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Landslide hazard evaluation and zonation mapping in mountainous

terrain

Article  in  Engineering Geology · July 1992

DOI: 10.1016/0013-7952(92)90053-2

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Engineering Geology, 32 (1992) 269-277 269
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Landslide hazard evaluation and zonation mapping in

mountainous terrain

R. A n b a l a g a n
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Roorkee, India
(Received October 23,1990; revised version accepted January 14,1992)

ABSTRACT

Anbalagan, R., 1992. Landslide hazard evaluation and zonation mapping in mountainous terrain. Eng. Geol., 32: 269-277.

Landslide hazard zonation (LHZ) maps are of great help to planners and field engineers for selecting suitable locations to
implement development schemes in mountainous terrain, as well as, for adopting appropriate mitigation measures in unstable
hazard-prone areas. A new quantitative approach has been evolved, based on major causative factors of slope instability. A
case study of landslide hazard zonation in the Himalaya, adopting a landslide- hazard evaluation factor (LHEF) rating scheme,
has been presented.

Introduction regeneration programmes can be initiated adopting

suitable mitigation measures.
The planning, design and execution of develop- (b) These maps help planners to choose favoura-
mental schemes, such as road and building con- ble locations for siting development schemes, such
struction, are often carried out too quickly due to as building and road constructions. Even if the
financial, time and other constraints. As a result hazardous areas can not be avoided altogether,
many projects may not incorporate adequate their recognition in the initial stages of planning
details of geological and geotechnical considera- may help to adopt suitable precautionary
tions, causing instability of hill slopes and a mani- measures.
fold increase in the incidence of landslides. This The methodology of preparation of these maps
demonstrates the necessity of preparing multi- s h o u l d be systematic, practicable and, as far as
possible, simple so that the practicing engineers,
purpose terrain evaluation maps, based on the
geologists and planners may understand and use
geo-environment of the mountainous terrain and
them effectively. Hence, a new quantitative
using them as the basis for planning future develop-
approach for L H Z mapping has been developed,
ment schemes.
based on a numerical rating scheme called landslide
A landslide hazard zonation (LHZ) m a p devides
hazard evaluation factor ( L H E F ) rating scheme.
the land surface into zones of varying degrees of
This technique may be effectively used during the
stability, based on an estimated significance of preliminary stages of geotechnical investigations
causative factors in inducing instability. The L H Z when a cheap and rapid hazard assessment tech-
maps are useful for the following purposes: nique is needed.
(a) The L H Z maps identify and delineate un-
stable hazard-prone areas, so that environmental Landslide hazard evaluation factor (LHEF) rating
scheme

Correspondence to: R. Anbalagan, Department of Earth The L H E F rating scheme is based on an empiri-
Sciences, University of Roorkee, India. cal approach which combines past experience

0013-7952/92/$05.00 © 1992 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

270 R. ANBALAGAN

gained from the study of causative factors and Lithology

their impact on landslides with conditions antici-
pated in the area of study. Similar approaches The erodibility or the response of rocks to the
have been adopted in the well-known rock mass processes of weathering and erosion has been the
classifications such as the R M R system and Q main criteria in awarding the ratings for subcatego-
system (Barton et al., 1974; Bieniawski, 1979). ries of lithology. E.g., rocks like quartzite, lime-
The L H E F rating scheme is a numerical system stone and igneous rocks are generally hard,
which is based on major inherent causative factors massive and resistant to erosion, forming steep
of slope instability such as geology, slope morpho- slopes. In comparison, terrigenous sedimentary
metry, relative relief, land use and land cover and rocks are vulnerable to erosion and form more
groundwater conditions. Factors like rainfall and easily landslides. Phyllites and schists are charac-
seismicity are not included for the purpose of LHZ terised by flaky minerals which weather quickly
mapping. The maximum LHEF ratings for and promote instability. Accordingly, the L H E F
different categories are determined on the basis of ratings have been awarded. A correction factor
their estimated significance in causing instability concerning the status of weathering of rocks has
(Table I). The number 10 indicates the maximum also been incorporated.
value of the total estimated hazard (TEHD). In the case of soil, genesis and age are the main
Initially, the topography of the area to be cov- considerations in awarding the ratings. Older allu-
ered by LHZ mapping is studied carefully and the vium is generally well compacted and has a high
hill slopes are divided into a number of facets shearing resistance. Recent materials such as slide
generally delimited by ridges, spurs, gullies and debris are loose and have low shearing resistance.
rivers. A detailed L H E F rating scheme, showing
ratings for a variety of subcategories for individual Structure
causative factors as given in Table 2, is discussed
below. Structure includes primary and secondary dis-
continuities in the rocks such as bedding, joints,
Geology foliations, faults and thrusts. The disposition of
structural discontinuities in relation to slope incli-
The geological map provides information on nation and direction has a great influence on the
the lithological and structural setting of the area. stability of slopes. In this connection, the following
The lithological and structural maps may also be three types of relations are considered important:
prepared separately for better representation. (1) The extent of parallelism between the direc-
tions of the discontinuity, or the line of intersection
of two discontinuities and the slope.
TABLE 1
(2) The steepness of the dip of the discontinuity,
Proposed maximum LHEF rating for different contributory or the plunge of the line of intersection of two
factors for macro-zonation discontinuities.
(3) The difference in the dip of the discontinuity,
Contributory factor Maximum
LHEF
or the plunge of the line of intersection of the two
rating discontinuities to the inclination of the slope.
The more the discontinuity or the line of inter-
Lithology 2.0 section of two discontinuities tends to be parallel
Relationship of structural discontinuities with 2.0
slope
to the slope, the greater the risk of failure. When
Slope morphometry 2.0 the dip of the discontinuity or plunge of the line
Relative relief 1.0 of intersection of two discontinuities increases, the
Land use and land cover 2.0 probability of failure also increases, because the
Groundwater conditions 1.0
angle of friction for the discontinuity surfaces may
Total 10.0
be reached. Moreover, till the dip of the discontinu-
LANDSLIDE H A Z A R D EVALUATION A N D ZONATION MAPPING IN M O U N T A I N O U S TERRAIN 271

ity plane or the plunge of the line of intersection prone to mass wasting processes. Forest cover, in
of the two discontinuities does not exceed the general, smothers the action of climatic agents on
inclination of the slope, the failure potential the slopes and protects them from the effects of
remains high. Accordingly, the LHEF ratings have weathering and erosion. A well-spread root system
been assigned for various stability conditions, increases the shearing resistance of slope material.
broadly on the basis of the approach indicated by Agriculture, in general, is practised on low to very
Romana (1985). In the case of soil, the inferred low slopes, though moderately steep slopes are not
depth of the soil cover has been used for awarding spared at places. However, the agricultural lands
the ratings. represent areas of repeated water charging for
cultivation purposes and as such may be consid-
Slope morphometry ered stable. Based on criteria of intensity of vegeta-
tion cover, the ratings have been awarded.
Slope morphometry maps define slope categories
on the basis of the frequency of occurrence of Groundwater conditions
particular angles of slope. The distribution of the
slope categories is dependent on the geomorpho- Because groundwater in hilly terrain is generally
logical history of the area; the angle of slope of channeled along structural discontinuities of rocks,
each unit is a reflection of a series of localised it does not have a uniform flow pattern. The
processes and controls, which has been imposed evaluation of observations of the behavior of
on the facet. The slope morphometry map has groundwater on hill slopes is not possible over
been prepared by dividing the larger topographical large areas. Therefore, in order to make a quick
map into smaller units. The contour lines have the appraisal, the nature of surface indications of the
same standard spacing, i.e., the same number of behavior of groundwater will provide valuable
contour lines per km of horizontal distance. The information on the stability of hill slopes for
chosen categories are six in number, representing hazard mapping purposes. Surface indications of
the slopes of escarpment/cliff (> 45°), steep slope water such as damp, wet, dripping and flowing are
(35°-45°), moderately steep slope (25°-35°), gentle used for rating purposes. The observations taken
slope (15°-25 °) and very gentle slope (< 15°). after the monsoon, provide probably the worst
groundwater conditions possible.
Relative relief
Methodology for landslide hazard zonation (LHZ)
The relative relief map represents the local relief mapping
of maximum height between the ridge top and the
valley floor within an individual facet. This shows The LHZ mapping technique is a macro-
the major breaks in the slopes of the study area. zonation approach showing the probabilities of
Three categories of slopes of relative relief have landslide hazards. The LHZ maps are generally
been chosen for hazard evaluation purposes, prepared on 1:25,000 to 1:50,000 scales. The LHZ
namely low (< 100 m ), medium (101-300 m) and mapping comprises mainly two components: desk
high (> 300 m). study and field investigations. The desk study
consists of preparation of prefield maps showing
Land use and land cover the status of causative factors in the study area
with the help of aerial photographs, satellite imag-
Land cover is an indirect indication of the eries, topographic maps and geological maps. The
stability of hill slopes. Barren and sparsely vege- prefield maps, i.e., lithological map, structural
tated areas show faster erosion and greater instabil- map, slope morphometry map, relative relief map,
ity as compared to reserve or protected forests, rock outcrop and soil cover map, land use and
which are thickly vegetated and generally less land cover map, and hydrogeological map are
272 R. ANBALAGAN

TABLE 2

Landslide hazard evaluation factor (LHEF) rating scheme

Description Category Rating Remarks

factor

LITHOLOGY
Rock type Type-1 Correction .factor ,for weather&g
Quartzite and limestone 0.2 (a) Highly weathered - - rock discoloured, joints open
Granite and Gabbro 0.3 with weathering products, rock fabric altered to
Gneiss 0.4 a large extent; correction factorC~
Type-H (b) Moderately weathered - - rock discoloured with
Well-cemented terrigenous fresh rock patches, weathering more around
sedimentary rocks, dominantly joint planes, but rock in-tact in nature;
sandstone with minor beds of correction factor C2
claystone 1.0 (c) Slightly weathered - - rock slightly
Poorly cemented terrigenous discoloured along joint planes,
sedimentary rocks, dominantly which m a y be moderately tight
sandstone with minor clay shale to open, in-tact rock; correction factor C 3
beds 1.3 The correction Factor for weathering should be
Type-Ill multiplied with the fresh rock rating to get the
Slate and phyllite 1.2 corrected rating
Schist 1.3 For rock type 1
Shale with interbedded clayey and Cl=4, C2=3, C3=2
nonclayey rocks 1.8 For rock type I1
Highly weathered shale, phyllite C 1 = 1.5, C2= 1.25, C 3= 1.0
and schist 2.0
Soil type Older well-compacted fluvial fill
material (alluvial) 0.8
Clayey soil with naturally formed
surface (eluvial) 1.0
Sandy soil with naturally formed ot.¢~
surface (alluvial) 1.4
Debris comprising mostly rock
pieces mixed with clayey/sandy
soil (colluvial)
Older well compacted 1.2
Younger loose material 2.0
~5" V *~j/*¢i
STRUCTURE Parallelism between the slope and the discontinuity
Relationship of (~j/c<,- ~).
Structural
Discontinuity with
slope
Relationship of I >30 ° 0.20 cq = d i p direction of joint Bj = d i p of joint
parallelism between II 21°-30 ° 0.25 ~t~ = direction of line of B i = plunge of line of
the slope and the II 11°-20 ° 0.30 intersection of two intersection
discontinuity* IV 6°-10 ° 0.40 discontinuities of two discontinuities
Planar (cq - cq) IV < 5 ° 0.50 ~ = direction of slope B~ = inclination of slope
Wedge (cq - ~q) inclination
Category
Relationship of dip of I > 10° 0.3 *Discontinuity refers to the I = very favourable
discontinuity* and II 0°-10 ° 0.5 planar discontinuity or the line II = favourable
inclination of slope II 0° 0.7 of intersection of two planar III = fair
Planar (Bj-Bs) IV 0°-( - 10°) 0.8 discontinities, whichever, is I V = unfavourable
Wedge (B~-B~) IV ( - 10°) 1.0 important concerning instability V = very unfavourable
LANDSLIDE HAZARD EVALUATION AND ZONATION MAPPING IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN 273

TABLE 2 (continued)

Description Category Rating Remarks

factor

Dip o f discontinuiO,* I < 15 ° 0.20

Planar Bj 11 16'~-25 '
Wedge B~ I1 2ff'-35" 0.25
0.30 ~ / / ~ o %
IV 36~'-45 '~ 0.40
IV > 45' 0.50
Depth of soil cover <5m 0.65 ~ ~.~,.~
6-10 m 0.85
11-15 m 1.30 ~J~.~ %
16 2 0 m 2.0
>20 m 1.20

SLOPE MORPHOMETRY
Escarpment/cliff > 45 ° 2.0
Steep slope 36 ° 45" 1.7 Relationship of dip of discontinuity and the inclination of
Moderately steep slope 26°-35 '~ 1.2 s l o p e (flj/fli - fls).
Gentle slope 16" 25" 0.8
Very gentle slope < 15~' 0.5
15"
RELATIVE RELIEF
Low < 100 m 0.3
medium 101-300 m 0.6
High > 300 m 1.0

LAND USE AND LAND C O V E R

Agricultural land/populated fiat land 0.65
Thickly vegetated forest area 0.80
Moderately vegetated area 1.2 ./'
Sparsely vegetated area with lesser ground cover 1.5
Barren land 2.0 Dip of discontinuity (flJflj).

GROUND-WATER CONDITIONS Number of contour lines over

Flowing 1.0 one cm length (I : 50,000) Slope angle
Dripping 0.8
Wet 0.5 >25 >45"
Damp 0.2 19-25 36°-45 °
Dry 0.0 13 18 26"-35 '~
8-12 16"-25"
<7 <15 '~

prepared. The information collected from the desk Calculation of total estimated hazard (TEHD)
study helps to plan and execute the field investiga- and hazard zonation mapping
tions systematically. During the field study, more
detailed lithological and structural maps are pre- The total estimated hazard (TEHD) indicates
pared. The details of other maps prepared during the net probability of instability and is calculated
the desk study can be verified in the field and facet-wise, because adjoining facets may have
modified wherever necessary. The field studies are entirely different stability conditions. The TEHD
carried out to collect the required data facet-wise of an individual facet is obtained by adding the
for estimating the total hazards of the facets. The ratings of the individual causative factors obtained
general procedure of the LHZ mapping technique from the L H E F rating scheme.
is outlined in the form of flow a chart (Fig. 1). Total estimated hazard (TEHD) = R~tings of
274 R. ANBALAGAN

DESKSTUDY) FIELD STUDY~

J,
I AQUISITIONOF]
t
AQUISITIONOF I
i
I REGIONAL
AOUtSmO O
NFJ
TOPOGRAPHIC AERIAL PHOTO- GEO- I
MAPS 1:50.000 GRAPHS AND LOGICAL MAP t
SATELLITE IHAG
ERIES 1:50.000 1
t
K)ENTIFICATION OF FACTORS FOR [ PRE-FIELD GEO
HAZARD EVALUATION LOGICAL MAP ~ LITHOLOGICAL AND ;TRUCTURAL
1:50.000 I I MAP 1:50.000
t
SLOPEMORPHOMETRICMAP
1
I ASSIGNMENTCF"LANDHAZARDEVALUA-I
RELATIVE RELIEF MAP i TION FACTCR (LHEF) RATINGFOR DIFF-
E~NT CATEC~RIES
ROCK OUTCROP AND SOL COVER MAP
t
LANIOUSE AND LAND COVER MAP
I CALCULATION
OFTOTAL ]
ESTIMATED HAZARD (TEHD]
PREPARATION Oil= LAND HAZARD
HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP
ZONATION(LHZ HAP J

Fig. 1. General procedure for LHZ mapping.

(lithoiogy + structure + slope morphometry +

relative relief + land use and land cover +
groundwater conditions)
On the basis of TEHD, five categories of land-
slide hazard zones have been identified (Table 3),
namely, very low hazard (VLH), low hazard (LH),
moderate hazard (MH), high hazard (HH) and
very high hazard (VHH).

Landslide hazard zonation of the Kathgodam-

Nainital area

The LHZ map of the Kathgodam (Lat. 29°13':

Long. 79034' )-Nainital (Lat. 29°25': Long. 79°28 ')
(Fig. 2) area in Kumaun Himalaya has been pre-
pared using the LHEF rating scheme to study the
stability environment. For that purpose, the slope
facet map (Fig. 3), geological map (Fig. 4) and

TABLE 3

Landslide hazard zonation on the basis of total estimated

hazard (TEHD)

Zone TEHD value Description of zone

I <3.5 Very Low Hazard (VLH) zone

II 3.5-5.0 Low Hazard (LH) zone
III 5.1-6.0 Moderate Hazard (MH) zone
IV 6.1-7.5 High Hazard (HH) zone
V >7.5 Very High Hazard (VHH)zone
Fig. 2. Location map of Kathgodam-Nainital area.
LANDSLIDE HAZARD EVALUATION ~,ND ZONATION MAPPING IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN 275

OI
FL
D[
BF
AP
LI
LC
KF
IN
BI
NAGTHAT FORMATION
SIWALIK FORMATION
LAKE
BEDDING I JOINT
FAULT

Fig. 3. Slope facet m a p o f K a t h g o d a m - N a i n i t a l area. Fig. 4. G e o l o g i c a l map.

other terrain evaluation maps [such as slope mor- belt to the south. Towards the north, a thick
phometry map (Fig. 5), relative relief map (Fig. 6) succession of predominantly Palaeozoic sedi-
and land use and land cover map (Fig. 7)] have mentary rocks is thrust over Lower Siwalik rocks,
been prepared, covering all the slope facets of the the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) marking the
area. The groundwater condition remained gen- contact. The Paleozoic sedimentary rocks are
erally dry though wet to flowing conditions have divided into the Nagthat, Blaini and Krol Forma-
been observed at some places. These conditions tions (Valdiya et al., 1984). The Nagthat Forma-
have been incorporated in the calculation of the tion comprises white and purple quartzarenites
TEHD of the facets. interbedded with minor grey and green slates and
phyllites. These are found to be associated with
Geology of the area Bhimtal volcanics comprising altered diabase,
amphibolite or chlorite schist. The Blaini Forma-
The autochthonous Lower Siwalik rocks consti- tion consists of red shales and paraconglomerates
tuting the Outer Himalaya are exposed in the interbedded with thin limestones beds. The Infra-
southern parts of the area. They comprise greyish Krols Formation, succeeding the underlying
brown and brownish yellow, fine- to medium- Blainis without any angular discordance, com-
grained, micaceous, thick sandstone beds with prises black carbonaceous slates and shales. The
subordinate siltstone and claystone beds. The Upper Krol Formation consists of massive lime-
Lower Siwalik rocks, exposed for 19 km along the stone and dolomites with minor bands of red and
road, are bounded by gravelly fans of the piedmont grey slates,the Lower and Middle Krols are com-
276 R. ANBALAGAN

Fig. 5. Slope morphometry map.

Fig. 6. Relative relief map.

posed of calcareous slates with bands of dolomitic

limestone. A narrow wedge of granite and quartz- These landslides may be correlated to the neotec-
porphyry (the Amritpur granite) on the eastern tonically active fault plane (Valdia et al., 1984) off°
part is thrust over the Siwalik rocks along the setting the MBT and subsequent mass wasting
Salari thrust (Fig. 4). The disposition of structural along the fault scarp. The area to the east and
discontinuities including bedding and joints have southeast of Nainital lake fall under H H zones
been observed and marked. with a pocket of V H H zone.

L H Z map of Kathgodam-Nainital area Conclusions

The LHZ map of the Kathgodam-Nainital area The planning of development schemes, including
(Fig. 8) indicates that the area has slopes of VLH road construction in hilly terrain, should take into
to VHH. The southern part of the area has gen- consideration existing instabilities of slopes, so
erally LH to MH slopes with narrow stretches of that schemes may be executed with minimum
H H slopes, trending E - W along the V-shaped disturbance to the environmental balance of the
gorges.In the middle altitudes, the Jeolikote valley area. Hence, a new quantitative approach based
shows LH slopes, generally bounded on either sides on a numerical rating scheme, the landslide hazard
by MH slopes. Few narrow strips of active land- evaluation factor (LHEF) rating scheme, has been
slides are present along the Balia river course close evolved. This scheme incorporates major inherent
to its confluence with the Kuria stream as well as causative factors of slope instability, and adopts a
the Nalena stream and fall under the V H H zone. simple practical and effective approach. It may
L A N D S L I D E H A Z A R D E V A L U A T I O N A N D Z O N A T I O N M A P P I N G IN M O U N T A I N O U S T E R R A I N 277

Fig. 7. Land use and land cover map.

Fig. 8. Landslide hazard zonation map.
have wider applications among planners, geologists
and engineers for route location and other moun-
tain development programmes. The VLH and LH Chander in the preparation of the manuscript are
zones are generally safer for development schemes. thankfully acknowledged.
The M H zones may contain some local vulnerable
zones of instabilities. In the case of H H and V H H
zones, detailed appraisals on l:1000 to 1:2000 References
scales should be carried out, to evaluate the nature Barton, N., Lien, R. and Lunde, J., 1974. Engineering classifi-
of the instabilities, in order to come to appropriate cation of rock masses for the design of tunnel support. Rock
mitigation measures to protect the geo- Mech., 6(4): 189-236.
environmental stability of the area. Bieniawski, Z.T., 1979. Tunnel design by rock mass classifica-
tions. Pennsylvania State Univ., USA, Tech. Rep., GL-79-
19.
Acknowledgements Romana, M., 1985. New adjustment ratings for application of
Bieniawski classification to slopes. Int. Symp. Role of Rock
The author is grateful to Prof. Bhawani Singh, Mechanics, Zacatecas, pp. 49-53.
Valdia, K.S., Joshi, D.D., Sanwal, R. and Tandon, S.K., 1984.
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Geomorphic development across the main boundary thrust,
Roorkee, for his encouragement and critical review an example from the Nainital hills in Kumaun Himalaya.
of this work. The valuable suggestions by Prof. R. J. Geol. Soc.Ind., 25(12):761-774.

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