HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-1

June 26, 2006

CHAPTER 400 Table 401.3

INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE Vehicle Characteristics Intersection Design
Element Affected
Topic 401 - Factors Affecting Length Length of storage lane
Design Width Lane width

Index 401.1 - General Height Clearance to overhead

signs and signals
At-grade intersections must handle a variety of
conflicts among vehicles, pedestrians, and bicycles. Wheel base Corner radius and width
These recurring conflicts, a unique characteristic of of turning lanes
intersections, play a major role in the preparation of Acceleration Tapers and length of
design standards and guidelines. Arriving, acceleration lane
departing, merging, turning, and crossing paths of
Deceleration Tapers and length of
moving traffic have to be accommodated within a
deceleration lane
relatively small area.

401.2 The Driver

Rural intersections in farm areas with low traffic
The assumption of certain driver skills is a factor in volumes may have special visibility problems or
intersection design. A driver's perception and require shadowing of left-turn vehicles from high
reaction time set the standards for sight distance and speed approach traffic.
length of transitions.
401.5 The Pedestrian
401.3 The Vehicle
Pedestrian considerations are an integral part of
Size and maneuverability of vehicles are factors that intersection design because of their potential
influence the design of an intersection. conflict with motor vehicles. Such factors include
Table 401.3 compares vehicle characteristics to expected pedestrian volumes, age ranges, and
intersection design elements. physical abilities, etc. Geometric features which
may affect the pedestrian should be taken into
A design vehicle is a convenient means of account. See Topic 105 Pedestrian Facilities, and
representing a particular segment of the vehicle the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
population. See Topic 404 for a further discussion (MUTCD) and California Supplement.
of the uses of design vehicles.
401.6 The Bicyclist
401.4 The Environment
The presence of bicyclists on State routes should be
In highly developed urban areas, street parking, considered early in design. Chapter 1000 gives
pedestrians, and transit buses add to the complexity information on bikeway planning and design
of a busy intersection. criteria.
Industrial development may require special attention
to the movement of large trucks.
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Topic 402 - Operational Features Topic 403 - Principles of

Affecting Design Channelization

402.1 Capacity 403.1 Preference to Major Movements

Adequate capacity to handle peak period traffic The provision of direct free-flowing high-standard
demands is a basic goal of intersection design. alignment to give preference to major movements is
good channelization practice. This may require
(1) Unsignalized Intersections. Chapter 10 of the
some degree of control of the minor movements
“Highway Capacity Manual”, gives
such as stopping, funneling, or even eliminating
methodology for capacity analysis of unsignal-
them. These controlling measures should conform
ized intersections controlled by stop or yield
to natural paths of movement and should be
signs. The assumption is made that major
introduced gradually to promote smooth and
street traffic is not affected by the minor street
efficient operation.
movement. Unsignalized intersections
generally become candidates for signalization
when traffic backups begin to develop on the
403.2 Areas of Conflict
cross street. See the MUTCD and California Large multilane undivided intersectional areas are
Supplement, Chapter 4C for signal warrants. usually undesirable. The hazards of conflicting
(2) Signalized Intersections. See Topic 406 for movements are magnified when drivers and
analysis of simple signalized intersections, bicyclists are unable to anticipate movements of
including ramps. The analysis of complex other traffic within these areas. Channelization
signalized intersections should be referred to reduces areas of conflict by separating or regulating
the District Traffic Branch. traffic movements into definite paths of travel by the
use of pavement markings or traffic islands.
402.2 Accidents Large areas of intersectional conflicts are
characteristic of skewed intersection angles.
(1) General. Intersections have a higher potential
Therefore, angles of intersection approaching 90˚
for conflicts compared to other sections of the
will aid in reducing conflict areas.
highway. At an intersection continuity of
travel is interrupted, traffic streams cross, and
many types of turning movements occur.
403.3 Angle of Intersection

The type of traffic control affects the type of A right angle intersection provides the most
accidents. Signalized intersections tend to favorable conditions for intersecting and turning
have more rear enders and same-direction traffic movements. Specifically, a right angle (90
sideswipes than stop-controlled intersections. degrees) provides:
The latter tend to have more angle or crossing • The shortest crossing distance for motor
accidents due to a lack of positive control. vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians.
(2) Undesirable Geometric Features. • Sight lines which optimize corner sight
• Inadequate approach sight distance. distance and the abilitiy of drivers to judge
the relative position and speed of approach
• Inadequate corner sight distance. vehicles.
• Steep grades. Minor deviations from right angles are generally
• Inappropriate traffic control. acceptable provided that the potentially detrimental
impact on visibility and turning movements for
• Five or more approaches. large trucks (see Topic 404) can be mitigated.
• Presence of curves within intersections. However, large deviations from right angles may
decrease visibility, hamper certain turning
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operations, and will increase the size of the

intersection and therefore crossing distances for Figure 403.3
bicyclists and pedestrians. When a right angle Angle of Intersection
cannot be provided due to physical constraints, the
(Minor Leg Skewed to the Right)
interior angle should be designed as close to 90
degrees as is practical, but should not be less than
75 degrees. Mitigation should be considered for the
affected intersection design features. (See Figure
403.3). A 75 degree angle does not unreasonably
increase the crossing distance or generally decrease
visibility.
When existing intersection angles are less than 75
degrees, the following retrofit improvement
strategies should be considered:
• Realign the subordinate intersection legs if
the new alignment and intersection
location(s) can be designed without
introducing new geometric or operational
deficiencies. 403.4 Points of Conflict
• Provide acceleration lanes for difficult Channelization separates and clearly defines points
turning movements due to radius or limited of conflict within the intersection. Drivers should
visibility. be exposed to only one conflict or confronted with
one decision at a time.
• Restrict problematic turning movements;
e.g. for minor road left turns with
potentially limited visibility. 403.5 Speed-change Areas

For additional guidance on the above and other Speed-change areas for vehicles entering or leaving
improvement strategies, consult the Design main streams of traffic are beneficial to the safety
Reviewer or Traffic Liaison. and efficiency of an intersection. Entering traffic
merges most efficiently with through traffic when
Particular attention should be given to skewed the merging angle is less than 15 degrees and when
angles on curved alignment with regards to sight speed differentials are at a minimum.
distance and visibility. Crossroads skewed to the
left have more restricted visibility for drivers of Speed-change areas for diverging traffic should
vans and trucks than crossroads skewed to the right. provide adequate length clear of the through lanes to
In addition, severely skewed intersection angles, permit vehicles to decelerate after leaving the
coupled with steep downgrades (generally over 4%) through lanes.
can increase the potential for high centered vehicles
to overturn where the vehicle is on a downgrade and 403.6 Turning Traffic
must make a turn greater than 90 degrees onto a A separate turning lane removes turning movements
crossroad. These factors should be considered in from the intersection area. Abrupt changes in
the design of skewed intersections. alignment or sight distance should be avoided,
particularly where traffic turns into a separate
turning lane from a high-standard through facility.
For wide medians, consider the use of offset left-
turn lanes at both signalized and unsignalized
intersections. Opposing left-turn lanes are offset or
shifted as far to the left as practical by reducing the
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width of separation immediately before the

intersection. Rather than aligning the left-turn lane
403.11 Summary
exactly parallel with and adjacent to the through • Give preference to the major move(s).
lane, the offset left-turn lane is separated from the • Reduce areas of conflict.
adjacent through lane. Offset left-turn lanes provide
• Cross traffic at right angles or skew no more
improved visibility of opposing through traffic. For
than 75 degrees. (90 degrees preferred.)
further guidance on offset left-turn lanes, see the
AASHTO publication, “A Policy on Geometric • Separate points of conflict.
Design of Highways and Streets”. • Provide speed-change areas and separate
turning lanes where appropriate.
403.7 Refuge Areas • Provide adequate width to shadow turning
The shadowing effect of traffic islands may be used traffic.
to provide refuge areas for turning and crossing • Restrict undesirable moves with traffic
vehicles. Adequate shadowing provides refuge for a islands.
vehicle waiting to cross or enter an uncontrolled
traffic stream. Similarly, channelization also may • Coordinate channelization with effective
provide a safer crossing of two or more traffic signal control.
streams by permitting drivers to select a time gap in • Install signs in traffic islands when neces-
one traffic stream at a time. sary, but avoid built-in hazards.
Traffic islands also may serve the same purposes for
pedestrians and disabled persons. 403.12 Precautions
• Striping is usually preferable to curbed is-
403.8 Prohibited Turns lands, especially adjacent to high-speed
Traffic islands may be used to divert traffic streams traffic where curbing can be an obstruction
in desired directions and prevent undesirable to out-of-control vehicles.
movements. Care should be taken that islands used • Where curbing must be used, first consid-
for this purpose accommodate convenient and safe eration should be given to mountable curbs.
pedestrian crossings, drainage, and striping options. Barrier curbs are usually justified only
See Topic 303. where protection of pedestrians is a primary
consideration.
403.9 Effective Signal Control
• Avoid complex intersections that present
At intersections with complex turning movements,
multiple choices of movement to the driver.
channelization is required for effective signal
control. Channelization permits the sorting of • Traffic safety should be considered.
approaching traffic which may move through the Accident records provide a valuable guide
intersection during separate signal phases. This to the type of channelization needed.
requirement is of particular importance when traffic-
actuated signal controls are employed. Topic 404 - Design Vehicles
403.10 Installation of Traffic Control
Devices 404.1 Offtracking
Any vehicle whether car, bus, truck, or combination
Channelization may provide locations for the tractor semi-trailer while turning a curve covers a
installation of essential traffic control devices, such wider path than the width of the vehicle. The front
as stop and directional signs. See Index 405.4 for steering axle can generally follow a circular curve,
information about the design of traffic islands. but the following axles (and trailers) will swing
inside toward the center of the curve. Some
terminology is vital to understanding the
engineering concepts. Tracking width is the
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distance measured along the curve radius from the of Traffic Operations in Headquarters, or
outside front steering tire track to the inside rear tire through the District Traffic Engineer in each
track as they traverse around a curve. Offtracking is District. This map identifies the State highway
the difference between the tracking width and the routes on which defined trucks (STAA or
vehicle axle width. Swept width is the total path California) can operate.
width needed by the vehicle body to traverse a
Consideration to widening the roadway width
curve. Swept width always exceeds tracking width.
may be needed when encountering curved
Therefore a swept width is the preferred vehicle
alignments. Depending on the severity of the
performance reference for design of tight curves on
curved alignment, trucks may off-track onto
narrow mountainous roads and tight intersections
adjacent or opposing lanes. Some examples
with obstructions.
are in mountainous areas and construction
Computer software can determine the swept width at areas. On curvilinear alignments, it is
any point around a circular curve. An automated allowable to utilize the shoulders for off
plotter can draw the swept width of vehicle body tracking. For further discussion and guidance
path for the preparation of a vehicle turn template. refer to the current AASHTO publication, “A
Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and
Computer aided designs for truck turns plotted
Streets.”
directly on geometric drawings must utilize curves
with the same radii used to develop the truck turn (2) California. California statutes limit the overall
templates included in Topic 407. Compound curves length of a tractor semi-trailer combination to
or multiple curves with intervening tangents should 19.81 m for trucks operating on all highways in
not be used. California unless National Network provisions
apply. The law also limits the kingpin to
For lane width requirements for accommodating
rearmost axle dimension to 12.19 m for semi-
offtracking on freeway ramps, see Topic 504.
trailers with two or more axles
(11.58 m for single axle) and the width to
404.2 Design Vehicles
2.6 m.
(1) STAA. The Surface Transportation Assistance
The California Legal Design Vehicle shown in
Act of 1982 (STAA), allows large trucks to
Figure 404.2 is the model for truck-turn
operate on the Interstate and certain Federal
templates to be used on all routes off the
Aid Primary System routes collectively called
National Network and the Terminal Access
the National Network. For guidance refer to
Routes.
the current AASHTO publication, “A Policy
on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets.” (3) Bus. The AASHTO Bus Design Vehicle
Vehicle dimensions are spelled out in federal shown in Figure 404.2 is an AASHTO
law on the maximum length of the semi-trailer standard. Its 7.6 m wheel base and 12.2 m
(14.63 m for single and 8.69 m for double overall length are typical of transit and
semi-trailers) and the maximum width (2.6 m). intercity buses. It is the model for the bus-turn
The truck shown in Figure 404.2 is rep- template to be used under special
resentative of the large tractor semi-trailer circumstances.
combinations allowed on the National Net-
work.
The STAA Design Vehicle is the model for
truck-turn templates to be used on the National
Network, Terminal Access Routes and Service
Access Routes (STAA Network of Highways).
A current map titled "Truck Networks on
California State Highways" is available
through the Truck Size Branch of the Division
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Figure 404.2
Design Vehicles
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school buses, but a slightly lesser width than a

404.3 Turning Templates 4-axle truck.
(1) General. The truck-turn template is a design
aid for locating the wheel paths of large Topic 405 - Intersection Design
vehicles as they turn through at-grade
intersections. Consideration should be given to Standards
the overhang of the truck, where the body of
the truck slightly extends (approximately 405.1 Sight Distance
0.6 m) beyond the wheel path. The template is
(1) Stopping Sight Distance. See Index 201.1 for
useful for determining corner radii, for
minimum stopping sight distance requirements.
positioning island noses, and for establishing
clearance to bridge piers, signal poles, and (2) Corner Sight Distance.
other hardware at intersections. Templates can (a) General--At unsignalized intersections a
help determine the width of a channeled substantially clear line of sight should be
separate turning lane. Topic 407 illustrates maintained between the driver of a vehicle
scaled turning templates for the various design waiting at the crossroad and the driver of
vehicles and turning radii. an approaching vehicle.
(2) STAA Truck. The STAA truck-turn templates Adequate time must be provided for the
should be used in the design of all new waiting vehicle to either cross all lanes of
interchanges and intersections on the National through traffic, cross the near lanes and
Network and on routes leading from the turn left, or turn right, without requiring
National Network to designated service and through traffic to radically alter their
terminal routes. On rehabilitation projects they speed.
should be used at interchanges and
intersections proposed as service or terminal The values given in Table 405.1A provide
access routes. In some cases, factors such as 7-1/2 seconds for the driver on the
cost, right of way, environmental issues, local crossroad to complete the necessary
agency desires, and the type of community maneuver while the approaching vehicle
being served may limit the use of the STAA travels at the assumed design speed of the
templates. In those cases, other appropriate main highway. The 7-1/2 second criterion
templates should be used. is normally applied to all lanes of through
traffic in order to cover all possible
The minimum practical turning radius is 15 m. maneuvers by the vehicle at the crossroad.
However, the 18 m radius develops less swept However, by providing the standard corner
width and may have an advantage. The 18 m sight distance to the lane nearest to and
radius should be used in most situations, but farthest from the waiting vehicle, adequate
the 15 m radius is acceptable in restricted time should be obtained to make the
situations. necessary movement. On multilane
(3) California Truck. The California truck-turn highways a 7-1/2 second criterion for the
template should be used in the design of outside lane, in both directions of travel,
highways not on the National Network. The normally will provide increased sight
minimum practical turning radius is 15 m. distance to the inside lanes. Consideration
should be given to increasing these values
(4) Bus. At intersections where truck volumes are
on downgrades steeper than 3% and longer
light or where the predominate truck traffic
than 2 km (see Index 201.3), where there
consists of mostly 3-axle and 4-axle units, the
are high truck volumes on the crossroad, or
bus turning template may be used. Its wheel
where the skew of the intersection
paths sweep a greater width than 3-axle
substantially increases the distance
delivery trucks and the smaller buses such as
traveled by the crossing vehicle.
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In determining corner sight distance, a set distance shall be equal to the stopping
back distance for the vehicle waiting at the sight distance as given in Table 201.1,
crossroad must be assumed. Set back for measured as previously described.
the driver on the crossroad shall be a
(d) Urban Driveways (Refer to Index 205.3)--
minimum of 3 m plus the shoulder width
Corner sight distance requirements as
of the major road but not less than 4 m.
described above are not applied to urban
Corner sight distance is to be measured
driveways.
from a 1070 mm height at the location of
the driver on the minor road to a 1300 mm (3) Decision Sight Distance. At intersections
object height in the center of the where the State route turns or crosses another
approaching lane of the major road. If the State route, the decision sight distance values
major road has a median barrier, a given in Table 201.7 should be used. In
600 mm object height should be used to computing and measuring decision sight
determine the median barrier set back. distance, the 1070 mm eye height and the
150 mm object height should be used, the
In some cases the cost to obtain 7-1/2
object being located on the side of the
seconds of corner sight distances may be
intersection nearest the approaching driver.
excessive. High costs may be attributable
to right of way acquisition, building The application of the various sight distance
removal, extensive excavation, or requirements for the different types of
unmitigable environmental impacts. In intersections is summarized in Table 405.1B.
such cases a lesser value of corner sight (4) Acceleration Lanes for Turning Moves onto
distance, as described under the following State Highways. At rural intersections, with
headings, may be used. stop control on the local cross road,
(b) Public Road Intersections (Refer to Topic acceleration lanes for left and right turns onto
205)--At unsignalized public road the State facility should be considered. At a
intersections (see Index 405.7) corner sight minimum, the following features should be
distance values given in Table 405.1A evaluated for both the major highway and the
should be provided. cross road:
At signalized intersections the values for • divided versus undivided
corner sight distances given in Table • number of lanes
405.1A should also be applied whenever
possible. Even though traffic flows are • design speed
designed to move at separate times, • gradient
unanticipated vehicle conflicts can occur
due to violation of signal, right turns on • lane, shoulder and median width
red, malfunction of the signal, or use of • traffic volume and composition
flashing red/yellow mode.
• turning volumes
Where restrictive conditions exist,
similar to those listed in Index • horizontal curve radii
405.1(2)(a), the minimum value for • sight distance
corner sight distance at both signalized
and unsignalized intersections shall be • proximity of adjacent intersections
equal to the stopping sight distance as • types of adjacent intersections
given in Table 201.1, measured as
For additional information and guidance, refer
previously described.
to the AASHTO publication, “A Policy on
(c) Private Road Intersections (Refer to Index Geometric Design of Highways and Streets”,
205.2) and Rural Driveways (Refer to the Headquarters Traffic Liaison and the
Index 205.4)--The minimum corner sight Project Development Coordinator.
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Table 405.1A 405.2 Left-turn Channelization

Corner Sight Distance (1) General. The purpose of a left-turn lane is to
(7-1/2 Second Criteria) expedite the movement of through traffic,
control the movement of turning traffic,
Design Speed Corner Sight increase the capacity of the intersection, and
(km/h) Distance (m) improve safety characteristics.
40 90
50 110 The District Traffic Branch normally
60 130 establishes the need for left-turn lanes. See
70 150 "Guidelines for Reconstruction of
80 170 Intersections," August 1985, published by the
90 190 California Division of Transportation
100 210 Operations.
110 230
(2) Design Elements.
Table 405.1B (a) Lane Width -- The lane width for both
Application of Sight Distance single and double left-turn lanes on
Requirements State highways shall be 3.6 m. Under
certain circumstances (listed below), left-
Intersection Sight Distance turn lane widths of 3.3 m or as narrow as
Types Stopping Corner Decision 3.0 m may be used on RRR or other
projects on existing State highways and on
Private Roads X X(1)
roads or streets under other jurisdictions
Public Streets and X X when supported by an approved design
Roads exception pursuant to Index 82.2. When
Signalized X (2) considering lane width reductions adjacent
Intersections to curbed medians, refer to Index 303.5 for
guidance on effective roadway width;
State Route Inter- X X X which may vary depending on drivers’
sections & Route lateral positioning and shy distance from
Direction raised curbs.
Changes, with or
without Signals • On high speed rural highways or
moderate speed suburban highways
(1) Using stopping sight distance between an eye height of 1070 mm where width is restricted, the minimum
and an object height of 1300 mm. See Index 405.1(2)(a) for setback
requirements.
width of single or dual left-turn lanes
(2) Apply corner sight distance requirements at signalized intersections may be reduced to 3.3 m.
whenever possible due to unanticipated violations of the signals or
malfunctions of the signals. See Index 405.1(2)(b). • In severely constrained situations on
low to moderate speed urban highways
where large trucks are not expected,
the minimum width of single left-turn
lanes may be reduced to 3.0 m. When
double left-turn lanes are warranted
under these same circumstances the
width of each lane shall be no less than
3.3 m. This added width is needed to
assure adequate clearance between
turning vehicles.
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(b) Approach Taper -- On a conventional entirely off the through traffic lanes.
highway without a median, an approach Deceleration lane lengths are given in
taper provides space for a left-turn lane by Table 405.2B; the bay taper length is in-
moving traffic laterally to the right. The cluded. Where partial deceleration is
approach taper is unnecessary where a permitted on the through lanes, as in
median is available for the full width of the Figures 405.2B and 405.2C, design speeds
left-turn lane. Length of the approach in Table 405.2B may be reduced
taper is given by the formula on Figures 15 to 30 km/h for a lower entry speed. In
405.2A, B and C. urban areas where cross streets are closely
spaced and deceleration lengths cannot be
Figure 405.2A shows a standard left-turn
achieved, the District Traffic branch
channelization design in which all
should be consulted for guidance.
widening is to the right of approaching
traffic and the deceleration lane (see Table 405.2A
below) begins at the end of the approach
taper. This design should be used in all
Bay Taper for Median
situations where space is available, usually Speed-change Lanes
in rural and semi-rural areas or in urban
areas with high traffic speeds and/or
volumes.
Figures 405.2B and 405.2C show alternate
designs foreshortened with the deceleration
lane beginning at the 2/3 point of the
approach taper so that part of the
deceleration takes place in the through
traffic lane. Figure 405.2C is shortened
further by widening half (or other
appropriate fraction) on each side. These
designs may be used in urban areas where
constraints exist, speeds are moderate and
traffic volumes are relatively low.
(c) Bay Taper -- A reversing curve along the
left edge of the traveled way directs traffic
into the left-turn lane. The length of this
bay taper should be short to clearly delin-
eate the left-turn move and to discourage
through traffic from drifting into the left-
turn lane. Table 405.2A gives offset data
for design of bay tapers. In urban areas,
lengths of 18 m and 27 m are normally NOTES:
used. Where space is restricted and speeds (1) The table gives offsets from a base line parallel to the
are low, a 18 m bay taper is appropriate. edge of traveled way at intervals measured from point
On rural high-speed highways, a 36 m "A". Add "E" for measurements from edge of traveled
length is considered appropriate. way.
(2) Where edge of traveled way is a curve, neither base line
(d) Deceleration Lane Length -- Design speed nor taper between B & C will be a tangent. Use
of the roadway approaching the proportional offsets from B to C.
(3) The offset "E" is usually 0.6 m along edge of traveled
intersection should be the basis for way for curbed medians; Use "E" = 0 m for striped
determining deceleration lane length. It is medians.
desirable that deceleration take place
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Table 405.2B 405.2(2) apply to double as well as single left-

turn lanes.
Deceleration Lane Length
The design of double left-turn lanes can be
Design Speed Length to accomplished by adding one or two lanes in the
(km/h) Stop (m) median. See "Guidelines for Reconstruction of
50 75 Intersections", published by Headquarters,
60 94 Division of Traffic Operations, for the various
70 113 treatments of double left-turn lanes.
80 132
90 150 (4) Two-way Left-turn Lane (TWLTL). The
100 169 TWLTL consists of a striped lane in the
median of an arterial and is devised to address
(e) Storage Length--At unsignalized inter- the special capacity and safety problems
sections, storage length may be based on associated with high-density strip develop-
the number of turning vehicles likely to ment. It can be used on 2-lane highways as
arrive in an average 2-minute period well as multilane highways. Normally, the
during the peak hour. As a minimum, District Traffic Operations Branch should
space for 2 passenger cars should be determine the need for a TWLTL.
provided at 7.5 m per car. If the peak hour The minimum width for a TWLTL shall be
truck traffic is 10 % or more, space for one 3.6 m (see Index 301.1). The preferred width
passenger car and one truck should be is 4.2 m. Wider TWLTL's are occasionally
provided. provided to conform with local agency
At signalized intersections, the storage standards. However, TWLTL's wider than
length may be based on one and one-half 4.2 m are not recommended, and in no case
to two times the average number of vehi- should the width of a TWLTL exceed 4.8 m.
cles that would store per signal cycle Additional width may encourage drivers in
depending on cycle length, signal phasing, opposite directions to use the TWLTL
and arrival and departure rates. As a simultaneously.
minimum, storage length should be 405.3 Right-turn Channelization
calculated the same manner as
unsignalized intersection. The District (1) General. For right-turning traffic, delays are
Traffic Branch should be consulted for this less critical and conflicts less severe than for
information. left-turning traffic. Nevertheless, right-turn
lanes can be justified on the basis of capacity,
When determining storage length, the end analysis, and accident experience.
of the left-turn lane is typically placed at
least 1 m, but not more than 10 m, from the In rural areas a history of high speed rear-end
nearest edge of shoulder of the intersecting accidents may warrant the addition of a right-
roadway. Although often set by the turn lane.
placement of a crosswalk line or limit line, In urban areas other factors may contribute to
the end of the storage lane should always the need such as:
be located so that the appropriate turning • High volumes of right-turning traffic causing
template can be accommodated. backup and delay on the through lanes.
(3) Double Left-turn Lanes. At signalized • Pedestrians conflicting with right turning
intersections on multilane conventional vehicles.
highways and on multilane ramp terminals,
double left-turn lanes should be considered if • Frequent rear-end and sideswipe accidents
the left-turn demand is 300 vehicles per hour or involving right-turning vehicles.
more. The lane widths and other design
elements of left-turn lanes given under Index
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Figure 405.2A
Standard Left-turn Channelization
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Figure 405.2B
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization
(Widening on one Side of Highway)
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Figure 405.2C
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization
(Widening on Both Sides in Urban Areas with Short Blocks)
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(2) Design Elements. Bay tapers are treated as a mirror image of

the left-turn bay taper.
(a) Lane and Shoulder Width--The basic lane
width for right turn lanes shall be 3.6 m. (c) Deceleration Lane Length--The conditions
Shoulder width shall be a minimum of and principles of left-turn lane deceleration
1.2 m. Whenever possible, consideration apply to right-turn deceleration. Where
should be given to increasing the shoulder full deceleration is desired off the high-
width to 2.4 m to facilitate the passage of speed through lanes, the lengths in Table
bicycle traffic and provide space for 405.2B should be used. Where partial de-
vehicle breakdowns. Although not celeration is permitted on the through lanes
desirable, lane and shoulder widths less because of limited right of way or other
than those given above can be considered constraints, average running speeds in
for right turn lanes under the following Table 405.2B may be reduced 15 to 30
conditions and with the approval of a km/h for a lower entry speed. For
design exception pursuant to Index 82.2. example, if the main line speed is 80 km/h
and a 20 km/h deceleration is permitted on
• On high speed rural highways or
the through lanes, the deceleration length
moderate speed suburban highways
may be that required for 60 km/h.
where width is restricted, consideration
may be given to reducing the lane width (d) Storage Length--Right-turn storage length
to 3.3 m with approval of a design is determined in the same manner as left-
exception. turn storage length. See Index 405.2(2)(e).
• On low to moderate speed roadways in (3) Right-turn Lanes at Off-ramp Intersections.
severely constrained situations, consid- Diamond off-ramps with a free right turn at the
eration may be given to reducing the local street and separate right-turn off-ramps
minimum lane width to 3.0 m with around the outside of a loop will cause
approval of a design exception. problems as traffic volumes increase. Serious
conflicts occur when the right-turning vehicle
• Shoulder widths may also be considered
must weave across multiple lanes on the local
for reduction under constricted
street in order to turn left at a major cross street
situations. Whenever possible, at least
close to the ramp terminal. Also, rear-end
a 0.6 m offset should be provided where
accidents can occur as right-turning drivers
the right turn lane is adjacent to a curb.
slow down or stop waiting for a gap in local
Entire omission of the shoulder should
street traffic. Free right turns usually end up
only be considered in the most severely
with yield, stop, or signal controls thus de-
constricted situations and where an
feating their purpose of increasing intersection
3.3 m lane can be constructed. Gutter
capacity.
pans can be included within a shoulder,
but cannot be included as part of the Free right turns should generally be avoided
lane width. unless there is room for a generous acceleration
lane or a lane addition on the local street. See
Additional right of way for a future right-
Index 504.3(2) for additional information.
turn lane should be considered when an
intersection is being designed.
405.4 Traffic Islands
(b) Tapers--Approach tapers are usually un-
A traffic island is an area between traffic lanes for
necessary since main line traffic need not
control of vehicle movements or for pedestrian
be shifted laterally to provide space for the
refuge. An island may be designated by paint,
right-turn lane. If, in some rare instances,
raised pavement markers, curbs, pavement edge, or
a lateral shift were needed, the approach
taper would use the same formula as for a
left-turn lane.
400-16 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 1, 2004

other devices. Examples of traffic island designs Figure 405.4

are shown on Figure 405.4.
Traffic islands usually serve more than one function,
Traffic Island Designs
but may be generally classified in three separate
types:
(a) Channelizing islands which are designed to
confine specific traffic movements into
definite channels;
(b) Divisional islands which serve to separate
traffic moving in the same or opposite di-
rection; and
(c) Refuge islands to aid and protect
pedestrians crossing the roadway. If a
divisional island is located in an urban area
where pedestrians are present, portions of
each island can be considered a refuge is-
land. (2) Delineation of Traffic Islands. Generally,
islands should present the least potential
Traffic islands are also used to discourage or conflict to approaching vehicles and yet
prohibit undesirable movements. perform their intended function. When curbs
(1) Design of Traffic Islands. Island sizes and are used, Type B is preferable except where a
shapes vary from one intersection to another. Type A curb is needed for traffic control or
They should be large enough to command pedestrian refuge (see Index 303.2). Islands
attention. Channelizing islands should not be may be designated as follows:
less than 5 m2 in area, preferably 7 m2. (a) Raised paved areas outlined by curbs.
Curbed, elongated divisional islands should not
be less than 1.2 m wide and 6 m long. (b) Flush paved areas outlined by pavement
markings.
The approach end of each island should be
offset 1 m to the left and 1.5 m to the right of (c) Unpaved areas (small unpaved areas
approaching traffic, using standard 1:15 should be avoided).
parabolic flares, and clearly delineated so that On facilities with speeds over 75 km/h, the use
it does not surprise the motorist. These offsets of any type of curb is discouraged. Where
are in addition to the normal 0.6 m left and 2.4 curbs are to be used, they should be located at
m right shoulder widths. Table 405.4 gives or outside of the shoulder edge, as discussed in
standard parabolic flares to be used in island Index 303.5.
design. On curved alignment, parabolic flares
may be omitted for small triangular traffic In rural areas, painted channelization sup-
islands whose sides are less than 7.5 m long. plemented with raised pavement markers
would be more appropriate than a raised
The approach nose of a divisional island curbed channelization. The design is as
should be highly visible day and night with forgiving as possible and decreases the
appropriate use of signs (reflectorized or consequence of a driver's failure to detect or
illuminated) and object markers. The approach recognize the curbed island.
nose should be offset 1 m from the through
traffic to minimize accidental impacts.
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-17
November 1, 2001

Table 405.4
Parabolic Curb Flares Commonly Used

OFFSET IN METERS FOR GIVEN "X" DISTANCE

Distance 2 4 5 8 10 12 15 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 45
L X
Length
of Flare
1:5 FLARES
5 00.16 0.64 1.00
10 00.08 0.32 0.50 1.28 2.00
15 00.05 0.21 0.33 0.85 1.33 1.92 3.00
1:10 FLARES
10 00.04 1.06 0.25 0.64 1.00
20 0.02 0.08 0.13 0.32 0.50 0.72 1.13 1.28 1.62 2.00
30 00.01 0.05 0.08 0.21 0.33 0.48 0.75 0.85 1.08 1.33 1.61 1.92 2.25 2.61 3.00
1:15 FLARES
15 00.02 0.07 0.11 0.28 0.44 0.64 1.00
30 00.01 0.04 0.06 0.14 0.22 0.32 0.50 0.57 0.72 0.89 1.08 1.28 1.50 1.74 2.00
45 00.01 0.02 0.04 0.09 0.15 0.21 0.33 0.38 0.48 0.59 0.72 0.85 1.00 1.16 1.33 1.52 1.71 1.92 3.00
400-18 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
November 1, 2001

In urban areas, speeds less than 75 km/h allow minimum left turn at 8 to 15 km/h. The length
more frequent use of curbed islands. Local of median opening varies with width of
agency requirements and matching existing median and angle of intersecting road.
conditions are factors to consider.
Usually a median opening of 18 m is adequate
for 90 degree intersections with median
405.5 Median Openings widths of 6.6 m or greater. When the median
(1) General. Median openings, sometimes called width is less than 6.6 m, a median opening of
crossovers, provide for vehicular crossings of 21 m is needed. When the intersection angle
the median at designated locations. Except for is other than 90 degrees, the length of median
emergency passageways in a median barrier, opening should be established by using truck
median openings are not allowed on urban turn templates (see Index 404.3).
freeways. (4) Cross Slope. The cross slope in the median
Median openings on expressways or divided opening should be limited to 5%. Crossovers
conventional highways should not be curbed on curves with super elevation exceeding 5%
except when the median between openings is should be avoided. This cross slope may be
curbed, or it is necessary for delineation or for exceeded when an existing 2-lane roadbed is
protection of traffic signal standards and other converted to a 4-lane divided highway. The
necessary hardware. In these special cases B4 elevation of the new construction should be
curbs should be used. An example of a based on the 5% cross slope requirement when
median opening design is shown on Figure the existing roadbed is raised to its ultimate
405.5. elevation.
(2) Spacing and Location. By a combination of (5) References. For information related to the
interchange ramps and emergency design of intersections and median openings,
passageways, provisions for access to the "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
opposite side of the freeway may be provided and Streets," AASHTO, should be consulted.
for law enforcement, emergency, and
maintenance vehicles to avoid extreme out-of- 405.6 Access Control
direction travel. Access should not be more
The basic principles which govern the extent to
frequent than at 5 km intervals. See Chapter 7
which access rights are to be acquired at
of the Traffic Manual for additional informa-
interchanges (see Index 205.1 and 504.8) also
tion on the design of emergency passageways.
apply to intersections at grade on expressways.
Emergency passageways should be located
Cases of access control which frequently occur at
where decision sight distance is available (see
intersections are shown in Figure 405.7. This
Table 201.7).
illustration does not presume to cover all situations.
Median openings at close intervals on other Where required by traffic conditions, access taking
types of highways create interference with fast should be extended in order to ensure proper
through traffic. Median openings should be operation of the expressway lanes. Reasonable
spaced at intervals no closer than 500 m. If a variations which observe the basic principles
median opening falls within 100 m of an referred to above are acceptable.
access opening, it should be placed opposite
the access opening.
(3) Length of Median Opening. For any three or
four-leg intersection on a divided highway,
the length of the median opening should be at
least as great as the width of the crossroads
pavement, median width, and shoulders. An
important factor in designing median openings
is the path of the design vehicle making a
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-19
November 1, 2001

Figure 405.5
Typical Design for Median Openings
400-20 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
June 26, 2006

width, the number of lanes on the intersecting

405.7 Public Road Intersections street, and the number of pedestrians.
The basic design to be used at right-angle public At urban intersections, the California truck or the
road intersections on the State Highway System is Bus Design Vehicle template may be used to
shown in Figure 405.7. The essential elements are determine the corner radius. Where STAA truck
sight distance (see Index 405.1) and the treatment access is anticipated, the STAA Design Vehicle
of the right-turn on and off the main highway. template may be used giving consideration to
Encroachment into opposing traffic lanes by the factors mentioned above. (See Index 404.3.)
turning vehicle should be avoided or minimized.
Smaller radii of 5 to 8 m are appropriate at minor
(1) Right-turn Onto the Main Highway. The cross streets where few trucks are turning. Local
combination of a circular curve joined by a agency standards may be appropriate in urban and
2:1 taper on the crossroads and a 22.5 m taper suburban areas.
on the main highway is designed to fit the
wheel paths of the appropriate turning Encroachment into opposing traffic lanes should be
template chosen by the designer. avoided.
It is desirable to keep the right-turn as tight as
405.9 Widening of 2-lane Roads at
practical, so the “STOP” or “YIELD” sign on
the minor leg can be placed close to the inter-
Signalized Intersections
section. Two-lane State highways may be widened at
(2) Right-turn Off the Main Highway. The intersections to 4-lanes whenever signals are
combination of a circular curve joined by a 45 installed. Sometimes it may be necessary to widen
m taper on the main highway and a 4:1 taper the intersecting road. The minimum design is
on the crossroads is designed to fit the wheel shown in Figure 405.9. More elaborate treatment
paths of the appropriate turning template and may be warranted by the volume and pattern of
to move the rear of the vehicle off the main traffic movements. Unusual turning movement
highway. Deceleration and storage lanes may patterns may possibly call for a different shape of
be provided when necessary (see Index widening.
405.3).
(3) Alternate Designs. Offsets are given in Figure
Topic 406 - Ramp Intersection
405.7 for right angle intersections. For skew Capacity Analysis
angles, roadway curvature, and possibly other
reasons, variations to the right-angle design The following procedure for ramp intersection
are permitted, but the basic rule is still to analysis may be used to estimate the capacity of
approximate the wheel paths of the design any signalized intersection where the phasing is
vehicle. relatively simple. It is useful in analyzing the need
for additional turning and through traffic lanes.
A three-center curve is an alternate treatment
that may be used at the discretion of the (a) Ramp Intersection Analysis--For the
designer. typical local street interchange there is
usually a critical intersection of a ramp
and the crossroads that establishes the
405.8 City Street Returns and Corner Radii
capacity of the interchange. The capacity
The pavement width and corner radius at city street of a point where lanes of traffic intersect
intersections is determined by the type of vehicle to is 1500 vehicles per hour. This is
be accommodated taking into consideration the expressed as intersecting lane vehicles per
amount of available right of way, the roadway hour (ILV/hr). Table 406 gives values of
ILV/hr for various traffic flow conditions.
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-21
November 1, 2001

Figure 405.7
Public Road Intersections
400-22 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
June 26, 2006

Figure 405.9
Widening of Two-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-23
November 1, 2001

If a single-lane approach at a normal

intersection has a demand volume of 1000 Table 406
vph, for example, then the intersecting
single-lane approach volume cannot Traffic Flow Conditions at
exceed 500 vph without delay. Intersections at Various Levels
The three examples that follow illustrate of Operation
the simplicity of analyzing ramp intersec-
tions using this 1500 ILV/hr concept.
ILV/hr Description
(b) Diamond Interchange--The critical inter-
section of a diamond type interchange
must accommodate demands of three con- < 1200:
flicting travel paths. As traffic volumes
approach capacity, signalization will be Stable flow with slight, but acceptable delay.
needed. For the spread diamond (Figure Occasional signal loading may develop. Free
406A), basic capacity analysis is made on midblock operations.
the assumption that 3-phase signalization 1200-1500:
is employed. For the tight diamond
(Figure 406B), it is assumed that 4-phase Unstable flow with considerable delays possible.
signal timing is used. Some vehicles occasionally wait two or more
cycles to pass through the intersection. Continuous
(c) 2 Quadrant Cloverleaf--Because this inter- backup occurs on some approaches.
change design (Figure 406C) permits 2-
phase signalization, it will have higher ca- 1500 (Capacity):
pacities on the approach roadways. The
Stop-and-go operation with severe delay and heavy
critical intersection is shared two ways in-
congestion(1). Traffic volume is limited by
stead of three ways as in the diamond
maximum discharge rates of each phase.
case.
Continuous backup in varying degrees occurs on all
approaches. Where downstream capacity is
restrictive, mainline congestion can impede orderly
discharge through the intersection.
(1) The amount of congestion depends on how much
the ILV/hr value exceeds 1500. Observed flow rates
will normally not exceed 1500 ILV/hr, and the excess
will be delayed in a queue.
400-24 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
November 1, 2001

Figure 406A
Spread Diamond
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-25
November 1, 2001

Figure 406B
Tight Diamond
400-26 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
November 1, 2001

Figure 406C
Two-quadrant Cloverleaf
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-27
November 1, 2001 E

• Figure 407E is the template for the

Topic 407 - Truck and Bus AASHTO Bus Design Vehicle turning on a
Turning Templates 12.8-meter radius.

Figures 407A through E are turning templates at an

approximate scale of 1:500 for the three types of
design vehicles described in Topic 404. A
computer model of truck offtracking generated
these “hard copy” templates. The printed templates
can be used as overlays to evaluate the adequacy of
the geometric layout of a curve when reproduced
on clear film and scaled to match the highway
drawings. The lines on the template delineate the
path of the wheels and the body of the vehicle as
the truck moves through the turn. These lines must
clear any “obstacles” including curbs, islands,
adjacent lanes, sign structures, traffic delineators,
traffic signal and lighting poles, guardrails, trees
and rock outcrops.
If any "obstacles" are encroached by the vehicle
path on the template, then an alternative design is
needed. If the wheel paths stay within the roadbed
without "hitting" any obstacles, then the geometry
is adequate for that design vehicle.
See Topic 404 for information on the design
vehicles. A 15-meter and 18-meter radius template
is given for each of the STAA and California Legal
Design vehicles. The radius of the template is
measured to the outside front wheel path through
the curve. The 18-meter radius template is more
conservative and is preferred. The 18-meter radius
template requires less right of way on the inside of
the curve, and it leaves a margin of error for the
truck driver. The 18-meter radius template should
be used for conditions where the vehicle may not
be required to stop before entering the intersection.
The 15-meter radius template can be used if the 18-
meter radius template does not clear all obstacles.
A 15-meter radius is the minimum radius that a
STAA or California Design Vehicle can navigate.
• Figures 407A and B are templates for the
STAA Design Vehicle turning on 15-meter
and 18-meter radii, respectively.
• Figures 407C and D are templates for the
California Design Vehicle turning on
15-meter and 18-meter radii, respectively.
400-28 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
November 1, 2001 E

Figure 407A
STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks
15 m Radius
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-29
November 1, 2001 E

Figure 407B
STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks
18 m Radius
400-30 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
November 1, 2001 E

Figure 407C
California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks
15 m Radius
 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 400-31
November 1, 2001 E

Figure 407D
California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks - 18 m Radius
400-32 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
November 1, 2001 E

Figure 407E
Bus Wheel Tracks - 12.8 m Radius