The LVDT: construction and principle of operation

An LVDT, or Linear Variable Differential Transformer, is a transducer that converts a linear displacement or
position from a mechanical reference (or zero) into a proportional electrical signal containing phase (for
direction) and amplitude information (for distance). The LVDT operation does not require electrical contact
between the moving part (probe or core rod assembly) and the transformer, but rather relies on
electromagnetic coupling; this and the fact that they operate without any built-in electronic circuitry are the
primary reasons why LVDTs have been widely used in applications where long life and high reliability
under severe environments are a required, such Military/Aerospace applications.

LVDT cross-section, short stroke LVDT cross-section, long stroke

The LVDT consists of a primary coil (of magnet wire) wound over the whole length of a non-ferromagnetic
bore liner (or spool tube) or a cylindrical coil form. Two secondary coils are wound on top of the primary
coil for “long stroke” LVDTs (i.e. for actuator main RAM) or each side of the primary coil for “Short
stroke” LVDTs (i.e. for electro-hydraulic servo-valve or EHSV). The two secondary windings are typically
connected in “opposite series” (or wound in opposite rotational directions). A ferromagnetic core, which
length is a fraction of the bore liner length, magnetically couples the primary to the secondary winding
turns that are located above the length of the core.

Even though the secondary windings of the long stroke LVDT are shown on top of each other with
insulation between them, on the above cross section, Measurement Specialties actually winds them both at
the same time using dual carriage, computerized winding machines. This method saves manufacturing time
and also creates secondary windings with symmetrical capacitance distribution and therefore allows meeting
customer specifications more easily.
 The LVDT: construction and principle of operation

LVDT Schematic

When the primary coil is excited with a sine wave voltage (Vin), it generate a variable magnetic
field which, concentrated by the core, induces the secondary voltages (also sine waves). While the
secondary windings are designed so that the differential output voltage (Va-Vb) is proportional to the
core position from null, the phase angle (close to 0 degree or close to 180 degrees depending of
direction) determines the direction away from the mechanical zero. The zero is defined as the core
position where the phase angle of the (Va-Vb) differential output is 90 degrees.

The differential output between the two secondary outputs (Va-Vb) when the core is at the
mechanical zero (or “Null Position”) is called the Null Voltage; as the phase angle at null position is
90 degrees, the Null Voltage is a “quadrature” voltage. This residual voltage is due to the complex
nature of the LVDT electrical model, which includes the parasitic capacitances of the windings.
This complex nature also explains why the phase angle of (Va-Vb) is not exactly 0 degree or 180
degrees when the core is away from the Null Position.

Primary
Excitation

Differential output Va-Vb

Direction 1: In-phase with
excitation (0 degree)

Differential output Va-Vb

Direction 2: Out-of-phase
with excitation (180 degree)
 LVDT Waveforms

Expt no-4 UJT Relaxation Oscillator

Dt:

Aim: To study the operation of UJT relaxation oscillator.

Apparatus Required:

S.NO Name of the Range Quantity

Apparatus

Theory:
A uni-junction transistor (abbreviated as UJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor switching
device. This device has a unique characteristic that when it is triggered, the emitter current
increases regeneratively until it is limited by emitter power supply. Due to this
characteristic, the uni-junction transistor can be employed in a variety of applications e.g.,
switching, pulse generator, saw-tooth generator etc.,
Operation:
The device has normally B2 positive w.r.t. B1
.
(i) If voltage VBB is applied between B2 and B1 with emitter open, a voltage gradient is
established along the n-type bar. Since the emitter is located nearer to B2, more than half of
VBB appears between the emitter and B1.The voltage V1 between emitter and B1 establishes
a reverse bias on the p-n junction and the emitter current is cut off. Of course, a small
leakage current flows from B2 to emitter due to minority carriers.
(ii) If a positive voltage is applied at the emitter the pn junction will remain reverse biased
so long as the input voltage is less than V1.If the input voltage to the emitter exceeds V1,the
pn junction becomes forward biased.Under these conditions, holes are injected from p-type
material into the n-type bar. These holes are repelled by positive B2 terminal and they are
attracted towards B1 terminal of the bar. This accumulation of holes in the emitter to
B1 region results in the decrease of resistance in this section of the bar. The result is that
internal voltage drop from emitter to B1 is decreased and hence the emitter current
IE increases. As more holes are injected, a condition of saturation will eventually be reached.
At this point, the emitter current is limited by emitter power supply only. The device is now
in the ON state.
Circuit Diagram:

Output wave forms:

 (iii) If a negative pulse is applied to the emitter, the pn junction is reverse biased and the
emitter current is cut off. The device is then said to be in the OFF state.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram

2. Keep the potentiometer (POT) at its minimum resistance postion.
3. Connect the 0.1μF capacitor in the network with the help of switch ‘S’
4. Connect the CRO at the output across the R1
5. Switch ON the 10V d.c supply with the help of switch S
6. Observe the pulse pattern of the relaxation oscillator on CRO by varying the POT
and trace the pattern at different values of resistance.
7. Repeat steps No 2 to 6 by connecting different values of capacitors and observe output
waveforms.

Precautions:
1. Components used in the circuit for conducting the experiment should be checked and
tested thoroughly with the help of a multimeter, before connecting them in the circuit.
2. Peak inverse voltage (PIV) and valley voltage (VV) of the UJT should be confirmed from
data manual and the power supply range should be chosen accordingly.
3. Current limiting resistor and the POT connected in the circuit should have proper ratings
depending on the PIV and Vv rating of the UJT.
Expt No: STUDY OF SERVO MOTOR SYSTEM Dt:

Aim:
To study the principle of operation and different parts of a simple servo motor system.
Brief Description:

This is nothing but a simple electrical motor, controlled with the help of
servomechanism. If the motor as controlled device, associated with servomechanism is DC
motor, then it is commonly known DC Servo Motor. If the controlled motor is operated by
AC, it is called AC Servo Motor
Working Principle of Servo Motor
A servo motor is basically a DC motor (in some special cases it is AC motor) along with
some other special purpose components that make a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, you
will find a small DC motor, a potentiometer, gear arrangement and an intelligent circuitry.
The intelligent circuitry along with the potentiometer makes the servo to rotate according to
our wishes.
As we know, a small DC motor will rotate with high speed but the torque generated by its
rotation will not be enough to move even a light load. This is where the gear system inside a
servomechanism comes into picture. The gear mechanism will take high input speed of the
motor (fast) and at the output, we will get a output speed which is slower than original input
speed but more practical and widely applicable.

For understanding servo motor control let us consider an example of servomotor that we
have given a signal to rotate by an angle of 45° and then stop and wait for further instruction.
The shaft of the DC motor is coupled with another shaft called output shaft, with help of gear
assembly. This gear assembly is used to step down the high rpm of the motor's shaft to low
rpm at output shaft of the servo system.
The voltage adjusting knob of a potentiometer is so arranged with the output shaft by means
of another gear assembly, that during rotation of the shaft, the knob also rotates and creates
an varying electrical potential according to the principle of potentiometer . This signal i.e.
electrical potential is increased with angular movement of potentiometer knob along with the
system shaft from 0° to 45°. This electrical potential or voltage is taken to the error detector
feedback amplifier along with the input reference commends i.e. input signal voltage.
 As the angle of rotation of the shaft increases from 0° to 45° the voltage from
potentiometer increases. At 45° this voltage reaches to a value which is equal to the given
input command voltage to the system. As at this position of the shaft, there is no difference
between the signal voltage coming from the potentiometer and reference input voltage
(command signal) to the system, the output voltage of the amplifier becomes zero.