiconductors to become ballistic, in circuits with
large currents flowing. There are H-bridge chips available that are much easier, and safer, to
use than designing our own H-Bridge circuit.
L293D Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver
L293D is a dual H-Bridge motor driver, so with one IC we can interface two DC motors,
which can be controlled in both clockwise and counter clockwisedirections. Since the device
is having four half ‘H’ Bridges, there by if required four motors can be driven through this
single device, moreover the task is to run all four motors in one direction only. L293D has
output current of 600mA and peak output current of 1.2A per channel. Moreover for
protection of circuit from back EMF output diodes are included within the IC. The output
supply (VCC2) has a wide range from 4.5V to 36V, which has made L293D a best choice for
DC motor driver
In this IC there are two different power supplies (Vcc1 and Vcc2). Vcc1 is for logic
input circuit while Vcc2 is supply for the output circuit. This means that we should apply
about 5V to Vcc1 and whatever voltage required by the motor (up to 36V max for this IC) to
Vcc2. Each Half H-Bridge has an individual Ground. So we must ground the terminal
corresponding to the Half H-Bridge, depending up on the circuit design, if required all four
terminals of bridges can be connected to the ground. Each Half H-Bridge has an Input (A)
and output (Y). Also there are enable pins to turn on the Half H-Bridges. Once a Half H-
bridge is enabled, then the truth table is as follows:

INPUT OUTPUT
A Y
L L
H H

So we just give a High level when we want to turn the Half H-Bridge on and Low level
when we want to turn it off. When the Half H-Bridge is on, the voltage at the output is equal
to Vcc2. If we want to make a Full H-Bridge, we must connect the motor (or the load)
between the outputs of two Half H-Bridges and the inputs will be the two inputs of the Half
H-Bridges. Suppose we have connected Half H-Bridges 1 and 2 to form a Full H-Bridge.
Now the truth table is as follows:

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So we just give a High level when we want to turn the Half H-Bridge on and Low level
when we want to turn it off. When the Half H-Bridge is on, the voltage at the output is equal
to Vcc2. If we want to make a Full H-Bridge, we must connect the motor (or the load)
between the outputs of two Half H-Bridges and the inputs will be the two inputs of the Half
H-Bridges. Suppose we have connected Half H-Bridges 1 and 2 to form a Full H-Bridge.
Now the truth table is as follows:

INPUT INPUT OUTPUT OUTPUT DESCRIPTION

1A 2A 1Y 2Y
L L L L BRAKING

L H L H FORWARD RUNNING

H L H L BACKWARD RUNNING

H H H H BRAKING

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CHAPTER 7

7.1. DESCRIPTION OF ROBOTS

A mobile robot is an automatic machine that is capable of locomotion.

A spying robot is an example of a mobile robot capable of movement in a given environment.

Mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to one
physical location. Mobile robots can be "autonomous" (AMR - autonomous mobile robot) which
means they are capable of navigating an uncontrolled environment without the need for physical or
electro-mechanical guidance devices. Alternatively, mobile robots can rely on guidance devices that
allow them to travel a pre-defined navigation route in relatively controlled space (AGV - autonomous
guided vehicle). By contrast, industrial robots are usually more-or-less stationary, consisting of
a jointed arm (multi-linked manipulator) and gripper assembly (or end effectors), attached to a fixed
surface.

Mobile robots have become more commonplace in commercial and industrial settings.
Hospitals have been using autonomous mobile robots to move materials for many years.
Warehouses have installed mobile robotic systems to efficiently move materials from stocking
shelves to order fulfillment zones. Mobile robots are also a major focus of current research
and almost every major university has one or more labs that focus on mobile robot
research.[2] Mobile robots are also found in industrial, military and security settings. Domestic

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robots are consumer products, including entertainment robots and those that perform certain
household tasks such as vacuuming or gardening.

The components of a mobile robot are a controller, control software, sensors and
actuators. The controller is generally a microprocessor, embedded microcontroller or a
personal computer (PC). Mobile control software can be either assembly level language or
high-level languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Fortran or special real-time software. The
sensors used are dependent upon the requirements of the robot. The requirements could be
dead reckoning, tactile and proximity sensing, triangulation ranging, collision avoidance,
position location and other specific applications.

Mobile robots may be classified by

 The environment in which they travel:

 Land or home robots are usually referred to as Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs).
They are most commonly wheeled or tracked, but also include legged robots with two or
more legs (humanoid, or resembling animals or insects).
 Delivery & Transportation robots can move materials and supplies through a work
environment
 Aerial robots are usually referred to as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
 Underwater robots are usually called autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs)
 Polar robots, designed to navigate icy, crevasse filled environments
 The device they use to move, mainly:
 Legged robot : human-like legs (i.e. an android) or animal-like legs.
 Wheeled robot.
 Tracks.

Mobile robot navigation

There are many types of mobile robot navigation:

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Manual Remote or Tele-op

A manually tele operated robot is totally under control of a driver with a joystick or
other control device. The device may be plugged directly into the robot, may be a wireless
joystick, or may be an accessory to a wireless computer or other controller. A tele-op'd robot
is typically used to keep the operator out of harm's way.

Guarded Tele-op
A guarded tele-op robot has the ability to sense and avoid obstacles but will otherwise
navigate as driven, like a robot under manual tele-op. Few if any mobile robots offer only
guarded tele-op.

Line Following CAR

Some of the earliest Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) were line following mobile
robots. They might follow a visual line painted or embedded in the floor or ceiling or an
electrical wire in the floor. Most of these robots operated a simple "keep the line in the center
sensor" algorithm. They could not circumnavigate obstacles; they just stopped and waited
when something blocked their path. Many examples of such vehicles are still sold,
by Transbotics, FMC, Egemin, HK Systems and many other companies. These types of
robots are still widely popular in well known Robotic societies as a first step towards learning
nooks and corners of robotics.

Autonomously randomized robot

Autonomous robots with random motion basically bounce off walls, whether those
walls are sensed.
Robot developers use ready-made autonomous bases and software to design robot
applications quickly. Shells shaped like people or cartoon characters may cover the
base to disguise it. Courtesy of Mobile Robots.

An autonomously guided robot knows at least some information about where it is and how to reach
various goals and or waypoints along the way. "Localization" or knowledge of its current location is
calculated by one or more means, using sensors such motor encoders, vision, lasers and global
positioning systems. Positioning systems often use triangulation, relative position and/or Monte-
Carlo/Markov localization to determine the location and orientation of the platform, from which it can
plan a path to its next waypoint or goal. It can gather sensor readings that are time and location
stamped. Such robots are often part of the wireless enterprise network, interfaced with other sensing
and control systems in the building. For instance, the Patrol Bot security robot responds to alarms,
operates elevators and notifies the command center when an incident arises.

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Sliding autonomy
More capable robots combine multiple levels of navigation under a system called
sliding autonomy. Most autonomously guided robots, such as the Help Mate hospital robot
also offer a manual mode.

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CHAPTER 8

8.1. Hardware Details

The IC’s and other important components used in this project work, procured from the
Hyderabad Electronics Market. The details or data sheets of the IC’s are down loaded from
the websites.
The following are the IC’s and other important components used in this project work.
1. 12E Encoder chip
2. 12D Decoder chip
3. L293D H-Bridge IC
4. Voltage regulator

The required PCB’S (Printed Circuit boards) for the project work fabricated in Kushaiguda
Industrial Estate, Hyderabad. Kushaiguda Industrial Estate is very famous for fabricating the
PCB’s.

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CHAPTER 9

9.1. CONCLUSION
The research work is targeted to complete within the specified duration, almost the task
is completed successfully and we have designed & developed one basic module of “Weed
plucking Robot”. While designing and developing the prototype module lot of problems are
faced, and a systematic step-by-step approach is followed to rectify the problems one after
another. We have not given much importance for the mechanical design; therefore a simple
chassis is constructed, and all electronic hardware including mechanical transmission section
is mounted to this chassis. The weed plucking mechanism constructed with spur gears is
arranged at bottom side of the moving mechanism and it is driven through dc motor. Using
two more small DC motors are mounted at rear side and two small plastic wheels are coupled
to the motor shafts directly. At front side free wheeling type wheel along with its bracket is
mounted to the chassis. Here the remote has been constructed using four keys and a RF
transmitter by which we will be able to control the movement of the robot.
The demo module is constructed successfully and results are found to be satisfactory.
Since it is a prototype module, the robot constructed here contains a tiny weed plucking
mechanism and it moves in all directions according to the command signals passed by the
remote unit.
Agricultural technology refers to technology for the production of machines used on a
farm to help with farming. Agricultural machines have been designed for practically every
stage of the agricultural process. They include machines for tilling the soil,
planting seeds, irrigating the land, cultivating crops, protecting them from pests and weeds,
harvesting, threshing grain, and sorting the products. People who are trained to design
agricultural machinery, equipment, and structures are known as agricultural engineers.

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9.2. REFRENCES
The following are the references made during design, development and fabrication of the
project work “Automatic Sowing machine”
(1). Basic electronics By: GROB
(2). Mechatronics – Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and electrical Engineering –
By: W. Bolton
(3) The 8051 Micro-controller Architecture, programming & Applications
By: Kenneth J. Ayala

(4) Mechanism and Machine Theory By: J.S. Rao, R.V. Dukkipati
(5). Robotic Engineering An Integrated Approach
By: Richard D. Klafter, Thomas A. Chmiclewski, Michael Negin
(6) Programming and Customizing the 8051 Micro-controller By: Myke Predko
(7) The concepts and Features of Micro-controllers - By: Raj Kamal

(8) The 8051 Micro controller and Embedded Systems – using

Assembly and C; By Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie Mazidi & Rolin D. Mc
Kinlay.
(9) Mechatronics Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering By:
W. Bolton

(10) Mechatronics and Measurement Systems By: David G. Alciatore, Michael B. Histand

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CHAPTER 10

RESULT

This WEED PLUCKING ROBOT is to remove the unwanted tiny plants or

grass from the main crop, this system is very useful for former which avoids lot
of manual work. Plucking weeds manually is very painful activity and also
consumes lot of time and therefore this mechanism is designed. Since it is a
prototype module, basic version of grass or tiny weeds plucking mechanism is
designed with spur gears.

WORKING MODEL

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WEED PLUCKING ROBOT DEPT OF ECE

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