CORE JAVA MATERIAL

Table of Contents
Introduction: ................................................................................................................................................. 1
Java Development Kit (JDK): ..................................................................................................................... 1
Java Runtime Environment (JRE): ............................................................................................................. 1
Java Virtual Machine (JVM): ..................................................................................................................... 2
Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler: ....................................................................................................................... 2
Java Environment Setup: .............................................................................................................................. 3
Setup temporary path:.............................................................................................................................. 3
Setup permanent path: ............................................................................................................................. 3
Features of Java: ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Variables and Datatypes in Java.................................................................................................................... 7
Variables: .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Datatypes: ................................................................................................................................................. 7
byte: ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
short: ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
int: ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
long: ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
float: ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
double: ................................................................................................................................................ 10
boolean: .............................................................................................................................................. 10
char: .................................................................................................................................................... 10
String: .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Arrays: ................................................................................................................................................. 17
Identifiers: ............................................................................................................................................... 28
Modifiers: ................................................................................................................................................ 29
Operators: ................................................................................................................................................... 36
Assignment Operators: ........................................................................................................................... 37
Arithmetic Operators: ............................................................................................................................. 39
Relational Operators: .............................................................................................................................. 39

i
 Bitwise Operators: .................................................................................................................................. 41
Logical Operators: ................................................................................................................................... 42
Conditional Operator ( ? : ): .................................................................................................................... 42
Casting:.................................................................................................................................................... 43
Order of operators: ................................................................................................................................. 44
Precedence order:............................................................................................................................... 44
Associativity: ....................................................................................................................................... 44
Precedence and associativity of Java operators: ................................................................................ 44
Order of evaluation of subexpressions: .............................................................................................. 46
Short circuiting: ................................................................................................................................... 46
Precedence order gone awry: ............................................................................................................. 46
Control Flow Statements: ........................................................................................................................... 48
Selection Statements: ............................................................................................................................. 48
The if statement: ................................................................................................................................. 48
The if-else Statement: ......................................................................................................................... 49
The switch statement: ........................................................................................................................ 50
Iteration Statements: .............................................................................................................................. 51
The while Loop: ................................................................................................................................... 51
Do-while Loop ..................................................................................................................................... 52
For Loops ............................................................................................................................................. 54
Transfer Statements................................................................................................................................ 57
Continue Statement: ........................................................................................................................... 57
Break Statement ................................................................................................................................. 58
Object oriented Programming in Java ........................................................................................................ 66
Class ........................................................................................................................................................ 66
Constructor ......................................................................................................................................... 67
this key word:.......................................................................................................................................... 71
this keyword with field(Instance Variable) ............................................................................................. 72
Example of Variable Hiding ................................................................................................................. 72
Inheritance: ............................................................................................................................................. 74
Abstract Class: ......................................................................................................................................... 78
Abstract method ................................................................................................................................. 79

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 Abstract class having constructor, data member, methods etc ......................................................... 79
Polymorphism: ........................................................................................................................................ 81
3. Overloading vs Overriding in Java ............................................................................................... 85
Interface .................................................................................................................................................. 85
Marker Interfaces: .............................................................................................................................. 89
Abstract Class vs Interface .................................................................................................................. 89
Abstraction: ......................................................................................................................................... 90
Marker Interfaces: .............................................................................................................................. 97
Exception Handling: .................................................................................................................................... 98
Exception Handling Keywords................................................................................................................. 99
Improvement Exception handling in Java 7 .......................................................................................... 106
Exception Handling Best Practices ........................................................................................................ 107
Enumerations ............................................................................................................................................ 110
Collection Framework ............................................................................................................................... 114
Benefits of the Java Collections Framework ......................................................................................... 114
ArrayList: ........................................................................................................................................... 119
LinkedList .......................................................................................................................................... 121
Set: ........................................................................................................................................................ 123
Map ....................................................................................................................................................... 125
Java IO Operations .................................................................................................................................... 136
Standard Streams .................................................................................................................................. 136
Byte Stream Classe................................................................................................................................ 137
FileInputStream................................................................................................................................. 140
FileOutputStream.............................................................................................................................. 141
Character Stream Classes...................................................................................................................... 143
Serialization........................................................................................................................................... 147
Threads ..................................................................................................................................................... 151
Thread Life Cycle ................................................................................................................................... 151
Thread Priority ...................................................................................................................................... 152
Thread creation ..................................................................................................................................... 152
Creation of Thread by implementing Runnable interface ................................................................ 152
Creation of Thread by extending Thread class ..................................................................................... 155

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Reflection .................................................................................................................................................. 160
Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) ........................................................................................................... 166
JDBC Architecture ................................................................................................................................. 166
Configuring a JDBC development environment .................................................................................... 166
Process of an SQL statement with JDBC ............................................................................................... 168
Establishing a Connection ................................................................................................................. 168

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Introduction:
Java Development Kit (JDK): The Java Development Kit (JDK) is a software development
environment used for developing Java applications and applets. It includes the Java Runtime Environment
(JRE), an interpreter/loader (java), a compiler (javac), an archiver (jar), a documentation generator
(javadoc) and other tools needed in Java development.
Java developers are initially presented with two JDK tools, java and javac. Both are run from the
command prompt. Java source files are simple text files saved with an extension of .java. After writing
and saving Java source code, the javac compiler is invoked to create .class files. Once the .class files are
created, the 'java' command can be used to run the java program.
There are different JDKs for various platforms. The supported platforms include Windows, Linux and
Solaris. Mac users need a different software development kit, which includes adaptations of some tools
found in the JDK.

Java Runtime Environment (JRE): Java Runtime Environment contains JVM, class
libraries, and other supporting files. It does not contain any development tools such as compiler,
debugger, etc. Actually JVM runs the program, and it uses the class libraries, and other supporting
files provided in JRE. If you want to run any java program, you need to have JRE installed in the
system.

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Java Virtual Machine (JVM): The Java Virtual Machine provides a platform-independent
way of executable code. Programmers can concentrate on writing software, without having to be
concerned with how or where it will run. But, note that JVM itself not a platform independent. It
only helps Java to be executed on the platform-independent way. When JVM has to interpret the
byte codes to machine language, then it has to use some native or operating system specific
language to interact with the system. One has to be very clear on platform independent concept.
Even there are many JVMs written on Java, however they too have little bit of code specific to
the operating systems.

As we all aware when we compile a Java file, output is a ‘.class’ file and it consists of Java byte
codes which are understandable by JVM. Java Virtual Machine interprets the byte code into the
machine code depending upon the underlying operating system and hardware combination. It is
responsible for all the things like garbage collection, array bounds checking, etc. JVM is platform
dependent.

In brief, JVM performs following operations:

 Loads code
 Verifies code
 Executes code
 Provides runtime environment

Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler: A just-in-time (JIT) compiler is a program that turns Java
bytecode (a program that contains instructions that must be interpreted) into instructions that can
be sent directly to the processor. After you've written a Java program, the source language
statements are compiled by the Java compiler into bytecode rather than into code that contains
instructions that match a particular hardware platform's processor (for example, an Intel Pentium
microprocessor or an IBM System/390 processor). The bytecode is platform-independent code
that can be sent to any platform and run on that platform.
JRE
Source Bytecode
JVM
Code Compiler JRE OS CPU

Prg.class JIT
Prg.java

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A compiler is a program that reads a high-level program and translates it all at once, before running any
of the commands. Often you compile the program as a separate step, and then run the compiled code
later. In this case, the high-level program is called the source code, and the translated program is called
the object code or the executable.

1. Java Source Code (Written by Developer) (Machine Neutral)

2. Compiled Code / Byte Code (Compiled by javac) . (Machine Neutral)
3. Byte Code executed (Executed by JVM) (Machine Specific)
In step 2, javac (Java Compiler) convert java code to byte code. Which can be moved to any
machine(Windows / Linux) where it will be executed by JVM. Which in turn read bytecode and generate
machine specific code. In order to generate machine specific code JVM needs to be machine specific. So
every type of Machine (Windows / Linux / Mac) has specific JVM, which needs to be installed in order to
run Java Application. So in this way Coder doesn’t need to bother about writing code and generating byte
code. It is JVM which takes care of portability. So the final answer is Java is Portable but JVM is Machine
Specific.

Java Environment Setup:

The path is required to be set for using tools such as javac, java etc.
There are 2 ways to set java path:
1. Temporary
2. Permanent

Setup temporary path:

To set up temporary path of JDK, follow the below steps.
 Open command prompt: Start  cmd
 Copy jdk/bin directory path.
 Execute the set command: set path=<jdk/bin_path>

Ex: set path=C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0\bin

Setup permanent path:

In Windows: MyComputer  properties  advanced tab  environment variables  new tab of user
variable  write path in variable name  write path of bin folder in variable value  ok  ok  ok.
In Unix: export PATH=$PATH:/home/jdk1.6.01/bin/

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Features of Java:
A program is a sequence of instructions that species how to perform a computation.
There is given many features of java. They are also known as java buzzwords. The Java Features given
below are simple and easy to understand.
1. Simple
2. Object-Oriented
3. Platform independent
4. Secured
5. Robust
6. Architecture neutral
7. Portable
8. Dynamic
9. Interpreted
10. High Performance
11. Multithreaded
12. Distributed

1) Simple
Java is a simple language because of its various features, Java Doesn’t Support Pointers , Operator
Overloading etc. It doesn’t require unreferenced object because java support automatic garbage
collection.
Java provides bug free system due to the strong memory management.

2) Object-Oriented
Object-Oriented Programming Language (OOPs) is the methodology which provide software
development and maintenance by using object state, behavior, and properties.
Object Oriented Programming Language must have the following characteristics.
 Encapsulation
 Polymorphism
 Inheritance
 Abstraction

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As the languages like Objective C, C++ fulfills the above four characteristics yet they are not fully object
oriented languages because they are structured as well as object oriented languages.
In java everything is an Object. Java can be easily extended since it is based on the Object model.

3) Secure
Java is Secure Language because of its many features it enables to develop virus-free, tamper-free
systems. Authentication techniques are based on public-key encryption. Java does not support pointer
explicitly for the memory.

4) Robust
Java was created as a strongly typed language. Data type issues and problems are resolved at compile-
time, and implicit casts of a variable from one type to another are not allowed.
Memory management has been simplified java in two ways. First Java does not support direct pointer
manipulation or arithmetic. This make it possible for a java program to overwrite memory or corrupt
data.
Second , Java uses runtime garbage collection instead of instead of freeing of memory. In languages like
c++, it Is necessary to delete or free memory once the program has finished with it.

5) Platform-independent
Java Language is platform-independent due to its hardware and software environment. Java code can be
run on multiple platforms e.g. windows, Linux, sun Solaris, Mac/Os etc. Java code is compiled by the
compiler and converted into byte code. This byte code is a platform independent code because it can be
run on multiple platforms i.e. Write Once and Run Anywhere(WORA).

6) Architecture neutral
It is not easy to write an application that can be used on Windows , UNIX and a Macintosh. And its getting
more complicated with the move of windows to non-Intel CPU architectures.
Java takes a different approach. Because the Java compiler creates byte code instructions that are
subsequently interpreted by the java interpreter, architecture neutrality is achieved in the
implementation of the java interpreter for each new architecture.

7) Portable
Java code is portable. It was an important design goal of Java that it be portable so that as new

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architectures (due to hardware, operating system, or both) are developed, the java environment could be
ported to them.
In java, all primitive types (integers, longs, floats, doubles, and so on) are of defined sizes, regardless of
the machine or operating system on which the program is run. This is in direct contrast to languages like
C and C++ that leave the sized of primitive types up to the compiler and developer.
Additionally, Java is portable because the compiler itself is written in Java.

8) Dynamic
Because it is interpreted , Java is an extremely dynamic language, At runtime, the java environment can
extends itself by linking in classes that may be located on remote servers on a network(for example, the
internet)
At runtime, the java interpreter performs name resolution while linking in the necessary classes. The Java
interpreter is also responsible for determining the placement of object in memory. These two features of
the Java interpreter solve the problem of changing the definition of a class used by other classes.

9) Interpreted
We all know that Java is an interpreted language as well. With an interpreted language such as Java,
programs run directly from the source code.
The interpreter program reads the source code and translates it on the fly into computations. Thus, Java
as an interpreted language depends on an interpreter program.
The versatility of being platform independent makes Java to outshine from other languages. The source
code to be written and distributed is platform independent.
Another advantage of Java as an interpreted language is its error debugging quality. Due to this any error
occurring in the program gets traced. This is how it is different to work with Java.

10) High performance

For all but the simplest or most infrequently used applications, performance is always a consideration for
most applications, including graphics-intensive ones such as are commonly found on the world wide web,
the performance of java is more than adequate.

11) Multithreaded
Writing a computer program that only does a single thing at a time is an artificial constraint that we?ve
lived with in most programming languages. With java, we no longer have to live with this limitation.

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Support for multiple, synchronized threads is built directly into the Java language and runtime
environment.
Synchronized threads are extremely useful in creating distributed, network-aware applications. Such as
application may be communicating with a remote server in one thread while interacting with a user in a
different thread.

12) Distributed
Java facilitates the building of distributed application by a collection of classes for use in networked
applications. By using java’s URL (Uniform Resource Locator) class, an application can easily access a
remote server. Classes also are provided for establishing socket-level connections.

Variables and Datatypes in Java

Variables:
A variable is a name of memory location. Variables are three types in Java.
 Instance/Class level Variable: A variable that is declared inside the class but outside the method
is called instance variable. It is not declared as static. It's not mandatory to initialize Class level
(instance) variable. If we do not initialize instance variable compiler will assign default value to it.
Generally speaking, this default will be zero or null, depending on the data type. Relying on such
default values, however, is generally considered bad coding practice.
 Method Local Variable: A variable declared inside a method is called method local variable.
Method local variables have to be initialized before using it. The compiler never assigns a default
value to an un-initialized local variable. If you cannot initialize your local variable where it is
declared, make sure to assign it a value before you attempt to use it. Accessing an un-initialized
local variable will result in a compile-time error.
 Static Variable: A variable that is declared as static is called static variable. It cannot be local.
 Method Parameter: Parameters are variables that are passed in methods.

Datatypes:
In Java, there are two types of datatypes.
 Primitive datatypes:
o Boolean
 boolean
o Numeric

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 Character
 char
 Integral
 Integer
o byte
o short
o int
o long
 Floating point
o Float
o double
 Non-primitive datatype:
o String
o Array

Data Type Default Value Default Size Range

Boolean False 1 bit true / false
Byte 0 1 byte -128 to 127 (-27 to 27 – 1)
Char ‘\u0000' 2 byte 0 to 65,535 (unsigned)
Short 0 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767 (215 to 215 - 1)
Int 0 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483, 647 (-232 to 232-1)
-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
Long 0L 8 byte 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (-263 to 263-1)
1.40129846432481707e-45 to
3.40282346638528860e+38 (positive or
Float 0.0f 4 byte negative)
4.94065645841246544e-324d to
1.79769313486231570e+308d (positive or
Double 0.0d 8 byte negative).

For more information, please refer official Oracle documentation here:

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byte: The smallest integer type is byte. It has a minimum value of -128 and a maximum value of 127
(inclusive). The byte data type can be useful for saving memory in large arrays, where the memory
savings actually matters. Byte variables are declared by use of the byte keyword.
For example, the following declares and initialize byte variables called b:

byte b =100;

short: The short data type is a 16-bit signed two's complement integer. It has a minimum value of -
32,768 and a maximum value of 32,767 (inclusive). As with byte, the same guidelines apply: you can use a
short to save memory in large arrays, in situations where the memory savings actually matters. Following
example declares and initializes short variable:

short s =123;

int: The most commonly used integer type is int. It is a signed 32-bit type that has a range from –
2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647. In addition to other uses, variables of type int are commonly employed
to control loops and to index arrays. This data type will most likely be large enough for the numbers your
program will use, but if you need a wider range of values, use long instead.

int v = 123543;
int calc = -9876345;

long: long is a signed 64-bit type and is useful for those occasions where an int type is not large enough
to hold the desired value. It has a minimum value of -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and a maximum value
of 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (inclusive). Use of this data type might be in banking application when
large amount is to be calculated and stored.

long amountVal = 1234567891;

float: Floating-point numbers, also known as real numbers, are used when evaluating expressions that
require fractional precision. For example interest rate calculation or calculating square root. The float
data type is a single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 floating point. As with the recommendations for byte and
short, use a float (instead of double) if you need to save memory in large arrays of floating point
numbers. The type float specifies a single-precision value that uses 32 bits of storage. Single precision is

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faster on some processors and takes half as much space as double precision. The declaration and
initialization syntax for float variables given below, please note “f” after value initialization.

float intrestRate = 12.25f;

double: Double precision, as denoted by the double keyword, uses 64 bits to store a value. Double
precision is actually faster than single precision on some modern processors that have been optimized for
high-speed mathematical calculations. All transcendental math functions, such as sin( ), cos( ), and sqrt( ),
return double values. The declaration and initialization syntax for double variables given below, please
note “d” after value initialization.

double sineVal = 12345.234d;

boolean: The boolean data type has only two possible values: true and false. Use this data type for simple
flags that track true/false conditions. This is the type returned by all relational operators, as in the case of
a < b. boolean is also the type required by the conditional expressions that govern the control statements
such as if or while.

boolean flag = true;

booleanval = false;

char: In Java, the data type used to store characters is char. The char data type is a single 16-bit Unicode
character. It has a minimum value of '\u0000' (or 0) and a maximum value of '\uffff' (or 65,535 inclusive).
There are no negative chars.

char ch1 = 88; // code for X

char ch2 = 'Y';

Example program on primitive datatypes:

package com.sample;

public class PrimitiveDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {
byte b =100;
short s =123;
int v = 123543;
int calc = -9876345;
long amountVal = 1234567891;

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float intrestRate = 12.25f;

double sineVal = 12345.234d;
boolean flag = true;
boolean val = false;
char ch1 = 88; // code for X
char ch2 = 'Y';
System.out.println("byte Value = "+ b);
System.out.println("short Value = "+ s);
System.out.println("int Value = "+ v);
System.out.println("int second Value = "+ calc);
System.out.println("long Value = "+ amountVal);
System.out.println("float Value = "+ intrestRate);
System.out.println("double Value = "+ sineVal);
System.out.println("boolean Value = "+ flag);
System.out.println("boolean Value = "+ val);
System.out.println("char Value = "+ ch1);
System.out.println("char Value = "+ ch2);
}
}

Output:
byte Value = 100
short Value = 123
int Value = 123543
int second Value = -9876345
long Value = 1234567891
float Value = 12.25
double Value = 12345.234
boolean Value = true
boolean Value = false
char Value = X
char Value = Y

String: A string is one or more characters considered as a single value. Everything entered in a program,
requested from the user, or displayed as a series of characters is primarily a string. To support strings,
Java is equipped with the String class. To declare a variable that would hold a string, use the String data
type. In Java, strings are objects and not primitive datatype. Strings can be declared two ways.
1. By using double quotes
2. By creating object of String class.

String s1 = “abc”;
String s2 = new String(“abc”);

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Note: Except String, no other data type cannot initialize directly without using “new” operator.

String demoString = “This is a sample string”;

T h i s i s A s a m p l e s t r i n g
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

In the above table, first row specifies character sequence and the second row specifies index of the
corresponding character.

Methods of String class:

Illustrating the usage of String methods by using above “stringDemo” object.

Char charAt(int index)

Returns the char value at the specified index.
demoString.charAt(5) = i

Int codePointAt(int index)

Returns the character (Unicode code point) at the specified index.
demoString.codePointAt(5) = 105

Int codePointBefore(int index)

Returns the character (Unicode code point) before the specified index.
demoString.codePointBefore (5) = 32. codePoint for space = 32.

int codePointCount(int beginIndex, int endIndex)

Returns the number of Unicode code points in the specified text range of this
String.

Int compareTo(String anotherString)

Compares two strings lexicographically.

Int compareToIgnoreCase(String str)

Compares two strings lexicographically, ignoring case differences.

String concat(String str)

Concatenates the specified string to the end of this string.

Boolean contains(CharSequence s)

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Returns true if and only if this string contains the specified sequence of char values.

Boolean contentEquals(CharSequence cs)

Compares this string to the specified CharSequence.

Boolean contentEquals(StringBuffer sb)

Compares this string to the specified StringBuffer.

static String copyValueOf(char[] data)

Returns a String that represents the character sequence in the array specified.

static String copyValueOf(char[] data, int offset, int count)

Returns a String that represents the character sequence in the array specified.

Boolean endsWith(String suffix)

Tests if this string ends with the specified suffix.

Boolean equals(Object anObject)

Compares this string to the specified object.

Boolean equalsIgnoreCase(String anotherString)

Compares this String to another String, ignoring case considerations.

static String format(Locale l, String format, Object... args)

Returns a formatted string using the specified locale, format string, and arguments.

static String format(String format, Object... args)

Returns a formatted string using the specified format string and arguments.

byte[] getBytes()
Encodes this String into a sequence of bytes using the platform's default charset,
storing the result into a new byte array.

byte[] getBytes(Charset charset)

Encodes this String into a sequence of bytes using the given charset, storing the
result into a new byte array.

Void getBytes(int srcBegin, int srcEnd, byte[] dst, int dstBegin)

Deprecated. This method does not properly convert characters into bytes. As of
JDK 1.1, the preferred way to do this is via the getBytes() method, which uses the

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platform's default charset.

byte[] getBytes(String charsetName)

Encodes this String into a sequence of bytes using the named charset, storing the
result into a new byte array.

Void getChars(int srcBegin, int srcEnd, char[] dst, int dstBegin)

Copies characters from this string into the destination character array.

Int hashCode()
Returns a hash code for this string.

Int indexOf(int ch)

Returns the index within this string of the first occurrence of the specified
character.

Int indexOf(int ch, int fromIndex)

Returns the index within this string of the first occurrence of the specified
character, starting the search at the specified index.

Int indexOf(String str)

Returns the index within this string of the first occurrence of the specified
substring.

int indexOf(String str, int fromIndex)

Returns the index within this string of the first occurrence of the specified
substring, starting at the specified index.

String intern()
Returns a canonical representation for the string object.

Boolean isEmpty()
Returns true if, and only if, length() is 0.

Int lastIndexOf(int ch)

Returns the index within this string of the last occurrence of the specified
character.

Int lastIndexOf(int ch, int fromIndex)

Returns the index within this string of the last occurrence of the specified

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character, searching backward starting at the specified index.

Int lastIndexOf(String str)

Returns the index within this string of the rightmost occurrence of the specified
substring.

Int lastIndexOf(String str, int fromIndex)

Returns the index within this string of the last occurrence of the specified substring,
searching backward starting at the specified index.

Int length()
Returns the length of this string.

Boolean matches(String regex)

Tells whether or not this string matches the given regular expression.

Int offsetByCodePoints(int index, int codePointOffset)

Returns the index within this String that is offset from the given index by
codePointOffset code points.

Boolean regionMatches(boolean ignoreCase, int toffset, String other, int ooffset, int len)
Tests if two string regions are equal.

Boolean regionMatches(int toffset, String other, int ooffset, int len)

Tests if two string regions are equal.

String replace(char oldChar, char newChar)

Returns a new string resulting from replacing all occurrences of oldChar in this
string with newChar.

String replace(CharSequence target, CharSequence replacement)

Replaces each substring of this string that matches the literal target sequence with
the specified literal replacement sequence.

String replaceAll(String regex, String replacement)

Replaces each substring of this string that matches the given regular expression
with the given replacement.

String replaceFirst(String regex, String replacement)

Replaces the first substring of this string that matches the given regular expression

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with the given replacement.

String[] split(String regex)

Splits this string around matches of the given regular expression.

String[] split(String regex, int limit)

Splits this string around matches of the given regular expression.

Boolean startsWith(String prefix)

Tests if this string starts with the specified prefix.

Boolean startsWith(String prefix, int toffset)

Tests if the substring of this string beginning at the specified index starts with the
specified prefix.

CharSequence subSequence(int beginIndex, int endIndex)

Returns a new character sequence that is a subsequence of this sequence.

String substring(int beginIndex)

Returns a new string that is a substring of this string.

String substring(int beginIndex, int endIndex)

Returns a new string that is a substring of this string.

char[] toCharArray()
Converts this string to a new character array.

String toLowerCase()
Converts all of the characters in this String to lower case using the rules of the
default locale.

String toLowerCase(Locale locale)

Converts all of the characters in this String to lower case using the rules of the given
Locale.

String toString()
This object (which is already a string!) is itself returned.

String toUpperCase()
Converts all of the characters in this String to upper case using the rules of the

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default locale.

String toUpperCase(Locale locale)

Converts all of the characters in this String to upper case using the rules of the
given Locale.

String trim()
Returns a copy of the string, with leading and trailing whitespace omitted.

static String valueOf(boolean b)

Returns the string representation of the boolean argument.

static String valueOf(char c)

Returns the string representation of the char argument.

static String valueOf(char[] data)

Returns the string representation of the char array argument.

static String valueOf(char[] data, int offset, int count)

Returns the string representation of a specific subarray of the char array argument.

static String valueOf(double d)

Returns the string representation of the double argument.

static String valueOf(float f)

Returns the string representation of the float argument.

static String valueOf(int i)

Returns the string representation of the int argument.

static String valueOf(long l)

Returns the string representation of the long argument.

static String valueOf(Object obj)

Returns the string representation of the Object argument.

Arrays:
An array is a collection of similar data types. Array is a container object that hold values of homogenous
type. It is also known as static data structure because size of an array must be specified at the time of its

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declaration. An array can be either primitive or reference type. It gets memory in heap area. Index of an
array starts from zero to (array size-1).
The values stored in an array are called elements. The individual elements are accessed using an integer
index.

Array Declaration syntax:

datatype[] identifier;
(or)
datatype identifier[];

Array initialization syntax:

int[] arr = new int[10]; //10 is the size of array.
or
int[] arr = {10,20,30,40,50};

Accessing an element:
<array variable>[<integer expression>]

Arrays are linear collections of elements. They do not automatically resize. They have fixed lengths. This
makes them harder to use but faster. We can find utility/helper methods available in java.util.Arrays
class.

Modifier and Type Method and Description

asList(T... a)
static
<T> List<T>
Returns a fixed-size list backed by the specified array.

binarySearch(byte[] a, byte key)

static int Searches the specified array of bytes for the specified value using the binary search
algorithm.

binarySearch(byte[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, byte key)

static int Searches a range of the specified array of bytes for the specified value using the
binary search algorithm.

static int binarySearch(char[] a, char key)

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Searches the specified array of chars for the specified value using the binary search
algorithm.

binarySearch(char[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, char key)

static int Searches a range of the specified array of chars for the specified value using the
binary search algorithm.

binarySearch(double[] a, double key)

static int Searches the specified array of doubles for the specified value using the binary
search algorithm.

binarySearch(double[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex,

double key)
static int
Searches a range of the specified array of doubles for the specified value using the
binary search algorithm.

binarySearch(float[] a, float key)

static int Searches the specified array of floats for the specified value using the binary search
algorithm.

binarySearch(float[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, float key)

static int Searches a range of the specified array of floats for the specified value using the
binary search algorithm.

binarySearch(int[] a, int key)

static int Searches the specified array of ints for the specified value using the binary search
algorithm.

binarySearch(int[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, int key)

static int Searches a range of the specified array of ints for the specified value using the binary
search algorithm.

binarySearch(long[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, long key)

static int Searches a range of the specified array of longs for the specified value using the
binary search algorithm.

static int binarySearch(long[] a, long key)

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Searches the specified array of longs for the specified value using the binary search
algorithm.

binarySearch(Object[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex,

Object key)
static int
Searches a range of the specified array for the specified object using the binary
search algorithm.

binarySearch(Object[] a, Object key)

static int Searches the specified array for the specified object using the binary search
algorithm.

binarySearch(short[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, short key)

static int Searches a range of the specified array of shorts for the specified value using the
binary search algorithm.

binarySearch(short[] a, short key)

static int Searches the specified array of shorts for the specified value using the binary search
algorithm.

binarySearch(T[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, T key,

Comparator<? super T> c)
static <T> int
Searches a range of the specified array for the specified object using the binary
search algorithm.

binarySearch(T[] a, T key, Comparator<? super T> c)

static <T> int Searches the specified array for the specified object using the binary search

algorithm.

copyOf(boolean[] original, int newLength)

static
boolean[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with false (if necessary) so the
copy has the specified length.

copyOf(byte[] original, int newLength)

static byte[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary) so the
copy has the specified length.

static char[] copyOf(char[] original, int newLength)

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Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with null characters (if necessary)
so the copy has the specified length.

copyOf(double[] original, int newLength)

static
double[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary) so the
copy has the specified length.

copyOf(float[] original, int newLength)

static float[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary) so the
copy has the specified length.

copyOf(int[] original, int newLength)

static int[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary) so the
copy has the specified length.

copyOf(long[] original, int newLength)

static long[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary) so the
copy has the specified length.

copyOf(short[] original, int newLength)

static short[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with zeros (if necessary) so the

copy has the specified length.

copyOf(T[] original, int newLength)

static <T> T[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with nulls (if necessary) so the copy
has the specified length.

copyOf(U[] original, int newLength, Class<? extends

T[]> newType)
static
<T,U> T[] Copies the specified array, truncating or padding with nulls (if necessary) so the copy
has the specified length.

copyOfRange(boolean[] original, int from, int to)

static
boolean[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

copyOfRange(byte[] original, int from, int to)

static byte[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

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copyOfRange(char[] original, int from, int to)

static char[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

copyOfRange(double[] original, int from, int to)

static
double[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

copyOfRange(float[] original, int from, int to)

static float[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

copyOfRange(int[] original, int from, int to)

static int[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

copyOfRange(long[] original, int from, int to)

static long[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

copyOfRange(short[] original, int from, int to)

static short[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

copyOfRange(T[] original, int from, int to)

static <T> T[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

copyOfRange(U[] original, int from, int to, Class<? extends

static T[]> newType)
<T,U> T[]
Copies the specified range of the specified array into a new array.

deepEquals(Object[] a1, Object[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays are deeply equal to one another.

deepHashCode(Object[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the "deep contents" of the specified array.

deepToString(Object[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the "deep contents" of the specified array.

static boolean equals(boolean[] a, boolean[] a2)

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Returns true if the two specified arrays of booleans are equal to one another.

equals(byte[] a, byte[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays of bytes are equal to one another.

equals(char[] a, char[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays of chars are equal to one another.

equals(double[] a, double[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays of doubles are equal to one another.

equals(float[] a, float[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays of floats are equal to one another.

equals(int[] a, int[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays of ints are equal to one another.

equals(long[] a, long[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays of longs are equal to one another.

equals(Object[] a, Object[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays of Objects are equal to one another.

equals(short[] a, short[] a2)

static boolean
Returns true if the two specified arrays of shorts are equal to one another.

fill(boolean[] a, boolean val)

static void Assigns the specified boolean value to each element of the specified array of
booleans.

fill(boolean[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, boolean val)

static void Assigns the specified boolean value to each element of the specified range of the
specified array of booleans.

fill(byte[] a, byte val)

static void
Assigns the specified byte value to each element of the specified array of bytes.

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fill(byte[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, byte val)

static void Assigns the specified byte value to each element of the specified range of the
specified array of bytes.

fill(char[] a, char val)

static void
Assigns the specified char value to each element of the specified array of chars.

fill(char[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, char val)

static void Assigns the specified char value to each element of the specified range of the
specified array of chars.

fill(double[] a, double val)

static void
Assigns the specified double value to each element of the specified array of doubles.

fill(double[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, double val)

static void Assigns the specified double value to each element of the specified range of the
specified array of doubles.

fill(float[] a, float val)

static void
Assigns the specified float value to each element of the specified array of floats.

fill(float[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, float val)

static void Assigns the specified float value to each element of the specified range of the
specified array of floats.

fill(int[] a, int val)

static void
Assigns the specified int value to each element of the specified array of ints.

fill(int[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, int val)

static void Assigns the specified int value to each element of the specified range of the specified
array of ints.

fill(long[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, long val)

static void Assigns the specified long value to each element of the specified range of the
specified array of longs.

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fill(long[] a, long val)

static void
Assigns the specified long value to each element of the specified array of longs.

fill(Object[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, Object val)

static void Assigns the specified Object reference to each element of the specified range of the
specified array of Objects.

fill(Object[] a, Object val)

static void Assigns the specified Object reference to each element of the specified array of
Objects.

fill(short[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, short val)

static void Assigns the specified short value to each element of the specified range of the
specified array of shorts.

fill(short[] a, short val)

static void
Assigns the specified short value to each element of the specified array of shorts.

hashCode(boolean[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

hashCode(byte[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

hashCode(char[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

hashCode(double[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

hashCode(float[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

hashCode(int[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

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hashCode(long[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

hashCode(Object[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

hashCode(short[] a)
static int
Returns a hash code based on the contents of the specified array.

sort(byte[] a)
static void
Sorts the specified array into ascending numerical order.

sort(byte[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex)

static void
Sorts the specified range of the array into ascending order.

sort(char[] a)
static void
Sorts the specified array into ascending numerical order.

sort(char[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex)

static void
Sorts the specified range of the array into ascending order.

sort(double[] a)
static void
Sorts the specified array into ascending numerical order.

sort(double[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex)

static void
Sorts the specified range of the array into ascending order.

sort(float[] a)
static void
Sorts the specified array into ascending numerical order.

sort(float[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex)

static void
Sorts the specified range of the array into ascending order.

sort(int[] a)
static void
Sorts the specified array into ascending numerical order.

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sort(int[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex)

static void
Sorts the specified range of the array into ascending order.

sort(long[] a)
static void
Sorts the specified array into ascending numerical order.

sort(long[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex)

static void
Sorts the specified range of the array into ascending order.

sort(Object[] a)

static void Sorts the specified array of objects into ascending order, according to the natural
ordering of its elements.

sort(Object[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex)

static void Sorts the specified range of the specified array of objects into ascending order,
according to the natural ordering of its elements.

sort(short[] a)
static void
Sorts the specified array into ascending numerical order.

sort(short[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex)

static void
Sorts the specified range of the array into ascending order.

sort(T[] a, Comparator<? super T> c)

static
<T> void Sorts the specified array of objects according to the order induced by the specified
comparator.

sort(T[] a, int fromIndex, int toIndex, Comparator<? super

T> c)
static
<T> void Sorts the specified range of the specified array of objects according to the order
induced by the specified comparator.

toString(boolean[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

static String toString(byte[] a)

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Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

toString(char[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

toString(double[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

toString(float[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

toString(int[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

toString(long[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

toString(Object[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

toString(short[] a)
static String
Returns a string representation of the contents of the specified array.

Identifiers:
All Java components require names. Name used for classes, methods, interfaces and variables are called
Identifier. Identifier must follow some rules. Here are the rules:
 All identifiers must start with either a letter (a to z or A to Z) or currency character ($) or an
underscore.
 After the first character, an identifier can have any combination of characters.
 A Java keyword cannot be used as an identifier.
 Identifiers in Java are case sensitive; foo and Foo are two different identifiers.

Declaring a variable:
<access_modifies> <non_access_modifier> <datatype> <variable_name>;

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Ex: public final int x;

Initializing a variable:
<access_modifies> <non_access_modifier> <datatype> <variable_name> = <initial_value>

Ex: public final int x 10;

Modifiers:
There are two types of modifiers in java: access modifiers and non-access modifiers.

Access Modifiers Non-access Modifiers

 public  static
 protected  final
 default  abstract
 private  syncronized
 native
 transient
 volatile
 strictp

Access Modifiers:
The access modifiers in java specify accessibility (scope) of a data member, method, constructor or class.
 Public
 Private
 Protected
 Default

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The below table illustrates what are the access modifiers applicable for classes, methods and variables.
Access Modifier Class Methods Variable
Public Yes Yes Yes
Private No Yes Yes
Protected No Yes Yes
Default Yes Yes Yes

The access modifiers applicable for Class:

 Public
 default

The access modifiers applicable for methods:

 public
 private
 protected
 default

The access modifiers applicable for variables:

 public
 private
 protected
 default

General accessibly of access modifiers:

Access Modifier within class within package outside package by subclass outside package

private Y N N N

default Y Y N N

protected Y Y Y N

public Y Y Y Y

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Access Modifiers for Variable:

Visibility public private protected default
Within same class Yes Yes Yes Yes
From any class in Yes No Yes Yes
same package
From any sub class Yes No Yes Yes
from same package
From any sub class Yes No Yes(Only by No
from different inheritance)
package
From any non-sub Yes No No No
class from different
package

Access Modifiers for Methods:

Visibility public private protected default
Within same class Yes Yes Yes Yes
From any class in Yes No Yes Yes
same package
From any sub class Yes No Yes Yes
from same package
From any sub class Yes No Yes(Only by No
from different inheritance)
package
From any non-sub Yes No No No
class from different
package

Access Modifier for Local Variable:

No Access Modifiers can be applied to local variables. Only final can be applied to a local variable which is
a Non Access Modifier.

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Non Access Modifiers

Java provides a set of non-access modifiers to produce some other functionality.
1. static
2. final
3. abstract
4. synchronized
5. native
6. transient
7. volatile
8. strictfp

1. static modifier:
Static Modifiers are used to create class variable and class methods which can be accessed without
instance of a class

1.1. Static Variables:

 Static variables are defined as a class member that can be accessed without any object of
that class. Static variable has only one single storage. All the object of the class having static
variable will have the same instance of static variable. Static variables are initialized only
once.
 Static variable are used to represent common property of a class. It saves memory. Suppose
there are 100 employee in a company. All employee have its unique name and employee id
but company name will be same all 100 employee. Here company name is the common
property. So if you create a class to store employee detail, company_name field will be mark
as static.
1.2. Static Methods:
 A method can also be declared as static. Static methods do not need instance of its class for
being accessed. main() method is the most common example of static method. main()
method is declared as static because it is called before any object of the class is created.
1.3. Static block:
 Static block is used to initialize static data member. Static block executes before main()
method.
Que: Why a non-static variable cannot be referenced from a static context?

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When you try to access a non-static variable from a static context like main method, java compiler
throws a message like "a non-static variable cannot be referenced from a static context". This is because
non-static variables are related with instance of class (object) and they get created when instance of a
class is created by using new operator. So if you try to access a non-static variable without any instance
compiler will complain because those variables are not yet created and they don't have any existence
until an instance is created and associated with it.

2. final modifier: “final” is a keyword or reserved word in java and can be applied to member
variables, methods, class and local variables in Java. Once you make a reference final you are not
allowed to change that reference and compiler will verify this and raise compilation error if you try
to re-initialized final variables in java.

2.1. final variable: Any variable either member variable or local variable (declared inside method or
block) modified by final keyword is called final variable. Final variables are often declare with static
keyword in java and treated as constant.

public static final String LOAN = "loan";

LOAN = new String("loan") //invalid compilation error

Note: Final variables are by default read-only.

2.2. final method: Final keyword in java can also be applied to methods. A java method with final
keyword is called final method and it can not be overridden in sub-class. You should make a method
final in java if you think it’s complete and its behavior should remain constant in sub-classes. Final
methods are faster than non-final methods because they are not required to be resolved during run-
time and they are bonded on compile time.
class PersonalLoan {
public final String getName() {
return "personal loan";
}
}

class CheapPersonalLoan extends PersonalLoan {

@Override
public final String getName() {
return "cheap personal loan"; // compilation error: overridden
//method is final
// final
}
}

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2.3. final class: final keyword helps to write immutable class. Immutable classes are the one which cannot
be modified once it gets created and String is primary example of immutable and final class.
Immutable classes offer several benefits one of them is that they are effectively read-only and can be
safely shared in between multiple threads without any synchronization overhead. You cannot make a
class immutable without making it final and hence final keyword is required to make a class
immutable in java.

3. abstract: The “abstract” keyword can be used on classes and methods. A class declared with the
“abstract” keyword cannot be instantiated, and that is the only thing the “abstract” keyword does.
4. synchronized: The "synchronized" keyword prevents concurrent access to a block of code or object
by multiple Threads. The synchronized keyword causes a thread to obtain a lock when entering the
method, so that only one thread can execute the method at the same time.
5. native: The native keyword is used to declare a method which is implemented in platform-
dependent code such as C or C++. When a method is marked as native, it cannot have a body and
must ends with a semicolon instead. The Java Native Interface (JNI)specification governs rules and
guidelines for implementing native methods, such as data type conversion between Java and the
native application.
6. transient: The keyword transient in Java used to indicate that the variable should not be serialized.
By default all the variables in the object is converted to persistent state. In some cases, you may want
to avoid persisting some variables because you don’t have the necessity to transfer across the
network. So, you can declare those variables as transient. If the variable is declared as transient, then
it will not be persisted. It is the main purpose of the transient keyword.

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7. volatile: When multiple threads using the same variable, each thread will have its own copy of the
local cache for that variable. So, when it’s updating the value, it is actually updated in the local cache
not in the main variable memory. The other thread which is using the same variable doesn’t know
anything about the values changed by the other thread. To avoid this problem, if you declare a
variable as volatile, then it will not be stored in the local cache. Whenever threads are updating the
values, it is updated to the main memory. So, other threads can access the updated value.
8. strictfp: The strictfp means strict floating point, ensures that you get exactly the same results from
your floating point calculations on every platform and it forces the precision of floating point
calculations (float or double) in Java conform to IEEE’s 754 standard, explicitly. Without using strictfp
keyword, the floating point precision depends on target platform’s hardware, i.e. CPU’s floating point
processing capability. In other words, using strictfp ensures result of floating point computations is
always same on all platforms.
The strictfp keyword can be applied for classes, interfaces and methods.

Class level strictfp:

public strictfp class Car { // valid...

public void calculateSpeed() { // strictfp applied on this method...

// calculateSpeed code.
}

public void applyBreak() { // strictfp applied on this method...

// applyBreak code.
}
}
In class level strictfp all the methods inside class also get modified with strictfp keyword
automatically.

Method level strictfp:

public class Car {
public strictfp void calculateHeat() {// strictfp applied on this
method...

public void applyBreak() {// No strictfp on this method...

}
}

Interface level strictfp:

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public strictfp interface Vehicle { // interface code...

// interface code...
}

strictfp not allowed for abstract methods & constants:

abstract public class Car {

private strictfp float speed = 50;//CAN NOT apply on variable

public strictfp Car(){ //CAN NOT apply on constructor

strictfp abstract void showSpeed();//CAN NOT apply on abstract methods

public strictfp void startCar(){ //CAN apply on abstract methods

}
}

Rules for strifp:

 When strictfp applied on classes, interfaces & abstract classes, it specifies that all of the
expressions in all of the methods of the class are FP-strict.
 For methods, it specifies that all of the expressions in that method are FP-strict.
 strictfp keyword cannot be applied for constructors.
 strictfp cannot be applied for abstract methods.
 strictfp cannot be applied for constants.

Operators:
Operator in java is a symbol that is used to perform operations. Operators in java fall into 8 different
categories.
 Assignment Operators
 Arithmetic operators
 Relational operators
 Logical operators
 Bitwise operators

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Assignment Operators:
The assignment operator (=) is a way of copying a value on the right-hand side (rvalue), to a variable on
the left-hand side (lvalue). The rvalue can be any constant, variable, or any expression that produces a
value, while the lvalue must be a distinctly named variable that possesses the capacity to hold to a value.
There are following assignment operators supported by Java language:

Operator Description Example

Simple assignment operator, Assigns values from

= C = A + B will assign value of A + B into C
right side operands to left side operand

Add AND assignment operator, It adds right operand

+= to the left operand and assign the result to left C += A is equivalent to C = C + A
operand

Subtract AND assignment operator, It subtracts right

-= operand from the left operand and assign the result C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A
to left operand

Multiply AND assignment operator, It multiplies right

*= operand with the left operand and assign the result to C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A
left operand

Divide AND assignment operator, It divides left

/= operand with the right operand and assign the result C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A
to left operand

Modulus AND assignment operator, It takes modulus

%= using two operands and assign the result to left C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A
operand

<<= Left shift AND assignment operator C <<= 2 is same as C = C << 2

>>= Right shift AND assignment operator C >>= 2 is same as C = C >> 2

&= Bitwise AND assignment operator C &= 2 is same as C = C & 2

^= bitwise exclusive OR and assignment operator C ^= 2 is same as C = C ^ 2

|= bitwise inclusive OR and assignment operator C |= 2 is same as C = C | 2

When we assign primitives, it’s actually copy a value from one place to another. This is because primitives
hold actual values as opposed to objects that hold references. With the assignment of objects, one must
become properly acquainted with the phenomenon known as aliasing.

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Aliasing can be observed in the behavior of object references that are copied and that point to the same
object. Consider the following example:

Program:
class Level {
int spaces;
}

public class CarPark {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Level l1 = new Level();
Level l2 = new Level();
l1.spaces = 10;
l2.spaces = 3;

System.out.println("1: l1.spaces: " + l1.spaces + ", l2.spaces: " +

l2.spaces);

l2 = l1;
System.out.println("2: l1.spaces: " + l1.spaces + ", l2.spaces: " +
l2.spaces);

l2.spaces = 0;
System.out.println("3: l1.spaces: " + l1.spaces + ", l2.spaces: " +
l2.spaces);
}
}

Output:

1: l1.spaces: 10, l2.spaces: 3

2: l1.spaces: 10, l2.spaces: 10
3: l1.spaces: 0, l2.spaces: 0

The CarPark class illustrates the logic of a car park spread over many levels. In this instance, the
class creates two Level instances (l1 and l2) in the main() and both objects are assigned different
field values that denote the number of empty spaces on each level. We can observe the aliasing
phenomenon at the point where l1 is assigned to l2 and how, subsequently assigning a different
value to l2 appears to change l1 as well, when you would intuitively expect that both objects were
completely independent of one and the other. Not quite so, I'm afraid. This is because at the point
where l1 is assigned to l2, both now contain the same reference that point to the same object and

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changes to the one is bound to affect the other. This is fundamentally how Java works with
objects and demonstrates the aliasing effect.
To retain two independent objects in this particular instance, we would make the assignment call
to the object member explicit, like this: -
l2.spaces = l1.spaces;

This way we can avoid the idiosyncratic behavior of the aliasing phenomenon, which we must
add, is not limited to field assignments alone, but can also occur when you pass an object into a
method, where it can appear to change the value of an object or field that exists completely
outside of the method scope.

Arithmetic Operators:
Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the same way that they are used in
algebra. The following table lists the arithmetic operators:
Operator Description Example

+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator A + B will give 30

- Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand A - B will give -10

* Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator A * B will give 200

/ Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand B / A will give 2

Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns
% B % A will give 0
remainder

++ Increment - Increase the value of operand by 1 B++ gives 21

-- Decrement - Decrease the value of operand by 1 B-- gives 19

Relational Operators:
Relational operators evaluate the relationship between the values of two operands and produce a
boolean result i.e., true or false. They include less than (<), greater than (>), less than or equal to

(<=), greater than or equal to (>=), equivalence (==), and nonequivalence (!=). With the exception of the
equivalence and nonequivalence operators, all other relational operators work with all primitives except
boolean.

Operator Description Example

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Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if yes then
== (A == B) is not true.
condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if values are not
!= (A != B) is true.
equal then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right
> (A > B) is not true.
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right
< (A < B) is true.
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value
>= (A >= B) is not true.
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of
<= (A <= B) is true.
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

The equivalence and nonequivalence operators, in addition to working with all primitives, also work with
objects; but here, one must be mindful to note that they actually compare object references and not the
actual content of objects themselves. For instance, if you were to try to compare two Double objects:
Program:
public class CompareDouble {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Double d1 = new Double(3.2);
Double d2 = new Double(3.2);
System.out.println(d2 != d1);
System.out.println(d2 == d1);
}
}

Output:
true
false

The output can be a bit confusing, returning a false result when both objects are tested for equivalence,
and a true result when tested for nonequivalence. This is of course not what you might expect given that
both objects are the same or to put it another way, both references point to the same object in memory.
The reason for what might seem an unusual result is because the == and != operators in fact compare
object references as opposed to the actual content of objects themselves.

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To make the comparison of the actual content of objects, we may use the special equals() method that
exist for all objects like so:
Program:
public class CompareDouble {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Double d1 = new Double(3.2);
Double d2 = new Double(3.2);
System.out.println(d2.equals(d1));
}
}

Output:
true
false

Bitwise Operators:
These operators provide you with a way to manipulate individual bits in an integral primitive data type.
Integral data types are data types which store a finite subset of integers. Bitwise operators are said to
perform Boolean algebra on the corresponding bits in two arguments.

Java defines several bitwise operators which can be applied to the integer types, long, int, short, char, and
byte.

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation.

The following table lists the bitwise operators:

Assume integer variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13 then:

Operator Description Example

Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists

& (A & B) will give 12 which is 0000 1100
in both operands.

Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in either

| (A | B) will give 61 which is 0011 1101
operand.

Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set in one

^ (A ^ B) will give 49 which is 0011 0001
operand but not both.

~ Binary Ones Complement Operator is unary and has (~A ) will give -60 which is 1100 0011

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the efect of 'flipping' bits.

Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands value is

<< moved left by the number of bits specified by the right A << 2 will give 240 which is 1111 0000
operand.

Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands value is

>> moved right by the number of bits specified by the right A >> 2 will give 15 which is 1111
operand.

Shift right zero fill operator. The left operands value is

>>> moved right by the number of bits specified by the right A >>>2 will give 15 which is 0000 1111
operand and shifted values are filled up with zeros.

Logical Operators:
The Conditional or logical operators AND (&&) and OR (||) also produce a boolean result of true or false
based on the logical relationship of its arguments. They are known to exhibit a phenomenon known as
short-circuiting, which means that the expression is evaluated only to the extent that the truth or falsehood
of the it can be clearly determined. This is to say sometimes only a part of the expression need be
evaluated in order to determine its truth or falsehood. Below provides a demonstration on the use of
conditional operators:

Assume boolean variables A holds true and variable B holds false then:

Operator Description Example

Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands are non-zero then
&& (A && B) is false.
then condition becomes true.

Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands are non-zero

|| (A || B) is true.
then then condition becomes true.

Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the logical state of its
! operand. If a condition is true then Logical NOT operator will make !(A && B) is true.
false.

Conditional Operator ( ? : ):
Conditional operator is also known as the ternary operator. This operator consists of three operands and
is used to evaluate boolean expressions. The goal of the operator is to decide which value should be
assigned to the variable. The operator is written as :
variable x = (expression) ? value if true : value if false

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Casting:
Casting is a way to convert from one type to another, for instance from a float to a double. With a
widening-conversion (i.e. going from a type that holds less information to one that holds much more),
you will find this to be a safe operation and as there is no risk of losing information, Java is able to
perform these sorts of casts automatically; however with a narrowing-conversion, the compiler will
always force you to use an explicit cast. To perform a cast, you simply put the desired type between
parenthesis and to the left of any value you wish to cast. Check out the following example:
Program:
public class Cast {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double d = 5.2;
int i = (int) d;// narrowing conversion cast required
long l = i;// widening conversion automatic cast
byte b = (byte) l;// narrowing conversion cast required
System.out.println(d);
System.out.println(i);
System.out.println(l);
System.out.println(b);
}
}

Output:
5.2
5
5
5

It is also good practice to be aware that when performing mathematical operations in Java, the larger or
largest data type determines the size of the result of that expression; for instance if you were to multiply
an int by say a double primitive data type, the result will almost certainly be double, likewise if you
were to perform an operation with of any of the smaller data types i.e. byte, char or short with an
int, the resulting value will be of type int. An explicit cast will be necessary to assign any resulting value

to the smaller type.

The programmer should be mindful of casting operations and their implications in Java, particularly as it
concerns primitives. Java allows you to make explicit casts from one primitive type to another where
necessary, with the exemption of the boolean primitive type which of course, does not do casts.

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Order of operators:
Java has well-defined rules for specifying the order in which the operators in an expression are
evaluated when the expression has several operators. For example, multiplication and division
have a higher precedence than addition and subtraction. Precedence rules can be overridden by
explicit parentheses.

Precedence order:
When two operators share an operand the operator with the higher precedence goes first. For example, 1
+ 2 * 3 is treated as 1 + (2 * 3), whereas 1 * 2 + 3 is treated as (1 * 2) + 3 since multiplication has a higher
precedence than addition.

Associativity:
When an expression has two operators with the same precedence, the expression is evaluated according
to its associativity. For example x = y = z = 17 is treated as x = (y = (z = 17)), leaving all three
variables with the value 17, since the = operator has right-to-left associativity (and an assignment
statement evaluates to the value on the right hand side). On the other hand, 72 / 2 / 3 is treated as
(72 / 2) / 3 since the / operator has left-to-right associativity.

Precedence and associativity of Java operators:

The table below shows all Java operators from highest to lowest precedence, along with their
associativity. Most programmers do not memorize them all, and even those that do still use parentheses
for clarity.

Precedence Priority Operator Type Associativity

() Parentheses
15 1 [] Array subscript Left to Right
· Member selection

++ Unary post-increment
14 2 Right to left
-- Unary post-decrement

++ Unary pre-increment
13 3 Right to left
-- Unary pre-decrement

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+ Unary plus
- Unary minus
! Unary logical negation
~ Unary bitwise complement
( type ) Unary type cast

* Multiplication
12 4 / Division Left to right
% Modulus

+ Addition
11 5 Left to right
- Subtraction

Bitwise left shift

<< Bitwise right shift with sign
10 6 >> extension Left to right
>>> Bitwise right shift with zero
extension

< Relational less than

<= Relational less than or equal
9 7 > Relational greater than Left to right
>= Relational greater than or equal
instanceof Type comparison (objects only)

== Relational is equal to
8 8 Left to right
!= Relational is not equal to

7 9 & Bitwise AND Left to right

6 10 ^ Bitwise exclusive OR Left to right

5 11 | Bitwise inclusive OR Left to right

4 12 && Logical AND Left to right

3 13 || Logical OR Left to right

2 14 ?: Ternary conditional Right to left

1 15 = Assignment Right to left

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+= Addition assignment
-= Subtraction assignment
*= Multiplication assignment
/= Division assignment
%= Modulus assignment

There is no explicit operator precedence table in the Java Language Specification and different
tables on the web and in textbooks disagree in some minor ways.

Order of evaluation of subexpressions:

Associativity and precedence determine in which order Java applies operators to subexpressions but they
do not determine in which order the subexpressions are evaluated. In Java, subexpressions are evaluated
from left to right (when there is a choice). So, for example in the expression A() + B() * C(D(),
E()), the subexpressions are evaluated in the order A(), B(), D(), E(), and C(). Although, C()

appears to the left of both D() and E(), we need the results of both D() and E() to evaluate C(). It is
considered poor style to write code that relies upon this behavior (and different programming languages
may use different rules).

Short circuiting:
When using the conditional and and or operators (&& and ||), Java does not evaluate the second
operand unless it is necessary to resolve the result. This allows statements like if (s != null
&& s.length() < 10) to work reliably. Programmers rarely use the non short-circuiting
versions (& and |) with boolean expressions.

Precedence order gone awry:

Sometimes the precedence order defined in a language do not conform with mathematical norms. For
example, in Microsoft Excel, -a^b is interpreted as (-a)^b instead of -(a^b). So -1^2 is equal to 1 instead of
-1, which is the values most mathematicians would expect. Microsoft acknowledges this quirk as a
"design choice". One wonders whether the programmer was relying on the C precedence order in which
unary operators have higher precedence than binary operators. This rule agrees with mathematical
conventions for all C operators, but fails with the addition of the exponentiation operator. Once the order

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was established in Microsoft Excel 2.0, it could not easily be changed without breaking backward
compatibility.

Que: What is the result of the following code fragment?

int x = 5;
int y = 10;
int z = ++x * y--;

Que: What is the result of the following code fragment? Explain.

System.out.println("1 + 2 = " + 1 + 2);
System.out.println("1 + 2 = " + (1 + 2));

Output:
1 + 2 = 12
1 + 2 = 3

If either (or both) of the operands of the + operator is a string, the other is automatically cast to a string.
String concatenation and addition have the same precedence. Since they are left-associative, the
operators are evaluated left-to-right. The parentheses in the second statement ensures that the second +
operator performs addition instead of string concatenation.

Que: Add parentheses to the following expression to make the order of evaluation more clear.
year % 4 == 0 && year % 100 != 0 || year % 400 == 0

Ans:
((year % 4 == 0) && (year % 100 != 0)) || (year % 400 == 0)

Que: What does the following code fragment print?

System.out.println(1 + 2 + "abc");
System.out.println("abc" + 1 + 2);

Output:
3abc
abc12

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The + operator is left associative, whether it is string concatenation or arithmetic plus.

Control Flow Statements:

The statements inside the source files are generally executed from top to bottom, in the order that they
appear. However, Control flow statements break up the flow of execution by employing decision making,
looping, and branching, enabling your program to conditionally execute particular blocks of code. We use
control statements when we want to change the default sequential order of execution.
There are three main categories of control flow statements:
1. Selection statements:
1.1. if,
1.2. if-else
1.3. switch.
2. Loop statements:
2.1. while,
2.2. do-while
2.3. for.
3. Transfer statements:
3.1. break,
3.2. continue,
3.3. return,
3.4. try-catch-finally
3.5. assert.

Selection Statements:
The if statement:
The if statement executes a block of code only if the specified expression is true. If the value is false, then
the if block is skipped and execution continues with the rest of the program. You can either have a single
statement or a block of code within an if statement. Note that the conditional expression must be a
Boolean expression.
The simple if statement has the following syntax:
if (<conditional expression>) {

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<statement(s)>
}

Example:
public class IfStatementDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b)
System.out.println("a > b");
if (a < b)
System.out.println("b > a");
}
}

Output:
b>a

The if-else Statement:

The if/else statement is an extension of the “if” statement. If the statements in the “if” statement fails,
the statements in the else block are executed. You can either have a single statement or a block of code
within if-else blocks. Note that the conditional expression must be a Boolean expression.
The if-else statement has the following syntax:
if (<conditional expression>) {
<statement action>
} else {
<statement action>
}

Below is an example that demonstrates conditional execution based on if else statement condition.
public class IfElseStatementDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b) {
System.out.println("a > b");
} else {
System.out.println("b < a");
}
}
}

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The switch statement:

Switch Case Statement The switch case statement, also called a case statement is a multi-way branch
with several choices. A switch is easier to implement than a series of if/else statements. The switch
statement begins with a keyword, followed by an expression that equates to a no long integral value.
Following the controlling expression is a code block that contains zero or more labeled cases. Each label
must equate to an integer constant and each must be unique. When the switch statement executes, it
compares the value of the controlling expression to the values of each case label. The program will select
the value of the case label that equals the value of the controlling expression and branch down that path
to the end of the code block. If none of the case label values match, then none of the codes within the
switch statement code block will be executed. Java includes a default label to use in cases where there
are no matches. We can have a nested switch within a case block of an outer switch. Its general form is as
follows:
switch (<non-long integral expression>) {

case label : <statement >

1 1

case label : <statement >

2 2

…
case label : <statement >
n n

default: <statement>
} // end switch

When executing a switch statement, the program falls through to the next case. Therefore, if you want to
exit in the middle of the switch statement code block, you must insert a break statement, which causes
the program to continue executing after the current code block.
Below is a java example that demonstrates conditional execution based on nested if else statement
condition to find the greatest of 3 numbers.
public class SwitchCaseStatementDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int a = 10, b = 20, c = 30;
int status = -1;
if (a > b && a > c) {
status = 1;
} else if (b > c) {
status = 2;
} else {
status = 3;
}
switch (status) {
case 1:

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System.out.println("a is the greatest");

break;
case 2:
System.out.println("b is the greatest");
break;
case 3:
System.out.println("c is the greatest");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Cannot be determined");
}
}
}

Output:
c is the greatest

Iteration Statements:
The while Loop:
The while statement is a looping construct control statement that executes a block of code while a
condition is true. You can either have a single statement or a block of code within the while loop. The
loop will never be executed if the testing expression evaluates to false. The loop condition must be a
boolean expression.
The syntax of the while loop is:
while (<loop_condition>) {
<statements>
}

To write a while-loop, we think about three parts:

 Test: a Boolean test of should be true before each iteration. Or put another way, the test is the
"green light" condition that says that each iteration can go ahead. (The phrase "green light" is a good
mnemonic for what the test does.) Eventually, the test should become false and the loop can exit.
Think about the precondition that describes the state before each iteration runs -- how are things
arranged, what is true? (Also known as an "invariant".) In the above example, the test (count < 100)
means that each iteration can proceed, so long as (count < 100) is true.
 Work: Code in the body that does something for each iteration such as printing or drawing
something. Some loops do not have any identifiable work in the body. In the above example, the
work is the println() that prints something out for each iteration.

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 Increment: Code in the body that advances things so we are closer to making the test false. At the
end of the body, the code will loop around to the top of the body. Sometimes, some cleanup is
required at the end of the body to set things up for the next iteration. In the above example, the line
"count = count + 1;" accomplishes the increment. That can also be written as "count++;".

Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely while loop used to print numbers
from 1 to 10.
public class WhileLoopDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
while (count <= 10) {
System.out.println(count++);
}
}
}

Do-while Loop
The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, except that the test is performed at the end of the
loop instead of at the beginning. This ensures that the loop will be executed at least once. A do-
while loop begins with the keyword do, followed by the statements that make up the body of the
loop. Finally, the keyword while and the test expression completes the do-while loop. When the
loop condition becomes false, the loop is terminated and execution continues with the statement
immediately following the loop. You can either have a single statement or a block of code within
the do-while loop.
The syntax of the do-while loop is:
do {
<loop_body>
} while (condition)

Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely do-while loop used to print
numbers from 1 to 10.
public class DoWhileLoopDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
do {

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System.out.println(count++);
} while (count <= 10);
}
}

Output
Printing Numbers from 1 to 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Fibonacci sequence: The logic to generate next number in Fibonacci series is sum of previous
two numbers. The below table illustrate, how to generate Fibonacci series.
0 1 0+1 1+1 1+2 2+3 3+5 5+8 8+13 13+21
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

Below is an example that creates A Fibonacci sequence controlled by a do-while loop

public class Fibonacci {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println("Printing Limited set of Fibonacci Sequence");
double fib1 = 0;
double fib2 = 1;
double temp = 0;
System.out.println(fib1);
System.out.println(fib2);
do {
temp = fib1 + fib2;
System.out.println(temp);
fib1 = fib2; //Replace 2nd with first number

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fib2 = temp; //Replace temp number with 2nd number

} while (fib2 < 5000);
}
}

Output
Printing Limited set of Fibonacci Sequence
0.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
5.0
8.0
13.0
21.0
34.0
55.0
89.0
144.0
233.0
377.0
610.0
987.0
1597.0
2584.0
4181.0
6765.0

For Loops
The for loop is a looping construct which can execute a set of instructions a specified number of
times. It’s a counter controlled loop.
The syntax of the loop is as follows:
for (<initialization>; <loop condition>; <arithmetic_operation>) {
<loop body>

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The for loop consists of four parts:

1. Initialization: The first part of a for loop statement is initialization, which executes once
before the loop begins. The <initialization> section can also be a comma-separated list of
expression statements.
2. Loop Condition: The second part of a for statement is a test expression. As long as the
expression is true, the loop will continue. If this expression is evaluated as false the first time,
the loop will never be executed.
3. Arithmetic operation: The third part of the for statement is arithmetic operation, which
promotes the iteration to next element.
4. Body of loop: These are the instructions that are repeated each time the program executes the
loop.
Order of statements execution in for loop:

1. On each iteration, two statements will be executed in for loop header.

2. For very fist iteration, it will execute initialization (A) and conditional check (B).
3. Next will execute body of the for loop (D).
4. For next iteration, it executes arithmetic operation (C) and conditional check in the respective
order.
5. If the condition met, again will executes for loop body.
6. It continues, till condition fail.

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All the sections in the for-header are optional. Any one of them can be left empty, but the two
semicolons are mandatory. So, we can write for loop as below:
for ( ; ; ){

The syntax of for loop is commonly used to construct an infinite loop.

Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely for loop used to print
numbers from 1 to 10.
public class ForLoopDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
for (int count = 1; count <= 10; count++) {
System.out.println(count);
}
}
}

Output
Printing Numbers from 1 to 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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Transfer Statements
Continue Statement:
A continue statement stops the iteration of a loop (while, do or for) and causes execution to
resume at the top of the nearest enclosing loop. You use a continue statement when you do not
want to execute the remaining statements in the loop, but you do not want to exit the loop itself.
The syntax of the continue statement is
continue; // the unlabeled form
continue <label>; // the labeled form

You can also provide a loop with a label and then use the label in your continue statement. The
label name is optional, and is usually only used when you wish to return to the outermost loop in
a series of nested loops.
Below is a program to demonstrate the use of continue statement to print Odd Numbers between
1 to 10.
public class ContinueExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Odd Numbers");
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; ++i) {
if (i % 2 == 0)
continue;
// Rest of loop body skipped when i is even
System.out.println(i + "\t");
}
}
}

Output
Odd Numbers
1
3
5
7
9

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Break Statement
The break statement transfers control out of the enclosing loop ( for, while, do or switch
statement). You use a break statement when you want to jump immediately to the statement
following the enclosing control structure. You can also provide a loop with a label, and then use
the label in your break statement. The label name is optional, and is usually only used when you
wish to terminate the outermost loop in a series of nested loops.
The Syntax for break statement is as shown below;
break; // the unlabeled form
break <label>; // the labeled form

Below is a program to demonstrate the use of break statement to print numbers Numbers 1 to 10.
public class BreakExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Numbers 1 - 10");
for (int i = 1;; ++i) {
if (i == 11)
break;
// Rest of loop body skipped when i is even
System.out.println(i + "\t");
}
}
}

Output
Numbers 1 – 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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9
10

Program with break and continue:

package com.sample;

/**
* Simple Java program which demonstrate use of break and continue statements in
* Java with lables, break and continue can be used alongside label and loop.
*
* @author Paramesh
*/

public class BreakContinueWithLabel {

/**
* It performs how brak & continue statements works in java
*/
public static void performLabelDemo() {
int[] numbers = new int[] { 100, 18, 21, 30 };

// Outer loop checks if number is multiple of 2

OUTER: // outer label
for (int i = 0; i < (numbers.length – 1); i++) {
if (i % 2 == 0) {
System.out.println(String.format("Even index: %d, current
number: %d continue from OUTER label", i, numbers[i]));
continue OUTER;
}

INNER: // Inner label

for (int j = 0; j < numbers.length; j++) {
System.out.println(String.format("Even number: %d, ,
current number: %d break from INNER label", i, numbers[j]));
if(numbers[j] == 21) {

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break OUTER;
}
}
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

performLabelDemo();
}

Output:
Odd number: 0, current number: 100 continue from OUTER label
Even number: 1, , current number: 100 break from INNER label
Even number: 1, , current number: 18 break from INNER label
Even number: 1, , current number: 21 break from INNER label

 break keyword transfers control to next statement outside loop while continue keyword transfers
control to beginning of loop, ignoring rest of lines in loop.
 break can also be used inside CASE statement of switch construct.
 An optional label can be provided after break and continue which cause to apply break and continue
on specified loop.
Problem statement: Print all prime numbers from 1 – 20 by using for loop.
package com.sample;

public class ClassDemo {

public static String printPrimeNumber() {

StringBuilder primes = new StringBuilder("1, 2");

for (int x = 3; x <= 20; x+=2) {

boolean flag = true;
for (int y = 3; y <= (x / 2); y++) {
if (x % y == 0) {
flag = false;
break;
}
}
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if (flag) {
primes = primes.append(", ").append(x);
}
}
return primes.toString();
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

String s = printPrimeNumber();
System.out.println(String.format("Prime Numbers from [1 -
20] : %s ", s));
}
}

Output:
Prime Numbers from [1 - 20] : 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19

Problem statement: Write the prime numbers b/w 1 – 20 by using continue, break and label statements.
package com.sample;

public class ForLoopDemo {

public static String printPrimeNumber(int upto) {

StringBuilder primeNumbers = new StringBuilder("1, 2");
OUTER:
for(int x = 3; x <= upto; x+=2) {
for(int y=2; y <= x/2; y ++) {
if(x%y == 0) {
continue OUTER;
}
}
primeNumbers.append(", ").append(x);
}
return primeNumbers.toString();
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

String primes = printPrimeNumber(20);
System.out.println("Prime numbers for [1 - 20] : " + primes);
}
}

Output:
Prime Numbers from [1 - 20] : 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19

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Problem statement: Write a program to sort given integer array in descending order by using while and
for loops:
Array : {30, 50, 10, 80, 90, 20, 5, 6}
Solution:
Iteration/Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Is Swapped
Actual array 30 50 10 80 90 20 5 6 (Y / N)
Iteration #1 50 30 80 90 20 10 6 5 Y
Iteration #2 50 80 90 30 20 10 6 5 Y
Iteration #3 80 90 50 30 20 10 6 5 Y
Iteration #4 90 80 50 30 20 10 6 5 Y
Iteration #5 90 80 50 30 20 10 6 5 N

Iteration #1:
1. In the very first iteration, compare first element (30) & second element (50). So 30 > 50, produces
false. Hence, swap the positions.
Result array is: {50, 30, 10, 80, 90, 20, 5, 6}
2. So far we swapped first and second elements. Now again compare 2nd element with 3rd element in
the above modified array. So 30 > 10, produces true. Hence, swapping not required.
Result array is: {50, 30, 10, 80, 90, 20, 5, 6}
3. Compare 3rd element & 4th element. So 10 > 80. So swap them. Result array will be as follows:
{50, 30, 80, 10, 90, 20, 5, 6}
4. Compare 4th element with 5th element. So, 10 > 90, produces false. Swap them and the result array
will be as follows;
{50, 30, 80, 90, 10, 20, 5, 6}
5. Compare 5th element & 6th element. So, 10 > 20, produces false. Swap them and result array will be
as follows:
{50, 30, 80, 90, 20, 10, 5, 6}
6. Compare 5th and 6th elements (5 > 6), produces false. Hence swap them and the result array will be as
follows:
{50, 30, 80, 90, 20, 10, 6, 6}
Now, we have completed one iteration and found that, the highlighted elements in the table are
saturated in their positions.

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Follow the same procedure for each iteration until all the array elements saturated in their positions.

In programmatically, two swap two numbers, we need a temporary variable as follows:

Int x = 30;
Int y = 50;
Int temp = x; // before replace first element value, take the back up to temp (now temp = 30)
X = y; // replace first element value with 2nd element. (now x = 50)
Y = x; // replace 2nd element with backup value (now y = 30).

Before swapping After swapper

X = 30 X = 50
Y = 50 Y = 30

While condition will iterate loop till condition met false. Here, we can use flag “isSwapped”. Till its value
become false, we can proceed through required number of iterations and perform descending order on
sorting array.
Program:
package com.sample;

public class SortingTechniques {

public static void sortDescending(int[] num) {

// set isSwapped flag to true to begin first irteration
boolean isSwapped = true;
while (isSwapped) {
isSwapped = false; // set flag to false awaiting a possible swap
for (int index = 0; index < num.length - 1; index++) {
if (num[index] < num[index + 1]) {
// change to > for ascending sort
int temp = num[index]; // swap elements
num[index] = num[index + 1];
num[index + 1] = temp;
isSwapped = true; // shows a swap occurred
}
}
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] arr = {30, 50, 10, 80, 90, 20, 5, 6};
sorDescending(arr);
System.out.println("Order of array :");
for(int element : arr) {

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System.out.println(element);
}

Output:
Order of array :
90
80
50
30
20
10
6
5

Problem statement: Write a program which shows menu options to the user and prompt to input to
choose option from menu. The below are the menu options.
1. Generate sum of given numbers
2. Generate multiplication of given numbers
3. Generate Fibonacci series upto the given numbers.
4. Exit from menu
Solution:
1. To show the menu options irrespective of any condition, we can use do while statement.
2. Since options are from 1 – 4. This can be considered as expression producing a certain range of value.
Hence, we use switch statement to best suited for this scenario.
3. To accept many number of arguments for both sum and multiplication, we can use var args concept.
Program:
package com.sample;

import java.util.Scanner;

public class WhileLoopDemo {

public static int summation(String... numbers) {

int sum = 0;
for (String str : numbers) {
sum += Integer.parseInt(str);
}
return sum;
}

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public static int multiplication(String... numbers) {

int sum = 1;
for (String str : numbers) {
sum *= Integer.parseInt(str);
}
return sum;
}

public static String fibonacci(int upto) {

int temp = 0;
int num1 = 0;
int num2 = 1;
String seriers = num1 + ", " + num2;
do {
temp = num1 + num2;
num1 = num2;
num2 = temp;
if (temp <= upto) {
seriers = seriers + ", " + temp;
}
} while (upto >= temp);

return seriers;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int choice = 0;
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
do {

System.out.println("Choose option from [1 - 4] : ");

choice = sc.nextInt();

switch (choice) {
case 1:
System.out.println("Input numbers separated with comma to
calculate sum :");
String s = sc.next();
int summation = summation(s.split(","));
System.out.println("summation : " + summation);
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("Input numbers separated with comma to
calculate multiplication :");
String mulString = sc.next();
int multiplication = multiplication(mulString.split(","));
System.out.println("multiplication : " + multiplication);
break;
case 3:
System.out.println("Please enter number to get generate
fibonacci series : ");
int upto = sc.nextInt();
String fibonacci = fibonacci(upto);
System.out.println("fibonacci : " + fibonacci);
break;

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default:
System.out.println("No choice met, hence executing default
statement");
break;
}

} while (choice < 4);

sc.close();
}

Output:
Choose option from [1 - 4] : 1
Input numbers separated with comma to calculate sum : 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
summation : 45
Choose option from [1 - 4] : 2
Input numbers separated with comma to calculate multiplication : 20,30,40,50
multiplication : 1200000
Choose option from [1 - 4] : 3
Please enter number to get generate fibonacci series : 500
fibonacci : 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377
Choose option from [1 - 4] : 4
No choice met, hence executing default statement

Object oriented Programming in Java

Class
 The basic building block of an object-oriented language such as Java
 Is a template that describes the data and behavior associated with instances of that class.
Syntax:
<Access Modifier> class <Class_Name> extends <Super_Class_Name> implements <Interface_Name>{
<static initializer block>
<anonymous block>
<constructor declarations>
<field declarations (Static and Non-Static)>
<method declarations (Static and Non-Static)>
<Inner class declarations>
<nested interface declarations>
}

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Constructor
Constructor is a block of code, which runs when you use new keyword in order to instantiate an
object. It looks like a method, however it is not a method. Methods have return type but constructors
don’t have any return type.
There are basically two rules defined for the constructor.
1. Constructor name must be same as its class name
2. Constructor must have no explicit return type

Constructors are two types:

1. No-args Constructor
2. Parameterized Constructor

No-args Constructor: The constructor, which doesn’t any parameters is called “No-argument
constructor”. This constructor initializes default values to instance variables.

package com.sample;

public class ConstructorDemo {

boolean bool;
byte by;
char ch;
short sh;
int i;
long l;
float f;
double d;
String str;

ConstructorDemo() {
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

ConstructorDemo demo = new ConstructorDemo();
System.out.println("boolean : " + demo.bool);
System.out.println("byte : " + demo.by);
System.out.println("character : " + demo.ch);
System.out.println("short : " + demo.sh);
System.out.println("int : " + demo.i);
System.out.println("long : " + demo.l);
System.out.println("float : " + demo.f);
System.out.println("double : " + demo.d);
System.out.println("string : " + demo.str);
}

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Output:
boolean : false
byte : 0
character :
short : 0
int : 0
long : 0
float : 0.0
double : 0.0
string : null

Default Constructor: When there is no constructor provided by programmer, then JVM provides a “No-
args constructor” to the class, the constructor provided by JVM in the absence of programmer provided
constructor is called default constructor. Default constructor and No-argument constructor both look
similar. But No-argument constructor can have many statements inside it, whereas compiler provided
constructor has one statement to call its super class constructor.

Parameterized Constructor: A constructor, which accept one or more arguments is called parameterized
constructor. If we define only parameterized constructors, then we cannot create an object with default
constructor. This is because compiler will not create default constructor. We need to create default
constructor explicitly if required.
While creation of object if it required to initialize instance variables with other than default values, we
can prefer parameterized constructor.
Suppose if it required to provide initial values as follows:
Int i = 10;
char ch = ‘M’;
We need to modify the constructor as follows:
package com.sample;

public class ConstructorDemo {

boolean bool;
byte by;
char ch;

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short sh;
int i;
long l;
float f;
double d;
String str;

ConstructorDemo(int i, char ch) {

this.i = i;
this.ch = ch;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

ConstructorDemo demo = new ConstructorDemo(10, 'M');
System.out.println("boolean : " + demo.bool);
System.out.println("byte : " + demo.by);
System.out.println("character : " + demo.ch);
System.out.println("short : " + demo.sh);
System.out.println("int : " + demo.i);
System.out.println("long : " + demo.l);
System.out.println("float : " + demo.f);
System.out.println("double : " + demo.d);
System.out.println("string : " + demo.str);
}

boolean : false
byte : 0
character : M
short : 0
int : 10
long : 0
float : 0.0
double : 0.0
string : null

Constructor Overloading: We can define more than one constructor in a single class.

Private Constructor:
If a method is private, it means that it cannot be accessed from any class other than itself. This is the
access control mechanism provided by Java. When it is used appropriately, it can produce security and
functionality. Constructors, like regular methods, can also be declared as private. It may very curious to
know why we need a private constructor since it is only accessible from its own class. When a class needs
to prevent the caller from creating objects. Private constructors are suitable. Objects can be constructed
only internally. In the case of a singleton, the policy is that only one object of that class is supposed to
exist. Creation of multiple objects of that class is forbidden.

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package com.sample;

import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.ObjectInputStream;
import java.io.ObjectStreamException;
import java.lang.reflect.Constructor;
import java.io.Serializable;

public class SingletonObject {

private static SingletonObject singletonObject;

public static int x;

private SingletonObject() {
}

public static SingletonObject getInstance() {

if (singletonObject == null) {
singletonObject = new SingletonObject();
singletonObject.x = x + 10;
}
return singletonObject;
}
}

Constructor Rules
 A constructor cannot have a return type.
 Constructor must have the same name as that of the class.
 Constructors cannot be marked static
 Constructor cannot be marked abstract
 Constructor cannot be overridden.
 Constructor cannot be final.

Summary of Constructors:
1. Every class has a constructor whether it’s normal one or an abstract class.
2. As stated above, constructor is not methods and it doesn’t have any return type.

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3. Constructor name and class name should be the same.

4. Constructor can use any access specifier, they can be declared as private also. Private constructors
are possible in java but there scope is within the class only.
5. Like constructors method can also have name same as class name, but still they have return type,
though which we can identify them that they are methods not constructors.
6. If you don’t define any constructor within the class, compiler will do it for you and it will create a no-
arg (default) constructor for you.
7. this() and super() should be the first statement in the constructor code. If you don’t mention them,
compiler does it for you accordingly.
8. Constructor overloading is possible but overriding is not possible. Which means we can have
overloaded constructor in our class but we can’t override a constructor.
9. Constructors cannot be inherited.
10. If Super class doesn’t have a no-arg(default) constructor then compiler would not define a default
one in child class as it does in normal scenario.
11. Interfaces do not have constructors.
12. Abstract can have constructors and these will get invoked when a class, which implements
interface, gets instantiated. (i.e. object creation of concrete class).
13. A constructor can also invoke another constructor of the same class – By using this(). If you want to
invoke a arg-constructor then give something like: this(parameter list).

this key word:

this is a keyword in Java. Which can be used inside method or constructor of class. It(this)
works as a reference to current object whose method or constructor is being invoked. this
keyword can be used to refer any member of current object from within an instance method or a
constructor.

1. this keyword can be used to refer current class instance variable.

2. this() can be used to invoke current class constructor.
3. this keyword can be used to invoke current class method (implicitly)
4. this can be passed as an argument in the method call.
5. this can be passed as argument in the constructor call.
6. this keyword can also be used to return the current class instance.

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this keyword with field(Instance Variable)

this keyword can be very useful in case of Variable Hiding. We cannot create two Instance/Local Variable
with same name. But it is legal to create One Instance Variable & One Local Variable or Method
parameter with same name. In this scenario Local Variable will hide the Instance Variable which is called
Variable Hiding.
Example of Variable Hiding
class VariableHiding {

int variable = 5;

public static void main(String args[]) {

VariableHiding vh = new VariableHiding();

vh.method(20);
vh.method();
}

void method(int variable) {

variable = 10;
System.out.println("Value of variable :" + variable);
}

void method() {
int variable = 40;
System.out.println("Value of variable :" + variable);
}
}

Output:
Value of variable :10
Value of variable :40

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As we can Instance Variable is hiding here and value getting displayed is the value of Local Variable (or
Method Parameter) and not Instance Variable. To solve this problem this keyword can be used with field
to point Instance Variable instead of Local Variable.

Example of this keyword for Variable Hiding

class VariableHiding {

int variable = 5;

public static void main(String args[]) {

VariableHiding vh = new VariableHiding();

vh.method(20);
vh.method();
}

void method(int variable) {

variable = 10;
System.out.println("Value of Instance variable :" + this.variable);
System.out.println("Value of variable :" + variable);
}

void method() {
int variable = 40;
System.out.println("Value of Instance variable :" + this.variable);
System.out.println("Value of variable :" + variable);

}
}

Output:
Value of Instance variable :5
Value of Local variable :10
Value of Instance variable :5
Value of Local variable :40

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Inheritance:
Inheritance is one of the key features of Object Oriented Programming. Inheritance provided mechanism
that allowed a class to inherit property of another class. When a Class extends another class it inherits all
non-private members including fields and methods. Inheritance in Java can be best understood in terms
of Parent and Child relationship, also known as Super class(Parent) and Sub class(child) in Java language.

Java Inheritance defines an is-a relationship between a superclass and its subclasses. This means that an
object of a subclass can be used wherever an object of the superclass can be used.

Purpose of Inheritance
1. To promote code reuse.
2. To use Polymorphism.

Types of Inheritance
1. Single Inheritance
2. Multilevel Inheritance
3. Hierarchical Inheritance

Why multiple inheritance is not supported in Java

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To reduce the complexity and simplify the language, multiple inheritance is not supported in java.
Consider a scenario where A, B and C are three classes. The C class inherits A and B classes. If A and B
classes have same method and we call it from child class object, there will be ambiguity to call method of
A or B class.

super keyword:
In Java, super keyword is used to refer to immediate parent class of a class. In other
words super keyword is used by a subclass whenever it requires to refer to its immediate super class.

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Example of Child class referring Parent class property using super keyword
class Parent {
String name;

public class Child extends Parent {

String name;

public void details() {

super.name = "Parent"; // refers to parent class member
name = "Child";
System.out.println(super.name + " and " + name);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Child cobj = new Child();
cobj.details();
}
}

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Example of Child class refering Parent class methods using super keyword
class Parent {
String name;

public void details() {

name = "Parent";
System.out.println(name);
}
}

public class Child extends Parent {

String name;

public void details() {

super.details(); // calling Parent class details() method
name = "Child";
System.out.println(name);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Child cobj = new Child();
cobj.details();
}
}

Example of Child class calling Parent class constructor using super keyword

class Parent {
String name;

public Parent(String n) {
name = n;
}

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public class Child extends Parent {

String name;

public Child(String n1, String n2) {

super(n1); // passing argument to parent class constructor

this.name = n2;
}

public void details() {

System.out.println(super.name + " and " + name);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Child cobj = new Child("Parent", "Child");
cobj.details();
}
}

Abstract Class:
The keyword “abstract” means incomplete. Abstract classes are used in java to create a class with some
default method implementation for subclasses. An abstract class can have abstract method without body
and it can have methods with implementation also. abstract keyword is used to create a abstract class.
Abstract classes can’t be instantiated and mostly used to provide base for sub-classes to extend and
implement the abstract methods and override or use the implemented methods in abstract class.
Moreover, an abstract class may contain methods without any implementation, called abstract methods.
The declaration of an abstract method starts with the abstract keyword and ends with a semicolon,
instead of the method’s body. If a class contains an abstract method, either declared or inherited, it must
be declared as an abstract class.
A class that extends an abstract class must implement all its abstract methods (if any). Otherwise, the
sub-class must be declared as abstract as well. Finally, any implementation of an abstract method can be
overridden by additional sub-classes.
Last things to mention are that abstract classes can also implement methods, despite providing just their
signature and that an abstract class may have static fields and static methods.

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The purpose of an abstract class is to specify the default functionality of an object and let its sub-classes
to explicitly implement that functionality. Thus, it stands as an abstraction layer that must be extended
and implemented by the corresponding sub-classes.

Syntax:
<access_specifier> abstract class ClassName { }

Abstract method
Method that is declared without any body within an abstract class is known as abstract method. The
method body will be defined by its subclass. Abstract method can never be final and static. Any class that
extends an abstract class must implement all the abstract methods declared by the super class. If we
want a class to contain a particular method but you want the actual implementation of that method to be
determined by child classes, you can declare the method in the parent class as abstract.
abstract return_type function_name (); // No definition

Declaring a method as abstract has two results:

 The class must also be declared abstract. If a class contains an abstract method, the class must be
abstract as well.
 Any child class must either override the abstract method or declare itself abstract.
A child class that inherits an abstract method must override it. If they do not, they must be
abstract and any of their children must override it.
Eventually, a descendant class has to implement the abstract method; otherwise, you would have
a hierarchy of abstract classes that cannot be instantiated.

Abstract class having constructor, data member, methods etc

An abstract class can have data member, abstract method, method body, constructor and even main()
method.

//example of abstract class that have method body

abstract class Bike{
Bike(){System.out.println("bike is created");}
abstract void run();

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void changeGear(){System.out.println("gear changed");}

}

class Honda extends Bike{

void run(){System.out.println("running safely..");}
}
class TestAbstraction2{
public static void main(String args[]){
Bike obj = new Honda();
obj.run();
obj.changeGear();
}

Interview Questions on abstract classes:

1. Is it possible to create abstract and final class in Java?
The keyword “abstract” means not completed and required to provide completeness in its child
classes, whereas the keyword “final” means cannot be subclassed further. Both are contradictory,
hence we cannot use both for a single class in Java.
2. Is it possible to have an abstract method in a final class?
No. When any abstract method present in a class, that class must be declared as abstract. As abstract
class cannot inherit, it’s not possible to have an abstract method in final class.
3. Is it possible to inherit from multiple abstract classes in Java?
No. Since, abstract classes have concrete methods. Always there is a possibility to avail same
concrete method in more than one abstract class. Hence, cannot extends more than one abstract
class at a time.

Note:
 abstract keyword is used to make a class abstract.
 Abstract class can’t be instantiated.
 We can use abstract keyword to create an abstract method, an abstract method doesn’t have body.
 If a class has abstract methods, then the class also needs to be made abstract using abstract keyword,
else it will not compile.

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 It’s not necessary to have abstract classes to have abstract method.

 If abstract class doesn’t have any method implementation, it’s better to use interface because java
doesn’t support multiple class inheritance.
 The subclass of abstract class must implement all the abstract methods unless the subclass is also an
abstract class.
 All the methods in an interface are implicitly abstract unless the interface methods are static or
default. Static methods and default methods in interfaces are added in Java 8, for more details read
Java 8 interface changes.
 Abstract classes can implement interfaces without even providing the implementation of interface
methods.
 Abstract classes are used to provide common method implementation to all the subclasses or to
provide default implementation.
 We can run abstract class like any other class if it has main() method.

Polymorphism:
Polymorphism is the capability of a method to do different things based on the object that it is acting
upon. In other words, polymorphism allows you define one interface and have multiple implementations.
In more simple words, polymorphism is the ability by which, we can create functions or reference
variables which behaves differently in different programmatic context.

Polymorphism in java can be described by:

1. Method Overloading (Compile time polymorphism / static binding)
2. Method Overriding (Runtime polymorphism / dynamic binding)

1. Method Overloading:
In Java, it is possible to define two or more methods of same name in a class, provided that there
argument list or parameters are different. This concept is known as Method Overloading.
As the meaning is implicit, this is used to write the program in such a way, that flow of control is decided
in compile time itself. It is achieved using method overloading.
In method overloading, an object can have two or more methods with same name. But, with their
method parameters different. These parameters may be different on two bases:

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1.1. Parameter type: Type of method parameters can be different. e.g. java.util.Math.max() function
comes with following versions:
public static double Math.max(double a, double b){}
public static float Math.max(float a, float b){}
public static int Math.max(int a, int b){}
public static long Math.max(long a, long b){}

The actual method to be called is decided on compile time based on parameters passed to function in
program.
Parameter count: Functions accepting different number of parameters.
Let's say a dog makes a woof sound, but if the dog is injured, the dog might make a whimper noise
instead. How can we use makeSound() to produce both sounds? Take a look at this code snippet:
public class Dog extends Animal {
public void makeSound() {
System.out.println("Woof");
}

public void makeSound(boolean injured) {

System.out.println("Whimper");
}
}

We can see here that depending on the number of parameters we pass to makeSound(), the dog will
make a different sound.

2. Method Overriding:
Suppose if we take real time example; Car, Bus, Auto are comes under Vehicle category. Whenever we
can find Vehicle, can be replace with any one from its category.
By means of that, we can say:
Car is-a Vehicle,
Bus is-a Vehicle,
Auto is-a Vehicle.
In Java, parent and child class process IS-A relationship. It means that, we can assign child class object to
its parent class reference. Non-private method of a parent class can be overridden by all its child classes.

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Hence, the overridden method behavior will change the based on the object we are going to assign at run
time to the parent class reference.

Ex:

Country.java
package com.sample.child;

public class Country {

public String getCurrencyCode() {

return "USD";
}
}

India.java
package com.sample.child;

public class India extends Country {

@Override
public String getCurrencyCode() {
return "INR";
}
}

Japan.java:

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package com.sample.child;

public class Japan extends Country {

@Override
public String getCurrencyCode() {
return "YEN";
}
}

MethodOverridingDemo.java:
package com.sample.child;

public class MethodOverridingDemo {

static Country country = new Country();

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Currency Code for base class object : " +

country.getCurrencyCode());

country = new India();

System.out.println("Currency Code for India class object : " +
country.getCurrencyCode());

country = new Japan();

System.out.println("Currency Code for Japan class object : " +
country.getCurrencyCode());

Output:
Currency Code for base class object : USD
Currency Code for India class object : INR
Currency Code for Japan class object : YEN

As we can have multiple subtype implementations for a super type, Java virtual machine
determines the proper type to be invoked at the runtime. Here, all the three times we just

invoked method as “country.getCurrencyCode())”, but produces three different outputs based on the
object acting on it.

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3. Overloading vs Overriding in Java

The binding of overloaded method call to its definition has happens at compile-time & binding of
overridden method call to its definition happens at runtime.
Static methods can be overloaded which means a class can have more than one static method of same
name. Static methods cannot be overridden, even if you declare a same static method in child class it has
nothing to do with the same method of parent class, since overriding deals with object whereas static
methods are belongs to class scope.
The most basic difference is that overloading is being done in the same class while for overriding base
and child classes are required. Overriding is all about giving a specific implementation to the inherited
method of parent class.
Overloading gives better performance compared to overriding. The reason is that the binding of
overridden methods is being done at runtime.
private and final methods can be overloaded but they cannot be overridden. It means a class can have
more than one private/final methods of same name but a child class cannot override the private/final
methods of their base class.
Return type of method does not matter in case of method overloading, it can be same or different.
However in case of method overriding the overriding method can have more specific return type (refer
StackOverflow).
Argument list should be different while doing method overloading. Argument list should be same in
method Overriding.

Interface
Its business rule documentation or it defines the contract between different parties that needs to be
obeyed. It is a promise to provide certain behaviour and all classes which implement the interface
guarantee to also implement those behaviour. To define the expected behavior, the interface contains a
number of method signatures. Any class which uses the interface can rely on those methods being
implemented in the runtime class which implements the interface. This allows anyone using the interface
to know what functionality will be provided without having to worry about how that functionality will
actually be achieved.

An Interface contains:

 All public abstract methods

 All public static final variables.

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Syntax:
public interface <InterfaceName> {
public static final <data_type> var_name1 = <constant>;
public static final <data_type> var_name2 = <constant>;
.
.
.

public abstract <return_type> methodName1();

public abstract <return_type> methodName1();
public abstract <return_type> methodName1();
.
.
.
}

Ex:
package com.sample;

/**
*
* @author Paramesh
*
* This interface is useful for few arithmatic operations like sum,
* multiplication, abstract, devide, reminder
*
*/
public interface ArithmaticInterface {

/**
* Calculate the sum of all given inputs
*
* @param x
* first input
* @param y
* second input
* @return (x+y)
*/
public abstract int summation(int x, int y);

/**
* Multiply both given input and provide result back

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*
* @param x
* @param y
* @return (x*y)
*/
public abstract int multiplication(int x, int y);

/**
* Substract second input from first one and provide the result back
*
* @param x
* @param y
* @return (x - y)
*/
public abstract long sbutract(long x, long y);

/**
* It devides fist input with second and provide the result back
*
* @param x
* @param y
* @return (x / y)
*/
public abstract float devide(float x, float y);

/**
* It devides first input with second one and provide their reminder
*
* @param x
* @param y
* @return (x % y)
*/
public abstract double reminder(double x, double y);
}
Note: It’s always recommended to write enough comments at both interface level and method level to
provide better understanding to client to use.

In the above interface, none of the methods have body. Each method has its own parameters and return
types. All implementer classes of this interface should follow the same signature (contract).
Interfaces are mainly used for:
1. Loose coupling
2. To achieve fully abstraction

 All Interface methods are implicitly public and abstract.

 Interface methods cannot be static, final, strictfp or native.
 Interfaces can declare only Constants and variables inside interface are implicitly public static
final.

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Implementing an Interface:
If we want to create a class which will provide implementation for all the behaviours of the above
interface, we can use “implements” key word to convey to the compiler as going to provide definition for
the incomplete (abstract) methods.
package com.sample;

public class ArithmaticImplementer implements ArithmaticInterface {

@Override
public int summation(int x, int y) {
return (x + y);
}

@Override
public int multiplication(int x, int y) {
return (x * y);
}

@Override
public int sbutract(int x, int y) {
return (x - y);
}

@Override
public int devide(int x, int y) {
return (x / y);
}

@Override
public int reminder(int x, int y) {
return (x % y);
}

If we fail to provide implementation for any method, class file cannot be compiled.

How to use interfaces in client application:

Interface and its implementer will processes “IS-A” relationship like parent and child, hence we can
receive implementer class object to interface reference.
package com.sample;

public class ArithmaticClient {

public static void main(String... args) {

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ArithmaticInterface calculator = new ArithmaticImplementer();

calculator.summation(5, 5);
calculator.multiplication(5, 5);
calculator.devide(10, 5);
calculator.reminder(15, 3);
}

Marker Interfaces:
Marker interface is used as a tag to inform a message to the Java compiler so that it can add special
behaviour to the class implementing it. Java marker interface has no fields or methods in it.

Hence, an empty interface in java is called a marker interface. Marker interface is also called tag
interface. In java we have the following major marker interfaces as under:
 Searilizable interface
 Cloneable interface

The marker interface can be described as a design pattern which is used by many languages to
provide run-time type information about the objects. The marker interface provides a way to
associate metadata with the class where the language support is not available.

A normal interface specifies functionality which an implementing class must implement. But a
marker interface does not follow that pattern. On the other side, the implementing class defines
the behavior. There are some hybrid interfaces which act as a marker interface along with some
methods. But this type of design is confusing if not handled carefully.

From java 1.5, the need for marker interface is eliminated by the introduction of the java annotation
feature. So, it is wise to use java annotations than the marker interface. It has more feature and
advantages than the java marker interface.

Abstract Class vs Interface

Java provides and supports the creation of abstract classes and interfaces. Both implementations share
some common features, but they differ in the following features:

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 All methods in an interface are implicitly abstract. On the other hand, an abstract class may contain
both abstract and non-abstract methods.
 A class may implement a number of Interfaces, but can extend only one abstract class.
 In order for a class to implement an interface, it must implement all its declared methods. However,
a class may not implement all declared methods of an abstract class. Though, in this case, the sub-
class must also be declared as abstract.
 Abstract classes can implement interfaces without even providing the implementation of interface
methods.
 Variables declared in a Java interface is by default public static final. An abstract class may contain
non-final variables.
 Members of a Java interface are public by default. A member of an abstract class can either be
private, protected or public.
 An interface is absolutely abstract and cannot be instantiated. An abstract class also cannot be
instantiated, but can be invoked if it contains a main method.

Abstraction:
In Object Oriented Programming Language, “Abstraction” is a way to segregate implementation. In
general, “Abstraction“ is a concept of exposing only the required essential characteristics and behavior
with respect to a context.
The process of creating a complex system by hiding all the implementation details from outside worlds
and expose only meaningful operations to interact with it is called as “Abstraction”.
Example: mobile or cell phone. The main purpose of both is to make call and here the voice of other
person. Both allow us to make call through key pad and never exposes how internally connects with
other mobile/cell and send/receive voice signals from other end.
In Java, abstraction can be achieved through abstract classes and interfaces.

Use case:
Build a payment system for a company that has two kinds of employees (say Contract & Permanent
employees). Permanent employees will receive payment through salary, whereas contract employees will
receive payment through commission. The manager of the company expecting that, system may be
changed later to accommodate different types of entities which will receive payments.

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Solution:
1. The two types of employees will receive the payment on either commission basis or fixed pay basis. So,
however both are liable to receive the payment at the end of the month. Hence, we can consider both
kinds of employees as Payee.
2. To deposit money to employee’s account, bank expects
 Employee name
 Bank account number
 Amount to be deposit
So, we can create a Payee interface as follows:
package com.emp.payroll;

public interface Payee {

String name();

Double grossPayment();

String bankAccount();
}

Note: All the methods of an interface, implicitly public and abstract. So no need to use public & abstract
modifiers again.
Hence, the above interface has ability to provide employee name, payment amount & account to be
deposited.
3. Since the organization can have many number of employees and they need to pick each and every
employee. Calculate the payment and request to bank to deposit the money to corresponding account.
Cycle through all employees and follow the same.

package com.emp.payroll;

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.List;

public class PaymentSystem {

private List<Payee> payees;

/**
* Initiate Payee list
*/
public PaymentSystem() {
payees = new ArrayList<Payee>();

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/**
* Add a new Payee, when new employee joined with organization
*
* @param payee {@link Payee}
*/
public void addPayee(Payee payee) {
if (!payees.contains(payee)) {
payees.add(payee);
}
}

/**
* Remove Payee, when he resigned from his responsibilities
*
* @param payee {@link Payee}
*/
public void removePayee(Payee payee) {
if (payees.contains(payee)) {
payees.remove(payee);
}
}

/**
* Cycle through all the {@link Payee}(s) and perform deposit money to
* their
* account
*/
public void processPayments() {
for (Payee payee : payees) {
Double grossPayment = payee.grossPayment();
System.out.println("=======================================");
System.out.println("Paying to employee " + payee.name());
System.out.println("\tAmount deposited :" + grossPayment);
System.out.println("\tTransferred to Account : " +
payee.bankAccount());
}
}
}

4. Since the organization has two kinds of employees called Contract & Permanent. So, we need to create
two kinds of classes to represent them. Since, Payment system needs to recognize these two types, we
can define PermanentEmployee and ContractEmployee classes by implementing Payee interface.

PermanentEmployee.java:
package com.emp.payroll;

public class PermanentEmployee implements Payee {

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private String name;

private String bankAccount;
protected Double grossWage;

public PermanentEmployee(String name, String bankAccount, Double grossWage) {

this.name = name;
this.bankAccount = bankAccount;
this.grossWage = grossWage;
}

public String bankAccount() {

return bankAccount;
}

public String name() {

return name;
}

public Double grossPayment() {

return grossWage;
}
}

ContractEmployee.java:
package com.emp.payroll;

public class ContractEmployee implements Payee {

private String name;

private String bankAccount;
protected Double grossWage;

public ContractEmployee(String name, String bankAccount, Double grossWage) {

this.name = name;
this.bankAccount = bankAccount;
this.grossWage = grossWage;
}

public String bankAccount() {

return bankAccount;
}

public String name() {

return name;
}

public Double grossPayment() {

return (grossWage * 30 ) / 100;
}
}

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From above two classes, we can observe that, only behaviour “grossPayment()” differs in each object. So,
to build similar kind of objects Abstract class is the best suitable rather than implementing common
features in each and every object.
Hence, introduce Employee abstract class as follows:
package com.emp.payroll;

public abstract class Employee implements Payee {

private String name;

private String bankAccount;
protected Double grossWage;

public Employee(String name, String bankAccount, Double grossWage) {

this.name = name;
this.bankAccount = bankAccount;
this.grossWage = grossWage;
}

public String name() {

return name;

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public String bankAccount() {

return bankAccount;
}
}

ContractEmployee.java: Extend this with Employee class to reuse default implementation instead
implementing all the methods from Payee interface.
package com.emp.payroll;

public class ContractEmployee extends Employee {

public ContractEmployee(String name, String bankAccount, Double grossWage) {

super(name, bankAccount, grossWage);
}

public Double grossPayment() {

return (grossWage * 30 ) / 100;
}
}

PermanentEmployee.java: Extend this with Employee class to reuse default implementation instead
implementing all the methods from Payee interface.
package com.emp.payroll;

public class PermanentEmployee extends Employee {

public PermanentEmployee(String name, String bankAccount, Double grossWage) {

super(name, bankAccount, grossWage);
}

public Double grossPayment() {

return grossWage;
}
}

ProcesspaymentApplication.java:
package com.emp.payroll;

public class ProcessPaymentApplication {

public static void main(final String... args) {

// Initialization
PaymentSystem paymentSystem = new PaymentSystem();

ContractEmployee contEmp1 = new ContractEmployee("Contract Employee 1",

"1111", 300.0);
paymentSystem.addPayee(contEmp1);

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ContractEmployee contEmp2 = new ContractEmployee("Contract Employee 2",

"2222", 350.0);
paymentSystem.addPayee(contEmp2);

PermanentEmployee permEmp1 = new PermanentEmployee("Contract Employee

3", "3333", 500.0);
paymentSystem.addPayee(permEmp1);

PermanentEmployee permEmp2 = new PermanentEmployee("Contract Employee

4", "4444", 470.0);
paymentSystem.addPayee(permEmp2);

// Process Weekly Payment

paymentSystem.processPayments();
}
}

Output:
===================================================
Paying to employee Contract Employee 1
Amount deposited :90.0
Transferred to Account : 1111
===================================================
Paying to employee Contract Employee 2
Amount deposited :105.0
Transferred to Account : 2222
===================================================
Paying to employee Contract Employee 3
Amount deposited :500.0
Transferred to Account : 3333
===================================================
Paying to employee Contract Employee 4
Amount deposited :470.0
Transferred to Account : 4444

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Marker Interfaces:

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Exception Handling:
An exception is an event that occurs during the execution of a program that disrupts the normal flow of
instructions. In Java, all exceptions are objects.
When an error occurs within a method, the method creates an object and hands it off to the runtime
system. The object, called an exception object, contains information about the error, including its type
and the state of the program when the error occurred. Creating an exception object and handing it to the
runtime system is called throwing an exception.
After a method throws an exception, the runtime system attempts to find something to handle it. The set
of possible "somethings" to handle the exception is the ordered list of methods that had been called to
get to the method where the error occurred. The list of methods is known as the call stack (see the next
figure).

Fig: Call stack

The runtime system searches the call stack for a method that contains a block of code that can handle the
exception. This block of code is called an exception handler. The search begins with the method in which
the error occurred and proceeds through the call stack in the reverse order in which the methods were
called. When an appropriate handler is found, the runtime system passes the exception to the handler.
An exception handler is considered appropriate if the type of the exception object thrown matches the
type that can be handled by the handler.

The exception handler chosen is said to catch the exception. If the runtime system exhaustively searches
all the methods on the call stack without finding an appropriate exception handler, as shown in the next
figure, the runtime system (and, consequently, the program) terminates.

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Fig: Searching the call stack for the exception handler.

Exception Handling Keywords

1. throw: We know that if any exception occurs, an exception object is getting created and then Java
runtime starts processing to handle them. Sometime we might want to generate exception explicitly
in our code, for example in a user authentication program we should throw exception to client if the
password is null. throw keyword is used to throw exception to the runtime to handle it.
2. throws: When we are throwing any exception in a method and not handling it, then we need to use
throws keyword in method signature to let caller program know the exceptions that might be thrown
by the method. The caller method might handle these exceptions or propagate it to its caller method
using throws keyword. We can provide multiple exceptions in the throws clause and it can be used
with main() method also.
3. try-catch: We use try-catch block for exception handling in our code. try is the start of the block and
catch is at the end of try block to handle the exceptions. We can have multiple catch blocks with a try
and try-catch block can be nested also. catch block requires a parameter that should be of type
Exception.
4. finally: finally block is optional and can be used only with try-catch block. Since exception halts the
process of execution, we might have some resources open that will not get closed, so we can use
finally block. finally block gets executed always, whether exception occurred or not.

Exceptions are generated by:

1. Java runtime system called Error.

2. Generated by the code called Exception

Throwable is the parent class of Java Exceptions Hierarchy and it has two child objects – Error and
Exception. Exceptions are further divided into checked exceptions and runtime exception.

1. Errors: Errors are exceptional scenarios that are out of scope of application and it’s not possible to
anticipate and recover from them, for example hardware failure, JVM crash or out of memory error.
That’s why we have a separate hierarchy of errors and we should not try to handle these situations.
Ex: OutOfMemoryError

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2. Checked Exceptions: Checked Exceptions are exceptional scenarios that we can anticipate in a
program and try to recover from it, for example FileNotFoundException. We should catch this
exception and provide useful message to user and log it properly for debugging purpose.
Exception is the parent class of all Checked Exceptions and if we are throwing a checked
exception, we must catch it in the same method or we have to propagate it to the caller using
throws keyword.
Ex:
 ClassNotFoundException
 InterruptedException
 NoSuchMethodException
 IOException
 EOFException
 FileNotFoundException
 MalformedURLException
 UnknownHostException
3. Runtime Exception: Runtime Exceptions are cause by bad programming, for example trying to
retrieve an element from the Array. We should check the length of array first before trying to
retrieve the element otherwise it might throw ArrayIndexOutOfBoundException at runtime.
RuntimeException is the parent class of all runtime exceptions. If we are throwing any runtime
exception in a method, it’s not required to specify them in the method signature throws clause.
Runtime exceptions can be avoided with better programming.

Ex:
 ArithmeticException
 ClassCastException
 IllegalArgumentException
o NumberFormatException
 IndexOutOfBoundsException
o ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
o StringIndexOutOfBoundsException
 NegativeArraySizeException
 NullPointerException
 NoSuchElementException

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1. The code in the try block is executed, and no exception is thrown.

2. The code in the try block is executed and an exception is thrown. This exception is caught and
handled in a corresponding catch block.
3. The code in the try block is executed, an exception is thrown, but no catch block is found for handling
the exception.

Useful Exception Methods:

Exception and all of its subclasses doesn’t provide any specific methods and all of the methods are
defined in the base class Throwable. The exception classes are created to specify different kind of
exception scenarios so that we can easily identify the root cause and handle the exception according to
its type. Throwable class implements Serializable interface for interoperability.
Some of the useful methods of Throwable class are;

1. public String getMessage() – This method returns the message String of Throwable and the
message can be provided while creating the exception through its constructor.
2. public String getLocalizedMessage() – This method is provided so that subclasses can override it to
provide locale specific message to the calling program. Throwable class implementation of this
method simply use getMessage() method to return the exception message.
3. public synchronized Throwable getCause() – This method returns the cause of the exception or
null id the cause is unknown.
4. public String toString() – This method returns the information about Throwable in String format,
the returned String contains the name of Throwable class and localized message.

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5. public void printStackTrace() – This method prints the stack trace information to the standard error
stream, this method is overloaded and we can pass PrintStream or PrintWriter as argument to write
the stack trace information to the file or stream.

Exception Handling Mechanism:

1. Using try and catch: Try is used to guard a block of code in which exception may occur. This block of
code is called guarded region. A catch statement involves declaring the type of exception you are
trying to catch. If an exception occurs in guarded code, the catch block that follows the try is checked,
if the type of exception that occurred is listed in the catch block then the exception is handed over to
the catch block which then handles it.
Program:
class Excp {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int a, b, c;
try {
a = 0;
b = 10;
c = b / a;
System.out.println("This line will not be executed");
} catch (ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println("Divided by zero");
}
System.out.println("After exception is handled");
}
}

Output:

output:

Divided by zero

After exception is handled

Explanation:
An exception will thrown by this program as we are trying to divide a number by zero
inside try block. The program control is transfered outside try block. Thus the line "This line will
not be executed" is never parsed by the compiler. The exception thrown is handle in catch block.
Once the exception is handled the program controls continue with the next line in the program.
Thus the line "After exception is handled" is printed.

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2. Multiple catch blocks: A try block can be followed by multiple catch blocks. You can have any number
of catch blocks after a single try block.If an exception occurs in the guarded code the exception is
passed to the first catch block in the list. If the exception type of exception, matches with the first
catch block it gets caught, if not the exception is passed down to the next catch block. This continues
until the exception is caught or falls through all catches.
class Excep {
public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
int arr[] = { 1, 2 };
arr[2] = 3 / 0;
} catch (ArithmeticException ae) {
System.out.println("divide by zero");
} catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("array index out of bound exception");
}
}
}

Output:

divide by zero

3. Creating Custom Exception Classes: Java provides a lot of exception classes for us to use but
sometimes we may need to create our own custom exception classes to notify the caller about
specific type of exception with appropriate message and any custom fields we want to introduce for
tracking, such as error codes. For example, let’s say we write a method to process only text files, so
we can provide caller with appropriate error code when some other type of file is sent as input.
Here is an example of custom exception class and showing its usage.
MyException.java:
public class MyException extends Exception {

private static final long serialVersionUID = 4664456874499611218L;

private String errorCode = "Unknown_Exception";

public MyException(String message, String errorCode) {

super(message);
this.errorCode = errorCode;
}

public String getErrorCode() {

return this.errorCode;
}
}

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CustomExceptionExample.java:

import java.io.FileInputStream;
import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStream;

public class CustomExceptionExample {

public static void main(String[] args) throws MyException {

try {
processFile("file.txt");
} catch (MyException e) {
processErrorCodes(e);
}

private static void processErrorCodes(MyException e) throws MyException

{
switch (e.getErrorCode()) {
case "BAD_FILE_TYPE":
System.out.println("Bad File Type, notify user");
throw e;
case "FILE_NOT_FOUND_EXCEPTION":
System.out.println("File Not Found, notify user");
throw e;
case "FILE_CLOSE_EXCEPTION":
System.out.println("File Close failed, just log it.");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Unknown exception occured, lets log it
for further debugging." + e.getMessage());
e.printStackTrace();
}
}

private static void processFile(String file) throws MyException {

InputStream fis = null;
try {
fis = new FileInputStream(file);
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
throw new MyException(e.getMessage(),
"FILE_NOT_FOUND_EXCEPTION");
} finally {
try {
if (fis != null)
fis.close();
} catch (IOException e) {
throw new MyException(e.getMessage(),
"FILE_CLOSE_EXCEPTION");
}
}
}

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Improvement Exception handling in Java 7

1. Multiple Catch block improvements in Java 7: One of the features was improved catch block where
we can catch multiple exceptions in a single catch block. If you are catching multiple exceptions and
they have similar code, then using this feature will reduce code duplication. Let’s understand this with
an example.
Prior to Java 7:
catch (IOException ex) {
logger.error(ex);
throw new MyException(ex.getMessage());
} catch (SQLException ex) {
logger.error(ex);
throw new MyException(ex.getMessage());
} catch (Exception ex) {
logger.error(ex);
throw new MyException(ex.getMessage());
}

In Java 7, we can catch all these exceptions in a single catch block as:
catch(IOException | SQLException | Exception ex){
logger.error(ex);
throw new MyException(ex.getMessage());
}
If a catch block handles multiple exception, you can separate them using a pipe (|) and in this case
exception parameter (ex) is final, so you can’t change it. The byte code generated by this feature is
smaller and reduces code redundancy.
2. Automatic resource management: Resources such as Connections, Files, Input/OutStreams, etc.
should be closed manually by the developer by writing bog-standard code. Usually we use a try-finally
block to close the respective resources. See the current practice of creating a resource, using it and finally
closing it:

Prior Java 7: Resource Handling

package com.sample;

import java.io.DataOutputStream;
import java.io.FileOutputStream;
import java.io.IOException;

public class ResourceHandling {

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public void resourcehandlingOldWay() {

FileOutputStream fos = null;
DataOutputStream dos = null;
try {
fos = new FileOutputStream("D:/HAWB/movies.txt");
dos = new DataOutputStream(fos);
dos.writeUTF("Java 7 Block Buster");
} catch (IOException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
} finally {
try {
fos.close();
dos.close();
} catch (IOException e) {
// log the exception
}
}
}
}

In Java 7: Resource Handling

package com.sample;

import java.io.DataOutputStream;
import java.io.FileOutputStream;
import java.io.IOException;

public class ResourceHandling {

public void resourcehandlingOldWay() {

try (FileOutputStream fos = new FileOutputStream("movies.txt");
DataOutputStream dos = new DataOutputStream(fos)) {
dos.writeUTF("Java 7 Block Buster");
} catch (IOException e) {
// log the exception
}
}
}

Exception Handling Best Practices

1. Use Specific Exceptions – Base classes of Exception hierarchy doesn’t provide any useful
information, thats why Java has so many exception classes, such as IOException with further sub-
classes as FileNotFoundException, EOFException etc. We should always throw and catch specific
exception classes so that caller will know the root cause of exception easily and process them. This
makes debugging easy and helps client application to handle exceptions appropriately.
2. Throw Early or Fail-Fast – We should try to throw exceptions as early as possible. Consider
above processFile() method, if we pass null argument to this method we will get following exception.

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Exception in thread "main" java.lang.NullPointerException

at java.io.FileInputStream.<init>(FileInputStream.java:134)
at java.io.FileInputStream.<init>(FileInputStream.java:97)
at
com.journaldev.exceptions.CustomExceptionExample.processFile(CustomExceptionExample.jav
a:42)
at
com.journaldev.exceptions.CustomExceptionExample.main(CustomExceptionExample.java:12)

While debugging we will have to look out at the stack trace carefully to identify the actual location of
exception. If we change our implementation logic to check for these exceptions early as below;
private static void processFile(String file) throws MyException {
if(file == null) throw new MyException("File name can't be null",
"NULL_FILE_NAME");
//further processing
}
Then the exception stack trace will be like below that clearly shows where the exception has
occurred with clear message.
com.journaldev.exceptions.MyException: File name can't be null
at
com.journaldev.exceptions.CustomExceptionExample.processFile(CustomExcepti
onExample.java:37)
at
com.journaldev.exceptions.CustomExceptionExample.main(CustomExceptionExamp
le.java:12)

3. Catch Late – Since java enforces to either handle the checked exception or to declare it in method
signature, sometimes developers tend to catch the exception and log the error. But this practice is
harmful because the caller program doesn’t get any notification for the exception. We should catch
exception only when we can handle it appropriately. For example, in above method I am throwing
exception back to the caller method to handle it. The same method could be used by other applications
that might want to process exception in a different manner. While implementing any feature, we
should always throw exceptions back to the caller and let them decide how to handle it.
4. Closing Resources – Since exceptions halt the processing of program, we should close all the
resources in finally block or use Java 7 try-with-resources enhancement to let java runtime close it for
you.
5. Logging Exceptions – We should always log exception messages and while throwing exception
provide clear message so that caller will know easily why the exception occurred. We should always

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avoid empty catch block that just consumes the exception and doesn’t provide any meaningful details
of exception for debugging.
6. Single catch block for multiple exceptions – Most of the times we log exception details and
provide message to the user, in this case we should use java 7 feature for handling multiple exceptions
in a single catch block. This approach will reduce our code size and it will look cleaner too.
7. Using Custom Exceptions – It’s always better to define exception handling strategy at the design
time and rather than throwing and catching multiple exceptions, we can create a custom exception with
error code and caller program can handle these error codes. Its also a good idea to create a utility
method to process different error codes and use it.
8. Naming Conventions and Packaging – When you create your custom exception, make sure it ends
with Exception so that it will be clear from name itself that it’s an exception. Also make sure to package
them like it’s done in JDK, for example IOException is the base exception for all IO operations.
9. Use Exceptions Judiciously – Exceptions are costly and sometimes it’s not required to throw
exception at all and we can return a boolean variable to the caller program to indicate whether an
operation was successful or not. This is helpful where the operation is optional and you don’t want your
program to get stuck because it fails. For example, while updating the stock quotes in database from a
third party webservice, we may want to avoid throwing exception if the connection fails.
10. Document the Exceptions Thrown – Use javadoc @throws to clearly specify the exceptions
thrown by the method, it’s very helpful when you are providing an interface to other applications to use.

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Enumerations
Enumerations (in general) are generally a set of related constants. Enumerations were added to Java
language in JDK5. An Enumeration can have constructors, methods and instance variables. It is created
using enum keyword. Each enumeration constant is public, static and final by default. Even though
enumeration defines a class type and have constructors, we cannot instantiate an enum using new.
Enumeration variables are used and declared in much a same way as we do a primitive variable.

Enumeration in java is supported by keyword enum. enums are a special type of class that always
extends java.lang.Enum. Since its already extending Enum class, cannot extend any other classes, since
java doesn’t support multiple inheritances.

This clearly means that enums are comparable and serializable implicitly. Also, all enum types in java
are singleton by default. So, you can compare enum types using ‘==’ operator also.

How to Define and Use an Enumeration

public enum Day {

MONDAY,
TEUSDAY,
WEDNESSDAY,
THURSDAY,
FRIDAY,
SATURDAY,
SUNDAY;
}

Identifiers SUNDAY, MONDAY, TEUSDAY, WEDNESSDAY, THURSDAY, FRIDAY & SATURDAY are called
enumeration constants. These are public, static final by default.

We should always use enums when a variable (especially a method parameter) can only take
one out of a small set of possible values.

Enum in switch statement:

Enum in Java are type-safe.

public class EnumSwitch {

public static void dayDetails(Day day) {
switch (day) {
case MONDAY:
System.out.println("First day in a week.");
break;
case TEUSDAY:
System.out.println("Second day in a week.");
break;
case WEDNESSDAY:
System.out.println("Third day in a week.");
break;
case THURSDAY:

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System.out.println("Fourth day in a week.");

break;
case FRIDAY:
System.out.println("Fifth day in a week.");
break;
case SATURDAY:
System.out.println("Sixth day in a week.");
break;
case SUNDAY:
System.out.println("Seventh day in a week.");
break;
default:
System.out.println("No day matched.");
break;
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

dayDetails(Day.MONDAY);
dayDetails(Day.TEUSDAY);
dayDetails(Day.WEDNESSDAY);
dayDetails(Day.THURSDAY);
dayDetails(Day.FRIDAY);
dayDetails(Day.SATURDAY);
}
}

Output:

First day in a week.

Second day in a week.
Third day in a week.
Fourth day in a week.
Fifth day in a week.
Sixth day in a week.

Iterate an enum:

We can iterate an enum by using values() method as follows:

public class EnumIterate {

public static void main(String[] args) {

iterateEnum();
}
public static void iterateEnum() {
for(Day currentDay : Day.values()) {
System.out.println(currentDay);
}
}
}

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Output:

MONDAY
TEUSDAY
WEDNESSDAY
THURSDAY
FRIDAY
SATURDAY
SUNDAY

Constructor in Enum:

public enum Day {

MONDAY(false),
TEUSDAY(false),
WEDNESSDAY(false),
THURSDAY(false),
FRIDAY(false),
SATURDAY(true),
SUNDAY(true);

private boolean isWeekend;

private Day(boolean isWeekend) {

this.isWeekend = isWeekend;
}

public static boolean isWeeken(Day day) {

return day.isWeekend;
}
}

public class EnumConstructor {

public static void main(String[] args) {

isCurrentDayWeekend(Day.MONDAY);
isCurrentDayWeekend(Day.SATURDAY);
}

public static void isCurrentDayWeekend(Day day) {

boolean isWeekend = Day.isWeeken(day);
System.out.println("Given day falls in weekends " + isWeekend);
}
}

Notes:

 Enums are implicitly final and subclasses of java.lang.Enum.

 All enum members are implicitly public static final.

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 Cannot instantiate object for an enum by using new keyword.

 Constructors for an enum type should be declared as private. The compiler allows non private
declares for constructors, but this seems misleading to the reader, since new can never be used
with enum types.

 Since these enumeration instances are all effectively singletons, they can be compared for
equality using identity (“==”).

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Collection Framework
The Java language supports arrays to store several objects. An array is initialized with an predefined size
during instantiation. To support more flexible data structures the core Java library provides
the collection framework. A collection is a data structure which contains and processes a set of data. The
data stored in the collection is encapsulated and the access to the data is only possible via predefined
methods. For example the developer can add elements to an collection via a method. Collections use
internally arrays for their storage but hide the complexity of managing the dynamic size from the
developer.

Type information with generics: Java collections should get parameterized with a type declaration. This
enables the Java compiler to check if you try to use the collection with the correct type of
objects. Generics allow a type or method to operate on objects of various types while providing compile-
time type safety. Before generics, it needs to cast every object we read from a collection and if we
inserted an object of the wrong type into a collection you would create a runtime exception.

What Is a Collections Framework?

A collections framework is a unified architecture for representing and manipulating collections.
All collections frameworks contain the following:

 Interfaces: These are abstract data types that represent collections. Interfaces allow
collections to be manipulated independently of the details of their representation. In object-
oriented languages, interfaces generally form a hierarchy.
 Implementations: These are the concrete implementations of the collection interfaces. In
essence, they are reusable data structures.
 Algorithms: These are the methods that perform useful computations, such as searching and
sorting, on objects that implement collection interfaces. The algorithms are said to be
polymorphic: that is, the same method can be used on many different implementations of the
appropriate collection interface. In essence, algorithms are reusable functionality.

Benefits of the Java Collections Framework

The Java Collections Framework provides the following benefits:

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 Reduces programming effort: By providing useful data structures and algorithms, the
Collections Framework frees you to concentrate on the important parts of your program rather
than on the low-level "plumbing" required to make it work. By facilitating interoperability
among unrelated APIs, the Java Collections Framework frees you from writing adapter
objects or conversion code to connect APIs.
 Increases program speed and quality: This Collections Framework provides high-
performance, high-quality implementations of useful data structures and algorithms. The
various implementations of each interface are interchangeable, so programs can be easily
tuned by switching collection implementations. Because you're freed from the drudgery of
writing your own data structures, you'll have more time to devote to improving programs'
quality and performance.
 Allows interoperability among unrelated APIs: The collection interfaces are the vernacular
by which APIs pass collections back and forth. If my network administration API furnishes a
collection of node names and if your GUI toolkit expects a collection of column headings, our
APIs will interoperate seamlessly, even though they were written independently.
 Reduces effort to learn and to use new APIs: Many APIs naturally take collections on input
and furnish them as output. In the past, each such API had a small sub-API devoted to
manipulating its collections. There was little consistency among these ad hoc collections sub-
APIs, so you had to learn each one from scratch, and it was easy to make mistakes when using
them. With the advent of standard collection interfaces, the problem went away.
 Reduces effort to design new APIs: This is the flip side of the previous advantage. Designers
and implementers don't have to reinvent the wheel each time they create an API that relies on
collections; instead, they can use standard collection interfaces.
 Fosters software reuse: New data structures that conform to the standard collection
interfaces are by nature reusable. The same goes for new algorithms that operate on objects
that implement these interfaces.

Collection classes hierarchy:

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Collection Class
name Ordered Sorted
Hashtable No No
HashMap No No
Map
TreeMap Sorted By natural order or custom order
LinkedHashMap By insertion order or last access order No
HashSet No No
Set TreeSet Sorted By natural order or custom order
LinkedHashSet By insertion order No
ArrayList Indexed No
Vector Indexed No
List
LinkedList Indexed No
Priority queue Sorted By to-do order
The following list describes the core collection interfaces:

 Collection — the root of the collection hierarchy. A collection represents a group of objects
known as its elements. The Collection interface is the least common denominator that all

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collections implement and is used to pass collections around and to manipulate them when
maximum generality is desired. Some types of collections allow duplicate elements, and others do
not. Some are ordered and others are unordered. The Java platform doesn't provide any direct
implementations of this interface but provides implementations of more specific subinterfaces, such
as Set and List. Also see The Collection Interface section.
 Set — a collection that cannot contain duplicate elements. This interface models the mathematical
set abstraction and is used to represent sets, such as the cards comprising a poker hand, the courses
making up a student's schedule, or the processes running on a machine. See also The Set Interface
section.
 List — an ordered collection (sometimes called a sequence). Lists can contain duplicate elements.
The user of a List generally has precise control over where in the list each element is inserted and
can access elements by their integer index (position). If you've used Vector, you're familiar with the
general flavor of List. Also see The List Interface section.
 Queue — a collection used to hold multiple elements prior to processing. Besides basic Collection
operations, a Queue provides additional insertion, extraction, and inspection operations.

Queues typically, but do not necessarily, order elements in a FIFO (first-in, first-out) manner.
Among the exceptions are priority queues, which order elements according to a supplied
comparator or the elements' natural ordering. Whatever the ordering used, the head of the
queue is the element that would be removed by a call to remove or poll. In a FIFO queue, all
new elements are inserted at the tail of the queue. Other kinds of queues may use different
placement rules. Every Queue implementation must specify its ordering properties. Also see
The Queue Interface section.

 Deque — a collection used to hold multiple elements prior to processing. Besides basic Collection
operations, a Deque provides additional insertion, extraction, and inspection operations.

Deques can be used both as FIFO (first-in, first-out) and LIFO (last-in, first-out). In a deque
all new elements can be inserted, retrieved and removed at both ends. Also see The Deque
Interface section.

 Map — an object that maps keys to values. A Map cannot contain duplicate keys; each key can map to
at most one value. If you've used Hashtable, you're already familiar with the basics of Map. Also see
The Map Interface section.

The last two core collection interfaces are merely sorted versions of Set and Map:

 SortedSet — a Set that maintains its elements in ascending order. Several additional operations
are provided to take advantage of the ordering. Sorted sets are used for naturally ordered sets, such
as word lists and membership rolls. Also see The SortedSet Interface section.
 SortedMap — a Map that maintains its mappings in ascending key order. This is the Map analog of
SortedSet. Sorted maps are used for naturally ordered collections of key/value pairs, such as
dictionaries and telephone directories. Also see The SortedMap Interface section.

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The Collection Interface

A Collection represents a group of objects known as its elements. The Collection interface is used
to pass around collections of objects where maximum generality is desired. For example, by convention
all general-purpose collection implementations have a constructor that takes a Collection argument.
This constructor, known as a conversion constructor, initializes the new collection to contain all of the
elements in the specified collection, whatever the given collection's subinterface or implementation type.
In other words, it allows you to convert the collection's type.

The Collection interface contains methods that perform basic operations, such as int size(),
boolean isEmpty(), boolean contains(Object element), boolean add(E element),
boolean remove(Object element), and Iterator<E> iterator().

Modifier and Type Method and Description

add(E e)
Boolean
Ensures that this collection contains the specified element (optional operation).

addAll(Collection<? extends E> c)

Boolean Adds all of the elements in the specified collection to this collection (optional
operation).

clear()
Void
Removes all of the elements from this collection (optional operation).

contains(Object o)
Boolean
Returns true if this collection contains the specified element.

containsAll(Collection<?> c)

Boolean Returns true if this collection contains all of the elements in the specified
collection.

equals(Object o)
Boolean
Compares the specified object with this collection for equality.

hashCode()
Int
Returns the hash code value for this collection.

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isEmpty()
Boolean
Returns true if this collection contains no elements.

iterator()
Iterator<E>
Returns an iterator over the elements in this collection.

remove(Object o)

Boolean Removes a single instance of the specified element from this collection, if it is
present (optional operation).

removeAll(Collection<?> c)

Boolean Removes all of this collection's elements that are also contained in the specified
collection (optional operation).

retainAll(Collection<?> c)

Boolean Retains only the elements in this collection that are contained in the specified
collection (optional operation).

size()
Int
Returns the number of elements in this collection.

toArray()
Object[]
Returns an array containing all of the elements in this collection.

toArray(T[] a)

<T> T[] Returns an array containing all of the elements in this collection; the runtime type
of the returned array is that of the specified array.

ArrayList:

In addition to the Arrays class, Java provides an ArrayList class which can be used to create
containers that store lists of objects. ArrayList can be considered as a growable array. It gives us
fast iteration and fast random access. ArrayList implements the new RandomAccess interface—a
marker interface (meaning it has no methods) that says, "This list supports fast (generally constant
time) random access".

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Earlier versions of Java have one legacy collection class called Vector which is very much similar
to ArrayList. Vector implements a dynamic array. A Vector is basically the same as an ArrayList,
but Vector methods are synchronized for thread safety. You'll normally want to use ArrayList
instead of Vector because the synchronized methods add a performance hit you might not need. In
this tutorial we will discuss about ArrayList only considering all is applicable to Vector as well.

The java.util.ArrayList class is one of the most commonly used of all the classes in the
Collections Framework.An ArrayList is dynamically resizable, meaning that its size can change
during program execution. This means that:

 You can add an item at any point in an ArrayList container and the array size expands
automatically to accommodate the new item.
 You can remove an item at any point in an ArrayList container and the array size contracts
automatically.

To state the obvious: Arraylist is an ordered collection (by index), but not sorted.

To use the ArrayList class, you must use the following import statement:

import java.util.ArrayList;

Then, to declare an ArrayList, you can use the default constructor, as in the following example:

ArrayList names = new ArrayList();

The default constructor creates an ArrayList with a capacity of 10 items. The capacity of an ArrayList is
the number of items it can hold without having to increase its size. Other constructors of ArrayList as
follows,

ArrayList names = new ArrayList(int size);

ArrayList names = new ArrayList(Collection c);

You can also specify a capacity/size of initial ArrayList as well as create ArrayList from other
collection types.

Some of the advantages ArrayList has over arrays are

 It can grow dynamically.

 It provides more powerful insertion and search mechanisms than arrays.

Methods of ArrayList:

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Method Purpose
public void add(Object) Adds an item to an ArrayList. The default version adds an item at the next
public void add(int, available location; an overloaded version allows you to specify a position at
Object) which to add the item
public void remove(int) Removes an item from an ArrayList at a specified location
public void set(int,
Object) Alters an item at a specified ArrayList location
Object get(int) Retrieves an item from a specified location in an ArrayList
public int size() Returns the current ArrayList size

LinkedList

A LinkedList is ordered by index position, like ArrayList, except that the elements are doubly-
linked to one another. This linkage gives you new methods (beyond what you get from the List
interface) for adding and removing from the beginning or end, which makes it an easy choice for
implementing a stack or queue. Linked list has concept of nodes and data. Here Node is storing
values of next node while data stores the value it is holding. Below diagram shows how
LinkedList storing values. There are three elements in LinkedList A, B and C. We are removing
element B from middle of the LinkedList which will just change node value of element A’s node
to point to node C.

Keep in mind that a LinkedList may iterate more slowly than an ArrayList, but it's a good choice
when you need fast insertion and deletion.

LinkedList has the two constructors shown here:

LinkedList( )
LinkedList(Collection<? extends E> c)

The first constructor builds an empty linked list. The second constructor builds a linked list that is
initialized with the elements of the collection c.

Important methods of LinkedList class:

Method Description

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addFirst() or offerFirst( ) To add elements to the start of a list

addLast( ) or offerLast( ) or add() To add elements to the end of the list

getFirst( ) or peekFirst( ) To obtain the first element of the list

getLast( ) or peekLast( ) To obtain the last element of the list

removeFirst( ) or pollFirst( ) or remove() To remove the first element of the list

removeLast( ) or pollLast( ) To remove the last element of the list

Ex:

package com.sample;

import java.util.LinkedList;

public class LinkedListDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

LinkedList<String> myLinkedList = new LinkedList<String>();
myLinkedList.addFirst("A");
myLinkedList.add("B");
myLinkedList.add("C");
myLinkedList.add("D");
myLinkedList.add(2, "X");// This will add C at index 2
myLinkedList.addLast("Z");

System.out.println("Original List before deleting elements");

System.out.println(myLinkedList);

myLinkedList.remove();
myLinkedList.removeLast();
myLinkedList.remove("C");

System.out.println("Original List After deleting first and last

object");
System.out.println(myLinkedList);
System.out.println("First object in linked list: " +
myLinkedList.getFirst());
System.out.println("Last object in linked list: " +
myLinkedList.peekLast());
}
}

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Set:
A Set is a Collection that cannot contain duplicate elements. There are three main
implementations of Set interface: HashSet, TreeSet, and LinkedHashSet. HashSet, which stores
its elements in a hash table, is the best-performing implementation; however it makes no
guarantees concerning the order of iteration. TreeSet, which stores its elements in a red-black tree,
orders its elements based on their values; it is substantially slower than HashSet. LinkedHashSet,
which is implemented as a hash table with a linked list running through it, orders its elements
based on the order in which they were inserted into the set (insertion-order).

HashSet:
This class implements the Set interface, backed by a hash table (actually a HashMap instance). It
makes no guarantees as to the iteration order of the set; in particular, it does not guarantee that the
order will remain constant over time. This class permits the null element. This class is not
synchronized.
Notes:
1. HashSet doesn’t maintain any order, the elements would be returned in any random order.

2. HashSet doesn’t allow duplicates. If you try to add a duplicate element in HashSet, the old value
would be overwritten.

3. HashSet allows null values however if you insert more than one nulls it would still return only one
null value.

4. HashSet is non-synchronized. We need to synchronize explicitly as follows:

Set s = Collections.synchronizedSet(new HashSet(...));

5. The iterator returned by this class is fail-fast which means iterator would
throw ConcurrentModificationException if HashSet has been modified after creation of iterator, by
any means except iterator’s own remove method.

Methods:

1. boolean add(Element e): It adds the element e to the list.

2. void clear(): It removes all the elements from the list.

3. Object clone(): This method returns a shallow copy of the HashSet.

4. boolean contains(Object o): It checks whether the specified Object o is present in the list or not.
If the object has been found it returns true else false.

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5. boolean isEmpty(): Returns true if there is no element present in the Set.

6. int size(): It gives the number of elements of a Set.

7. boolean(Object o): It removes the specified Object o from the Set.

Ex:

import java.util.HashSet;

public class HashSetExample {

public static void main(String args[]) {
// HashSet declaration
HashSet<String> hset = new HashSet<String>();

// Adding elements to the HashSet

hset.add("Apple");
hset.add("Mango");
hset.add("Grapes");
hset.add("Orange");
hset.add("Fig");
// Addition of duplicate elements
hset.add("Apple");
hset.add("Mango");
// Addition of null values
hset.add(null);
hset.add(null);

// Displaying HashSet elements

System.out.println(hset);
}
}

Output:

[null, Mango, Grapes, Apple, Orange, Fig]

As we can see there all the duplicate values are not present in the output including the duplicate null value.

TreeSet:
TreeSet is similar to HashSet except that it sorts the elements in the ascending order while HashSet
doesn’t maintain any order. HashSet allow null, but TreeSet won’t allow.

TreeSet can be synchronized as follows:

SortedSet s = Collections.synchronizedSortedSet(new TreeSet(...));

Ex:

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import java.util.TreeSet;

public class TreeSetExample {

public static void main(String args[]) {
// TreeSet of String Type
TreeSet<String> tset = new TreeSet<String>();

// Adding elements to TreeSet<String>

tset.add("ABC");
tset.add("String");
tset.add("Test");
tset.add("Pen");
tset.add("Ink");
tset.add("Jack");

// Displaying TreeSet
System.out.println(tset);

// TreeSet of Integer Type

TreeSet<Integer> tset2 = new TreeSet<Integer>();

// Adding elements to TreeSet<Integer>

tset2.add(88);
tset2.add(7);
tset2.add(101);
tset2.add(0);
tset2.add(3);
tset2.add(222);
System.out.println(tset2);
}
}

Output:

[ABC, Ink, Jack, Pen, String, Test]

[0, 3, 7, 88, 101, 222]

Map
A Map is an object that maps keys to values. A map cannot contain duplicate keys.

There are three main implementations of Map interfaces: HashMap, TreeMap, and LinkedHashMap. There
are 4 commonly used implementations of Map in Java SE - HashMap, TreeMap, Hashtable and
LinkedHashMap. If we use only one sentence to describe each implementation, it would be the following:

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 Hashtable: Hash table is a data structure to store key value pairs for all situations. So it is like a table
with each entry has a key and a value corresponding to it. So, it is an efficient way of mapping and
accessing data.
 HashMap: it makes no guarantees concerning the order of iteration
 TreeMap: It stores its elements in a red-black tree, orders its elements based on their values; it is
substantially slower than HashMap.
 LinkedHashMap: It orders its elements based on the order in which they were inserted into the set
(insertion-order).

Hashtable:
 A Hashtable is an array of list. Each list is known as a bucket. The position of bucket is identified by
calling the hashcode() method. A Hashtable contains values based on the key. It implements the Map
interface and extends Dictionary class.
 It contains only unique elements.
 It cannot store any null key or value.
 It is synchronized.

Constructor Summary:

Constructor and Description

Hashtable()

Constructs a new, empty hashtable with a default initial capacity (11) and load factor (0.75).

Hashtable(int initialCapacity)

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Constructs a new, empty hashtable with the specified initial capacity and default load factor (0.75).

Hashtable(int initialCapacity, float loadFactor)

Constructs a new, empty hashtable with the specified initial capacity and the specified load factor.

Hashtable(Map<? extends K,? extends V> t)

Constructs a new hashtable with the same mappings as the given Map.

Method Summary:

Modifier and Type Method and Description

clear()
Void
Clears this hashtable so that it contains no keys.

clone()
Object
Creates a shallow copy of this hashtable.

contains(Object value)
Boolean
Tests if some key maps into the specified value in this hashtable.

containsKey(Object key)
Boolean
Tests if the specified object is a key in this hashtable.

containsValue(Object value)
Boolean
Returns true if this hashtable maps one or more keys to this value.

elements()
Enumeration<V>
Returns an enumeration of the values in this hashtable.

entrySet()
Set<Map.Entry<K,V>>
Returns a Set view of the mappings contained in this map.

equals(Object o)

Boolean Compares the specified Object with this Map for equality, as per the definition
in the Map interface.

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get(Object key)

V Returns the value to which the specified key is mapped, or null if this map
contains no mapping for the key.

hashCode()

Int Returns the hash code value for this Map as per the definition in the Map
interface.

isEmpty()
Boolean
Tests if this hashtable maps no keys to values.

keys()
Enumeration<K>
Returns an enumeration of the keys in this hashtable.

keySet()
Set<K>
Returns a Set view of the keys contained in this map.

put(K key, V value)

V
Maps the specified key to the specified value in this hashtable.

putAll(Map<? extends K,? extends V> t)

Void
Copies all of the mappings from the specified map to this hashtable.

rehash()

protected void Increases the capacity of and internally reorganizes this hashtable, in order to
accommodate and access its entries more efficiently.

remove(Object key)
V
Removes the key (and its corresponding value) from this hashtable.

size()
Int
Returns the number of keys in this hashtable.

toString()
String
Returns a string representation of this Hashtable object in the form of a set
of entries, enclosed in braces and separated by the ASCII characters ", "

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(comma and space).

values()
Collection<V>
Returns a Collection view of the values contained in this map.

Hashing and Hashtable:

Assume that, “v” is a value to be stored and “k” is the key used for storage / retrieval, then “h” is a hash
function where “v” is stored at “h(k)” of table. To retrieve a value compute “h(k)” so that you can directly
get the position of “v”. So in a key-value pair table, you need not sequentially scan through the keys to
identify a value. “h(k)” is the hashing function and it is used to find the location to store the
corresponding value v. h(k) cannot compute to an indefinite space. Storage allocated for a Hashtable is
limited within a program. So, the hasing function h(k) should return a number within that allocated
spectrum (logical address space).

Hashtable performance: To get better performance Hashtable, need to use the initialCapacity and
loadFactor arguments.

initialCapacitiy is the number of buckets to be created at the time of Hashtable instantiation. The number
of buckets and probability of collision is inversely proportional. If you have more number of buckets than
needed then you have lesser possibility for a collision.

For example, if you are going to store 10 elements and if you are going to have initialCapacity as 100 then
you will have 100 buckets. You are going to calculate hashCoe() only 10 times with a spectrum of 100
buckets. The possibility of a collision is very less.

But if you are going to supply initialCapacity for the Hashtable as 10, then the possibility of collision is
very large. loadFactor decides when to automatically increase the size of the Hashtable. The default size of
initialCapacity is 11 and loadFactor is .75 That if the Hashtable is 3/4th full then the size of the Hashtable is
increased.

New capacity in java Hashtable is calculated as follows:

int newCapacity = oldCapacity * 2 + 1;

Example:

import java.util.Enumeration;
import java.util.Hashtable;

public class HashtableDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

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System.out.println("Hashtable in Java : ");

System.out.println("-----------------------");
System.out.println("Adding items to the Hashtable");
// Creating Hashtable object
// dictionary can be created using HashTable object
// as dictionary is an abstract class
Hashtable<Integer, String> ht = new Hashtable<Integer, String>();

// you add elements to Hashtable using put method

// put(key, value)
ht.put(1, "Java");
ht.put(2, ".NET");
ht.put(3, "Javascript");
ht.put(4, "HTML");

// You will see that the items will be arranged as per the hash function
System.out.println("Items in the Hashtable : " + ht );
System.out.println("-----------------------");

// looping through all the elements in hashtable

Integer key;
// you can retrieve all the keys in hashtable using .keys() method
Enumeration<Integer> names = ht.keys();
while (names.hasMoreElements()) {
// next element retrieves the next element in the dictionary
key = names.nextElement();
// .get(key) returns the value of the key stored in the hashtable
System.out.println(key + ": " + ht.get(key));
}
}
}

Output:

Hashtable in Java :
-----------------------
Adding items to the Hashtable
Items in the Hashtable : {4=HTML, 3=Javascript, 2=.NET, 1=Java}
-----------------------
4: HTML
3: Javascript
2: .NET
1: Java

HashMap:
 The HashMap class does not guarantee that the order will remain constant over time.

 This implementation provides constant-time performance for the basic operations (get and put),
assuming the hash function disperses the elements properly among the buckets.

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 The HashMap implementation is not synchronized. If multiple threads access this map concurrently,
and at least one of the threads modifies the map structurally, it must be synchronized externally.

To prevent unsynchronized access to the Map:

Map m = Collections.synchronizedMap(new HashMap(…));

Ex:

import java.util.Set;
import java.util.TreeSet;
import java.util.Iterator;

public class TreeSetExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Set<Integer> treeSet = new TreeSet();
// the treeset stores Integer objects into the TreeSet
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
treeSet.add(new Integer(i));
}
// Since its a Integer Object Set adding any other elements in the Same
// set will produce a
// ClassCastException exception at runtime.
// treeSet.add("a string");
System.out.print("The elements of the TreeSet are : ");
Iterator<Integer> i = treeSet.iterator();
while (i.hasNext()) {
System.out.print(i.next() + "\t");
}
}
}

Output:

The elements of the TreeSet are : 0 1 2 3 4

TreeMap:
A TreeMap is a Map implementation which provides total ordering on its elements. The elements are
ordered using their natural ordering, or by a Comparator typically provided at sorted map creation time.

A TreeMap is a Red-Black tree based NavigableMap implementation which insures log(n) time cost for
the basic operations (add, remove and contains).

A TreeMap is typically used when, in a map, we want to keep the elements sorted all times. The elements
are sorted by the keys in a map. The keys could also be custom objects defined with
comparable/comparator to decide the attribute responsible for sorting.

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Important thing to note is that the ordering maintained by a TreeMap must be consistent with equals if this
sorted map is to correctly implement the Map interface.

Ex: Sorting on Keys

import java.util.Map;
import java.util.TreeMap;

public class TreeMapDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

//Natural ordering of key Integer

Map<Integer, String> integerMap = new TreeMap<>();
integerMap.put(1, "ABC");
integerMap.put(2, "PQR");
integerMap.put(3, "XXX");
integerMap.put(4, "YYY");

System.out.println(integerMap.toString());
}
}

Output:

{1=ABC, 2=PQR, 3=XXX, 4=YYY}

Keys as Custom Classes using Comparable:

public class User implements Comparable {

private String firstName;

private String lastName;
private int salary;

public User(String firstName, String lastName, int salary) {

super();
this.firstName = firstName;
this.lastName = lastName;
this.salary = salary;
}

public String getFirstName() {

return firstName;
}

public void setFirstName(String firstName) {

this.firstName = firstName;
}

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public String getLastName() {

return lastName;
}

public void setLastName(String lastName) {

this.lastName = lastName;
}

public int getSalary() {

return salary;
}

public void setSalary(int salary) {

this.salary = salary;
}

@Override
public String toString() {
return firstName + " " + lastName + " " + salary;
}

@Override
public int compareTo(User o) {
return this.firstName.compareTo(o.firstName);
}
}

Now let’s see how to use TreeMap to get the inserted elements sorted on the basis of firstName.

public class JavaTreeMapExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Natural ordering of User

Map<User, String> userMap = new TreeMap<>();
populateUserMap(userMap);

System.out.println(userMap.toString());

diplayMap(userMap);

private static void diplayMap(Map<User, String> userMap) {

Set<User> keySet = userMap.keySet();
for (User user : keySet) {
System.out.println(user.toString());
}
}

private static void populateUserMap(Map<User, String> userMap) {

userMap.put(new User("Ani", "Bha", 12), "My Name1");
userMap.put(new User("Cal", "YYY", 15), "My Name2");
userMap.put(new User("XYZ", "WER", 22), "My Name3");

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userMap.put(new User("SSS", "TER", 1), "My Name4");

}

Output:

{Ani Bha 12=My Name1, CalYYY 15=My Name2, SSS TER 1=My Name4, XYZ WER 22=My
Name3}
Ani Bha 12
Cal YYY 15
SSS TER 1
XYZ WER 22

Keys as Custom Classes using Comparator

import java.util.Map;
import java.util.Set;
import java.util.TreeMap;

import java.util.Comparator;

public class UserSalaryComparator implements Comparator {

// This compares employees based on salaries

@Override
public int compare(User o1, User o2) {
if (o1.getSalary() >= o2.getSalary()) {
return 1;
} else {
return -1;
}
}

import java.util.Map;
import java.util.Set;
import java.util.TreeMap;

public class JavaTreeMapExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Ordering based on Comparator on salary

Map userSalaryMap = new TreeMap(new UserSalaryComparator());
populateUserMap(userSalaryMap);
System.out.println(" *** BASED ON SALARY ***");
diplayMap(userSalaryMap);

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private static void diplayMap(Map userMap) {

Set keySet = userMap.keySet();
for (User user : keySet) {
System.out.println(user.toString());
}
}

private static void populateUserMap(Map userMap) {

userMap.put(new User("Ani", "Bha", 12), "My Name1");
userMap.put(new User("Cal", "YYY", 15), "My Name2");
userMap.put(new User("XYZ", "WER", 22), "My Name3");
userMap.put(new User("SSS", "TER", 1), "My Name4");
}

Output:

*** BASED ON SALARY ***

SSS TER 1
Ani Bha 12
Cal YYY 15
XYZ WER 22

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Java IO Operations
Java.io package provides classes for system input and output through data streams, serialization and the
file system.

Stream: A stream is a sequence of data. In Java a stream is composed of bytes

Standard Streams
All the programming languages provide support for standard I/O where user's program can take input
from a keyboard and then produce output on the computer screen. Java provides the following three
standard streams.
 Standard Input: This is used to feed the data to user's program and usually a keyboard is used as
standard input stream and represented as System.in.
 Standard Output: This is used to output the data produced by the user's program and usually a
computer screen is used to standard output stream and represented as System.out.
 Standard Error: This is used to output the error data produced by the user's program and usually a
computer screen is used to standard error stream and represented as System.err.
Example code to print output to console:
1. System.out.println("simple message");
2. System.err.println("error message");

Example code to get input from console:

1. int i=System.in.read();//returns ASCII code of 1st character
2. System.out.println((char)i);//will print the character

Java encapsulates Stream under java.io package. Java defines two types of streams. They are,
1. Byte Stream: It provides a convenient means for handling input and output of byte.
2. Character Stream: It provides a convenient means for handling input and output of characters.
Character stream uses Unicode and therefore can be internationalized.

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Byte Stream Classe

It is helpful to categorize the classes by their functionality. In Java 1.0, the library designers started by
deciding that all classes that had anything to do with input would would inherited for
the java.io.InputStream abstract class and all classes that were associated with output would be
inherited from the java.io.OutputStream abstract class. Most of the direct and indirect subclasses of
these two I/O base classes are listed below and they make up the set of byte-oriented streams. They are
called byte-oriented because they read or write 8-bit bytes. These classes are generally used to read and
write non-character or binary data.

A stream can be defined as a sequence of data. There are two kinds of Streams.
 InputStream: The InputStream is used to read data from a source and it is an abstract class. Source
may be a file, an array, peripheral device or socket.
 OutputStream: the OutputStream is used for writing data to a destination and it is an abstract class.
An output stream accepts output bytes and sends them to some sink.

Commonly used methods of OutputStream class:

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Method Description

public void write(int)throws IOException: is used to write a byte to the current output stream.

public void write(byte[])throws is used to write an array of byte to the current output
IOException: stream.

public void flush()throws IOException: flushes the current output stream.

public void close()throws IOException: is used to close the current output stream.

Commonly used methods of InputStream class:

Method Description
public abstract int read()throws reads the next byte of data from the input stream.It returns
IOException: -1 at the end of file.
public int available()throws returns an estimate of the number of bytes that can be read
IOException: from the current input stream.
public void close()throws
is used to close the current input stream.
IOException:

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Hierarchey of InputStream & OutputStream classes:

These classes define several key methods. Two most important are:
1. read() : reads byte of data.
2. write() : Writes byte of data.
Java byte streams are used to perform input and output of 8-bit bytes. Though there are many classes
related to byte streams but the most frequently used classes are , FileInputStream and
FileOutputStream.

Description of the byte-oriented stream classes:

1. OutputStream and InputStream are abstract classes.

2. ByteArrayOutputStream objects are used to create a buffer in memory. All the data that you send to
the stream is placed in this buffer.

3. FileOutputStream objects are used for sending data to a file.

4. ObjectOutputStream objects are used for serializing (saving) objects to various streams (See the
serialization topic).

5. PipedOutputStream objects are used to implement the write portion of the "piping" concept.

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6. FilterOutputStream objects are used to process stream output so that it can be buffered and written
as blocks of useful data instead of as one byte at a time.

7. All the FilterOutputStream contructors require another OutputStream object as an argument.

8. BufferedOutputStream is a FilterOutputStream class used to buffer data in a stream before writing it.
flush() is used to write the data to the stream.

9. DataOutputStream is a FilterOutputStream class used to write primitives (int, char, long, etc) to a
stream.

10. PrintStream is a FilterOutputStream class used for producing formatted output. (DataOutputStream
handles the storage of data, PrintStream handles the display of data.)

11. ByteArrayInputStream objects allow a buffer in memory to be used as an InputStream.

12. FileInputStream objects are used for reading data from a file.

13. ObjectInputStream objects are used for deserializing (reading) objects from various streams (See the
serialization topic).

14. PipedInputStream objects are used to implement the read portion of the "piping" concept (We will
defer the discussion of this stream to the multithreading topics).

15. SequenceInputStream are used to convert two or more InputStream objects into a single
InputStream object.

16. StringBufferInputStream objects are used to convert a String object into an InputSteam.

17. FilterInputStream objects are used to process stream input so that it can be read as blocks of useful
data instead of as one byte at a time.

18. All the FilterInputStream contructors require another InputStream object as an argument.

19. BufferedInputStream is a FilterInputStream class used to buffer data in a stream before reading it.

20. DataInputStream is a FilterInputStream class used to read primitives (int, char, long, etc) from a
stream.

21. LineNumberInputStream is a FilterInputStream class used to keep track of line numbers in the input
stream (getLineNumber(); setLineNumber(int)).

22. PushbackInputStream is a FilterInputStream class that has a one byte push-back buffer so you can
push back the last character read.

FileInputStream
This class is used for reading data from the files.

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InputStream f = new FileInputStream("hello.txt");

Following constructor takes a file object to create an input stream object to read the file. First we create
a file object using File() method as follows:

File f = new File("hello.txt");

InputStream f = new FileInputStream(f);

Methods of InputStream class:

Method Description
public void close() throws IOException{} This method closes the file output stream. Releases any system
resources associated with the file. Throws an IOException.
protected void finalize()throws IOException {} This method cleans up the connection to the file. Ensures that
the close method of this file output stream is called when there
are no more references to this stream. Throws an IOException.
public int read(int r)throws IOException{} This method reads the specified byte of data from the
InputStream. Returns an int. Returns the next byte of data and -
1 will be returned if it's end of file
public int read(byte[] r) throws IOException{} This method reads r.length bytes from the input stream into an
array. Returns the total number of bytes read. If end of file -1
will be returned.
public int available() throws IOException{} Gives the number of bytes that can be read from this file input
stream. Returns an int.

FileOutputStream
FileOutputStream is used to create a file and write data into it. The stream would create a file, if it
doesn't already exist, before opening it for output.

Here are two constructors which can be used to create a FileOutputStream object.

Following constructor takes a file name as a string to create an input stream object to write the file:

OutputStream f = new FileOutputStream("C:/java/hello");

Following constructor takes a file object to create an output stream object to write the file. First, we
create a file object using File() method as follows:

File f = new File("C:/java/hello");

OutputStream f = new FileOutputStream(f);

Methods of OutputStream class:

Method Description

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This method closes the file output stream. Releases

public void close() throws
any system resources associated with the file. Throws
IOException{}
an IOException
This method cleans up the connection to the file.
protected void finalize()throws Ensures that the close method of this file output
IOException {} stream is called when there are no more references to
this stream. Throws an IOException.
public void write(int w) throws This methods writes the specified byte to the output
IOException{} stream.
Writes w.length bytes from the mentioned byte array
public void write(byte[] w)
to the OutputStream.

Sample program:

package com.sample.file;

import java.io.FileInputStream;
import java.io.FileOutputStream;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStream;
import java.io.OutputStream;

public class FileStreamDemo {

public static void main(String args[]) {

try {
String[] arr = { "Ram", "Laxman", "Bharath", "Khathragna"};
OutputStream os = new
FileOutputStream("D:\\HAWB\\PARAMESH\\JPA\\FILES\\test.txt");
for (int index = 0; index < arr.length; index++) {
os.write(arr[index].getBytes()); // writes the bytes
}
os.close();

InputStream is = new
FileInputStream("D:\\HAWB\\PARAMESH\\JPA\\FILES\\test.txt");
int size = is.available();

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {

System.out.print((char) is.read() + " ");
}
is.close();
} catch (IOException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
System.out.print("Exception");
}
}
}

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Character Stream Classes

Java 1.1 made significant modifications to the fundamental I/O stream library. The biggest change was
the addition of a hierarchy of classes that support character streams that mirror the structure of the
hierarchy of byte-oriented streams in terms of functionality. The superclass of character-oriented input
stream I/O is java.io.Reader. The corresponding output steam is java.io.Writer. Most byte stream classes
hava a corresponding character stream class. For an example, FileReader is the character-oriented
counterpart to FileInputStream and FileWriter is the couterpart to FileOutputStream.

So, why were the character-oriented classes added to the I/O library? Well, they were added to work
specifically with character data (characters, character arrays, strings). The character stream classes differ
from the byte streams classes in that they operate on buffered input and output and properly convert
each character from the encoding scheme of the native operating system to the Unicode character set
used by the Java platform. On the other hand, InputStream and OutputStream, and their subclasses
operate on bytes and arrays of bytes. The byte-oriented streams can read characters, but they only
correctly handle 7-bit ASCII characters (same as the first 128 Unicode characters).

It is important to note that the character stream classes were not added to completely replace the byte
stream classes. The InputStream and OutputStream classes remain in the I/O library and they still provide
valuable functionality (mainly for reading binary data like primitive types).

These two abstract classes have several concrete classes that handle unicode character.

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Stream class Description

BufferedReader Handles buffered input stream.
BufferedWriter Handles buffered output stream.
FileReader Input stream that reads from file.
FileWriter Output stream that writes to file.
InputStreamReader Input stream that translate byte to character
OutputStreamReader Output stream that translate character to byte.
PrintWriter Output Stream that contain print() and println() method.
Reader Abstract class that define character stream input
Writer Abstract class that define character stream output

Reading Console Input:

We use the object of BufferedReader class to take inputs from the keyboard.

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Reading Characters:

read() method is used with BufferedReader object to read characters. As this function returns integer
type value has we need to use typecasting to convert it into char type.

int read() throws IOException

Example snippet to read characters from keyboard input:

import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStreamReader;

public class CharReadDemo {

public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException {
System.out.println("Please enter any character:");
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new
InputStreamReader(System.in));
char c = (char) br.read(); // Reading character
System.out.println("Character from Keyboard : " + c);
}
}

Reading Strings from console:

To read string we have to use readLine() function with BufferedReader class's object.

String readLine() throws IOException

Example code snippet to read string from keyboard input:

import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStreamReader;

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public class ReadLineDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {
String text;
InputStreamReader isr = new InputStreamReader(System.in);
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(isr);
System.out.println("Please enter any line of characters : ");
text = br.readLine(); // Reading String
System.out.println(text);
}
}

Reading file content:

import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.File;
import java.io.FileReader;
import java.io.IOException;

public class ReadFileDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
File fl = new File("myfile.txt");
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(fl));
String str;
while ((str = br.readLine()) != null) {
System.out.println(str);
}
br.close();
} catch (IOException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}

Writing content to a file:

import java.io.File;
import java.io.FileWriter;
import java.io.IOException;

class FileStreamWriterDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
File fl = new File("myfile.txt");
String str = "Write this string to my file";
FileWriter fw = new FileWriter(fl);
fw.write(str);
fw.close();
} catch (IOException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}

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Serialization
The concept of transmitting objects from one place to another place is called Serialization.

The process of converting an object to network understandable data is called Serialzation.

The concept of persisting the state of an object (in a file, disk, DB) is called Serialization.

Serialization is a process in which current state of Object will be saved in stream of bytes. As byte stream
create is platform neutral hence once objects created in one system can be deserialized in other
platform.

In Java, if any object needs to be persist, we need to implements java.io.Serializable interface.

Serializable is a marker interface, which doesnot have any abstract methods to implement by its
implementor classes.

Marshalling: The process of converting object to network understandable data is called “Marshalling.

Unmarshalling: The process of converting network understandable data to object is called

“Unmarshalling”.

Classes ObjectInputStream and ObjectOutputStream are high-level streams that contain the methods
for serializing and deserializing an object.

The ObjectOutputStream class contains many write methods for writing various data types, but one
method in particular stands out:

public final void writeObject(Object x) throws IOException

The above method serializes an Object and sends it to the output stream. Similarly, the
ObjectInputStream class contains the following method for deserializing an object:

public final Object readObject() throws IOException,

ClassNotFoundException

This method retrieves the next Object out of the stream and deserializes it. The return value is Object, so
you will need to cast it to its appropriate data type.

Need of Serialization:

Serialization is usually used when the need arises to send your data over network or stored in files. By
data I mean objects and not text. Now the problem is your Network infrastructure and your Hard disk are
hardware components that understand bits and bytes but not Java objects. Serialization is the translation

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of your Java object’s values/states to bytes to send it over network or save it.On other hand,
Deserialization is conversion of byte code to corresponding java objects.

Concept of serialVersionUID :

SerialVersionUID is used to ensure that same object(That was used during Serialization) is loaded during
Deserialization.serialVersionUID is used for version control of object.

Steps to achieve Serialization:

Employee.java:

import java.io.Serializable;

public class Employee implements Serializable {

/**
*

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*/
private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
int employeeId;
String employeeName;
String department;

public int getEmployeeId() {

return employeeId;
}

public void setEmployeeId(int employeeId) {

this.employeeId = employeeId;
}

public String getEmployeeName() {

return employeeName;
}

public void setEmployeeName(String employeeName) {

this.employeeName = employeeName;
}

public String getDepartment() {

return department;
}

public void setDepartment(String department) {

this.department = department;
}
}

Steps to deserialize:

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DeserializeDemo.java:

import java.io.FileInputStream;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.ObjectInputStream;

public class DeserializeDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Employee emp = null;

try {
FileInputStream fileIn = new FileInputStream("employee.txt");
ObjectInputStream in = new ObjectInputStream(fileIn);
emp = (Employee) in.readObject();
in.close();
fileIn.close();
} catch (IOException ioe) {
ioe.printStackTrace();
return;
} catch (ClassNotFoundException c) {
System.out.println("Employee class not found");
c.printStackTrace();
return;
}
System.out.println("Deserialized Employee...");
System.out.println("Emp id: " + emp.getEmployeeId());
System.out.println("Name: " + emp.getEmployeeName());
System.out.println("Department: " + emp.getDepartment());
}
}

Notes:

 Serialization interface needs to be implemented in order to make object serialized.

 Transient instance variable doesn’t serialized with Object state.
 If Super class implements Serializable then sub class are also Serializable automatically.
 If Super class is not serializable then when sub class is de serialized then super class’s default
constructor will be invoked. Hence all variable will get default value and reference will be null.

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Threads
A Thread is a light weight process that executes some task simultaneously with other part of the
program. Threads are two types.

1. User threads
2. System Threads (Daemon Threads)
Every java program/application has at least one thread in it. Per example main() is a user thread, that will
be created as and when a java program starts execution. There will be many other threads running in
background like memory management, system management, signal processing etc. All these threads are
System threads or Daemon threads.
Multithreading refers to two or more threads executing concurrently in a single program. A computer
single core processor can execute only one thread at a time and time slicing is the OS feature to share
processor time between different processes and threads.

Thread Life Cycle

The below diagram illustriate variuous stages of a Thread.

 New: A thread begins its life cycle in the new state. It remains in this state until the program starts the
thread. It is also referred to as a born thread.

 Runnable: After a newly born thread is started, the thread becomes runnable. A thread in this state is
considered to be executing its task.

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 Waiting: Sometimes, a thread transitions to the waiting state while the thread waits for another thread to
perform a task.A thread transitions back to the runnable state only when another thread signals the waiting
thread to continue executing.

 Timed waiting: A runnable thread can enter the timed waiting state for a specified interval of time. A
thread in this state transitions back to the runnable state when that time interval expires or when the event it
is waiting for occurs.

 Terminated (Dead): A runnable thread enters the terminated state when it completes its task or otherwise
terminates.

Thread Priority
Thread priority helps operating system to determine in scheduling the Threads. Every thread has its own
priority. Thread priorities are in the range between 1 – 10. Thread has three constants.
MAX_PRIORITY = 10
MIN_PRIORITY = 1
NORM_PRIORITY = 5

Operating system will schedule the threads based on their priority. Heigher priority has more important
and lower priority has less importance. NORM_PRIORITY is the default priority of a thread. However, if
there are two threads with the same priority, cannot guarantee the order in which threads execute and
very much platform dependent.

Thread creation
Thread can be created in two ways.

1. By implementing the Runnable interface.

2. By extending the Thread class.

Creation of Thread by implementing Runnable interface

Step #1: Runnable interface has an abstract method called run(). This method provides entry point for
thread and we need to provide the completeness for this method. In other way, we need to put business
logic in run() method.

Syntax of run():

public void run( )

Step #2: We need to instantiate the Thread class object by using any one the following constructors.

Constructor with Runnable interface:

Thread(Runnable threadObj);

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Constructors with Runnable interface & Thread name:

Thread(Runnable threadObj, String threadName)

Here, threadObj is an instance of a class that implements the Runnable interface and threadName is the
name given to the new thread.

Step #3: Once Thread object is created, we need to make a call to start() method to start the execution of
run() method.

void start( );

The important methods of Thread class are:

Methods Description

Starts the thread in a separate path of execution, then invokes the run()
public void start() method on this Thread object.

If this Thread object was instantiated using a separate Runnable target, the
public void run() run() method is invoked on that Runnable object.

public final void Changes the name of the Thread object. There is also a getName() method
for retrieving the name.
setName(String name)

public final void Sets the priority of this Thread object. The possible values are between 1
and 10.
setPriority(int priority)

public final void A parameter of true denotes this Thread as a daemon thread.
setDaemon(boolean on)

public final void The current thread invokes this method on a second thread, causing the
current thread to block until the second thread terminates or the specified
join(long millisec) number of milliseconds passes.

Interrupts this thread, causing it to continue execution if it was blocked for

public void interrupt() any reason.

Returns true if the thread is alive, which is any time after the thread has
public final boolean isAlive() been started but before it runs to completion.

The above methods are invoked on a particular Thread object.

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Static methods of Thread class:

Methods Description
Causes the currently running thread to yield to any other threads of
public static void yield() the same priority that are waiting to be scheduled.
public static void sleep(long Causes the currently running thread to block for at least the
millisec) specified number of milliseconds.
public static boolean Returns true if the current thread holds the lock on the given
holdsLock(Object x) Object.
public static Thread Returns a reference to the currently running thread, which is the
currentThread() thread that invokes this method.
public static void Prints the stack trace for the currently running thread, which is
dumpStack() useful when debugging a multithreaded application.

Example of creating a Thread by implementing Runnable interface:

Filename: thread_file.txt

File Pat: D:\JPA\FILES\thread_file.txt

Reading something from a file

This is my first class
This is my second class

RunnableThread.java:

import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.FileReader;
import java.io.IOException;

public class RunnableThread implements Runnable {

private String threadName;

Thread thread;

RunnableThread(String threadName) {
this.threadName = threadName;
}

@Override
public void run() {
System.out.println("Running thread name : " + threadName);
try (BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(
new FileReader("D:\\ JPA\\FILES\\thread_file.txt"));) {
String str;

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while ((str = br.readLine()) != null) {

System.out.println(threadName + " - " + str);
}
} catch (IOException exp) {
exp.printStackTrace();
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

RunnableThread r1 = new RunnableThread("My_First_Thread");
RunnableThread r2 = new RunnableThread("My_Second_Thread");
Thread thread1 = new Thread(r1);
Thread thread2 = new Thread(r2);
thread1.start();
thread2.start();

}
}

Output:

Starting thead name : My_First_Thread

Starting thead name : My_Second_Thread
Running thread name : My_First_Thread
My_First_Thread - Reading something from a file
My_First_Thread - This is my first class
My_First_Thread - This is my second class
Running thread name : My_Second_Thread
My_Second_Thread - Reading something from a file
My_Second_Thread - This is my first class
My_Second_Thread - This is my second class

Creation of Thread by extending Thread class

We can create a Thread by extending a Thread class.

Step #1: We need to override run() method of Thread by placing with required business logic.

Step #2: Once created object for Thread class, it’s required to start() method.

Example:

import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.FileReader;
import java.io.IOException;

public class ExtendingThread extends Thread {

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private String threadName;

Thread thread;

ExtendingThread(String threadName) {
this.threadName = threadName;
}

@Override
public void run() {
System.out.println("Running thread name : " + threadName);
try (BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(
new FileReader("D:\\JPA\\FILES\\thread_file.txt"));) {
String str;
while ((str = br.readLine()) != null) {
System.out.println(threadName + " - " + str);
}
} catch (IOException exp) {
exp.printStackTrace();
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

ExtendingThread thread1 = new
ExtendingThread("My_First_Thread");
ExtendingThread thread2 = new
ExtendingThread("My_Second_Thread");

thread1.start();
thread2.start();
}
}

Output:

Starting thead name : My_First_Thread

Starting thead name : My_Second_Thread
Running thread name : My_First_Thread
My_First_Thread - Reading something from a file
My_First_Thread - This is my first class
My_First_Thread - This is my second class
Running thread name : My_Second_Thread
My_Second_Thread - Reading something from a file
My_Second_Thread - This is my first class
My_Second_Thread - This is my second class

Synchronization:

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There are many situations in which multiple threads must share access to common objects.

The keyword “synchronize” prevents multiple threads access the same object/resource simultaneously.

Thread communication:

Threads can be communicate with each other by using wait(), notify() & notifyAll(). These are the final
methods implemented in Object class. All three methods can be called only from within
a synchronized context.

ChatApplication.java:

package com.sample.threads;

public class ChatApplication {

boolean flag = false;

public synchronized void question(String que) {

if (flag) {
try {
wait();
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}
System.out.println(que);
flag = true;
notify();
}

public synchronized void answer(String ans) {

if (!flag) {
try {
wait();
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}

System.out.println(ans);
flag = false;
notify();
}
}

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CustomerThread.java:

public class CustomerThread implements Runnable {

ChatApplication ca;
String[] questions = { "Hi", "I have a problem in my
system", "Thank You..." };

public CustomerThread(ChatApplication ca) {

this.ca = ca;
new Thread(this, "Customer").start();
}

@Override
public void run() {
for (String que : questions) {
ca.question("Customer : " + que);
}
}
}

CustomerCareThread.java:

public class CustomerCareThread implements Runnable {

ChatApplication ca;

String[] answers = { "How may I help you?", "Sure, please

give us 24 hours to solve the problem", "Welcome" };

public CustomerCareThread(ChatApplication ca) {

this.ca = ca;
new Thread(this, "CustomerCare").start();
}

@Override
public void run() {
for (String ans : answers) {
ca.answer("CustomerCare: " + ans);
}
}
}

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ThreadCommunicationDemo.java:

public class ThreadCommunicationDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

ChatApplication ca = new ChatApplication();
new CustomerThread(ca);
new CustomerCareThread(ca);
}
}

Output:

Customer : Hi
CustomerCare: How may I help you?
Customer : I have a problem in my system
CustomerCare: Sure, please give us 24 hours to solve the problem
Customer : Thank You...
CustomerCare: Welcome

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Reflection
Java Reflection makes it possible to inspect classes, interfaces, fields and methods at runtime, without
knowing the names of the classes, methods etc. at compile time. It is also possible to instantiate new
objects, invoke methods and get/set field values using reflection.

In Java, it is possible to inspect fields, classes, methods, annotations, interfaces, etc. at runtime. Its not
require to know how classes or methods are called, neither the parameters that are needed, all of that
can be retrieved at runtime using reflection. It is also possible to instantiate new classes, to create new
instances and to execute their methods, all of it using reflection.

Reflection API is the mechanism used to fetch information about a class. This mechanism is built into the
class named Class. The special class Class is the universal type for the meta information that describes
objects within the Java system. Class loaders in the Java system return objects of type Class.

Class: The Class contains all the reflection related methods that can be applied to classes and objects
like the ones that allow a programmer to retrieve the class name, to retrieve the public methods of a
class, etc.

The most important methods of Class are:

 forName(): Loads class of a given name, using the current class loader.

Syntax:

public static Class<?> forName(String className)

throws ClassNotFoundException

 getName(): Returns the name of the class as a String object, which was useful for identifying object
references by their class name.

 newInstance(): Invokes the no-args constructor on the class (if it exists) and return you an object
instance of that class of object.

Syntax:

public T newInstance()
throws InstantiationException,
IllegalAccessException

 getConstructor(): Returns a Constructor object that reflects the specified public constructor of the
class represented by this Class object.

Syntax:

public Constructor<T> getConstructor(Class<?>... parameterTypes)

throws NoSuchMethodException, SecurityException

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 getConstructors(): Returns an array containing Constructor objects reflecting all the public
constructors of the class represented by this Class object.

Syntax:

public Constructor<?>[] getConstructors()throws SecurityException

 getDeclaredConstructors(): Returns an array of Constructor objects reflecting all the

constructors(public, protected, default & private) declared by the class represented by this Class
object.

Syntax:

public Constructor<?>[] getDeclaredConstructors() throws SecurityException

 getMethod(): Returns a Method object that reflects the specified public member method of the class
or interface represented by this Class object.

Syntax:

public Method getMethod(String name,Class<?>... parameterTypes)

throws NoSuchMethodException, SecurityException

 getMethods(): Returns an array containing Method objects reflecting all the public methods of the
class or interface represented by this Class object, including those declared by the class or interface
and those inherited from superclasses and superinterfaces.

Syntax:

public Method[] getMethods() throws SecurityException

 getDeclaredMethods(): Returns an array containing Method objects reflecting all the declared
methods of the class or interface represented by this Class object, including public, protected, default
(package) access, and private methods, but excluding inherited methods.

Syntax:

public Method[] getDeclaredMethods() throws SecurityException

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 getField(): Returns a Field object that reflects the specified public member field of the class or
interface represented by this Class object.

Syntax:

public Field getField(String name)

throws NoSuchFieldException, SecurityException

 getFields(): Returns an array containing Field objects reflecting all the accessible public fields of the
class or interface represented by this Class object.

Syntax:

public Field[] getFields() throws SecurityException

 getDeclaredFields(): Returns an array of Field objects reflecting all the fields declared by the class or
interface represented by this Class object.

Syntax:

public Field[] getDeclaredFields()throws SecurityException

 getSuperclass(): Returns the Class representing the superclass of the entity (class, interface, primitive
type or void) represented by this Class.

Syntax:

public Class<? super T> getSuperclass()

 getInterfaces(): Determines the interfaces implemented by the class or interface represented by this
object.

Syntax:

public Class<?>[] getInterfaces()

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Employee.java:

package com.sample.reflection;

public class Employee {

int id;
String name;
String email;

private Employee(int id, String name) {

this.id = id;
this.name = name;
}

public Employee(int id, String name, String email) {

this.id = id;
this.name = name;
this.email = email;
}

public int getId() {

return id;
}
public void setId(int id) {
this.id = id;
}
public String getName() {
return name;
}
public void setName(String name) {
this.name = name;
}
public String getEmail() {
return email;
}
public void setEmail(String email) {
this.email = email;
}

@Override
public String toString() {
return new StringBuilder("Employee [id=").append(id)
.append(", name=").append(name)
.append(", email=").append(email)
.append("]").toString();
}
}

RefelectionDemo.java:

package com.sample.reflection;

import java.lang.reflect.Constructor;

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import java.lang.reflect.InvocationTargetException;
import java.lang.reflect.Method;

public class ReflectionDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

try {
// Possibility to throw ClassNotFoundException
Class<?> clazz = Class.forName("com.sample.reflection.Employee");
try {

// Way to get all constructors of a class (public, protected, default &

private)
Constructor<?>[] constructors = clazz.getDeclaredConstructors();
System.out.println("=========== Constructors demonstration started
=========");
for (Constructor<?> constructor : constructors) {
System.out.println("\nConstructor Name : " +
constructor.getName());
// Each Parameter is a class in java, so parameters can be
received in Class array
Class<?>[] params = constructor.getParameterTypes();
for (Class<?> param : params) {
System.out.println("Paramter : " + param.getName());
}
}
System.out.println("=========== Constructors demonstration ended
=========");

System.out.println("\nCalling a private constructor through reflection");

// Possibility to throw NoSuchMethodException & SecurityException
Constructor<?> constructor = clazz.getDeclaredConstructor(int.class,
String.class);
// Way to invoke private constructor
constructor.setAccessible(true);
Employee employee = (Employee) constructor.newInstance(10,
"Harish");
System.out.println("Employee : " + employee);

// Invoke non-static method of a class

System.out.println("\nCalling a non-static method and updating the
existing object");
Method method = clazz.getMethod("setEmail", String.class);
method.invoke(employee, "[email protected]");
System.out.println("Employee After invoked setEmail() : " + employee);
} catch (InstantiationException | IllegalAccessException |
IllegalArgumentException
| InvocationTargetException e) {

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e.printStackTrace();
}
} catch (ClassNotFoundException | NoSuchMethodException | SecurityException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}

Output:

=========== Constructors demonstration started =========

Constructor Name : com.sample.reflection.Employee

Paramter : int
Paramter : java.lang.String

Constructor Name : com.sample.reflection.Employee

Paramter : int
Paramter : java.lang.String
Paramter : java.lang.String
=========== Constructors demonstration ended =========

Calling a private constructor through reflection

Employee : Employee [id=10, name=Harish, email=null]

Calling a non-static method and updating the existing object

Employee After invoked setEmail() : Employee [id=10, name=Harish,
[email protected]]

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Java Database Connectivity (JDBC)

The JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) API defines interfaces and classes for writing database
applications in Java by making database connections. Using JDBC you can send SQL, PL/SQL statements to
almost any relational database. JDBC is a Java API for executing SQL statements and supports basic SQL
functionality. It provides RDBMS access by allowing you to embed SQL inside Java code. Because Java can
run on a thin client, applets embedded in Web pages can contain downloadable JDBC code to enable
remote database access. You will learn how to create a table, insert values into it, query the table,
retrieve results, and update the table with the help of a JDBC Program example. Although JDBC was
designed specifically to provide a Java interface to relational databases, you may find that you need to
write Java code to access non-relational databases as well.

JDBC Architecture

Configuring a JDBC development environment

First of all, you should download the JDBC Driver for your DBMS. For this class, you can use “ojdbc6.jar”
provided on class web-site. The ojdbc6.jar is a JDBC driver for Oracle Database 11g. The below web sites
are official pages for downloading official version of JDBC drivers.

Oracle: http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/database/features/jdbc/index-091264.html

Mysql: http://www.mysql.com/downloads/connector/j/

1. Install the latest version of the Java SE JDK on your computer, if already not installed.
2. Set up the classpath for a JDBC driver. The JDBC driver is not needed for compiling the java
source but it is needed to execute the class. There are so many ways to set up this classpath
according to the OS, programming tools and your preferences.
3. Steps to setup te class path JDBC driver:
a. Right Click on Project name  Properties  Java Build Path  Libraries

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b. Click on “Add External JARs..”  Browse and select JDBC driver jar  Click “Open”

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Process of an SQL statement with JDBC

Java application calls the JDBC library. JDBC loads a driver which talks to the database In general, to
process any SQL statement with JDBC, you follow these steps:

1. Establish a connection.
2. Create a statement.
3. Execute the query.
4. Process the ResultSet object.
5. Close the connection

Establishing a Connection
In this step of the jdbc connection process, we load the driver class by calling Class.forName() with the
Driver class name as an argument. Once loaded, the Driver class creates an instance of itself.

String driverName = "oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver"; // for Oracle

// String driverName = “com.mysql.jdbc.Driver”; //for MySql
try {
// Load the JDBC driver
Class.forName(driverName);
} catch (ClassNotFoundException e) {
// Could not find the database driver
System.out.println("ClassNotFoundException : " + e.getMessage());
}

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The JDBC DriverManager class defines objects which can connect Java applications to a JDBC driver.
DriverManager is considered the backbone of JDBC architecture. DriverManager class manages the JDBC
drivers that are installed on the system. Its getConnection() method is used to establish a connection to a
database. It uses a username, password, and a jdbc url to establish a connection to the database and
returns a connection object. A jdbc Connection represents a session/connection with a specific database.
Within the context of a Connection, SQL, PL/SQL statements are executed and results are returned. An
application can have one or more connections with a single database, or it can have many connections
with different databases.

Example for JDBC connection:

String serverName = "linux.grace.umd.edu";

String portNumber = "1521";
String instanceId = "XE";
String url = "jdbc:oracle:thin:@" + serverName + ":" +
portNumber + ":" + instanceId; // for Oracle
//uri =”jdbc:mysql://server ip or address:port/database name”; //for Mysql
try {
// Create a connection to the database
connection = DriverManager.getConnection(url, username, password);
catch (SQLException e) {
// Could not connect to the database
System.out.println(e.getMessage());
}

Example for loading and connection:

package com.sample.jdbc;

import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.DriverManager;
import java.sql.ResultSet;
import java.sql.SQLException;
import java.sql.Statement;

public class DBConnection {

private static Connection connection;

private DBConnection() {

public synchronized static Connection getConnection() {

if (connection == null) {
try {
final String url = "jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:XE";
Class.forName("oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver");

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connection = DriverManager.getConnection(url, "system", "password");

} catch (ClassNotFoundException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
} catch (SQLException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}
return connection;
}

public static Long getSequenceNumber() {

try {
Statement stmt = getConnection().createStatement();
ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery("select user_registration_seq.nextval from
dual");
if (rs.next()) {
return rs.getLong(1);
}
} catch (SQLException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
return 0L;

Creating statements & executing queries

A Statement is an interface that represents a SQL statement. You execute Statement objects, and they
generate ResultSet objects, which is a table of data representing a database result set. You need a
Connection object to create a Statement object.
There are three different kinds of statements.
 Statement: Used to implement simple SQL statements with no parameters.
 PreparedStatement: (Extends Statement.) Used for precompiling SQL statements that might contain
input parameters. See Using Prepared Statements for more information.
 CallableStatement: (Extends PreparedStatement.) Used to execute stored procedures that may contain
both input and output parameters. See Stored Procedures for more information.

Statement stmt = null;

try {
stmt = connection.createStatement();
} catch (SQLException e) {
System.out.println(e.getMessage());
}

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To execute a query, call an execute method from Statement such as the following:
 execute: Returns true if the first object that the query returns is a ResultSet object. Use this method if
the query could return one or moreResultSet objects. Retrieve the ResultSet objects returned from the
query by repeatedly calling Statement.getResutSet.
 executeQuery: Returns one ResultSet object.
 executeUpdate: Returns an integer representing the number of rows affected by the SQL statement.
Use this method if you are using INSERT,DELETE, or UPDATE SQL statements.
Example of executeQuery:

String country = "D";

Statement stmt = null;
String query = " SELECT * FROM CITY WHERE country='" + country + "'";
try {
stmt = connection.createStatement();
ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery(query);
while (rs.next()) {
String name = rs.getString(1); // or rs.getString("NAME");
String coun = rs.getString(2);
String province = rs.getString(3);
int population = rs.getInt(4);
}
stmt.close();
} catch (SQLException e) {
System.out.println(e.getMessage());
}

The rs.next() return „true‟ until there is no more result.

Example of executeUpdate:

String population = "1705000";

String cityName = "Hamburg";
String province = "Hamburg";
Statement stmt = null;
try {
stmt = connection.createStatement();
String sql = "UPDATE CITY SET population='" + population + "' WHERE NAME='" +
cityName + "' AND PROVINCE='"
+ province + "'";
stmt.executeUpdate(sql);
stmt.close();
} catch (SQLException e) {
System.out.println(e.getMessage());
}

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Sample JDBC Connection Program:

package com.sample.jdbc;

import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.PreparedStatement;
import java.sql.ResultSet;
import java.sql.SQLException;
import java.sql.Statement;

public class SampleJdbcProgram {

public ResultSet insertRecord(String name, String email, String country, String password) {
try {
Connection conn = DBConnection.getConnection();
final long id = DBConnection.getSequenceNumber();
Statement stmt = conn.createStatement();
ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery("insert into USERS (id, name, email, country,
password) values " + "(" + id
+ ", '" + name + "', '" + email + "', '" + country + "', '" + password +
"')");
return rs;
} catch (SQLException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
return null;
}

public ResultSet insertRecodWithSafely(String name, String email, String country, String

password) {
try {
Connection conn = DBConnection.getConnection();

PreparedStatement ps = conn
.prepareStatement("insert into USERS (id, name, email, country,
password) values (?, ?, ?, ?, ?)");
ps.setLong(1, DBConnection.getSequenceNumber());
ps.setString(2, name);
ps.setString(3, email);
ps.setString(4, country);
ps.setString(5, password);
ResultSet rs = ps.executeQuery();
return rs;
} catch (SQLException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
return null;
}

Core Java | JPA Solutions Page 172

-

public static void main(String[] args) throws SQLException {

SampleJdbcProgram prg = new SampleJdbcProgram();
ResultSet rs = prg.insertRecodWithSafely("Sonia", "[email protected]", "Itali", "Sonia");
if (rs != null && rs.next()) {
System.out.println("Insertion successful");
}
}

Before executing the above program, its mandatory to create table and its sequence as follows:

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE

( "ID" NUMBER(10) NOT NULL,

"FIRSTNAME" VARCHAR2(45 BYTE),

"LASTNAME" VARCHAR2(45 BYTE),

"EMAIL" VARCHAR2(45 BYTE),

"TELEPHONE" VARCHAR2(45 BYTE),

CONSTRAINT PK_CONTACTS PRIMARY KEY (id)

CREATE SEQUENCE EMPLOYEE_SEQ

MINVALUE 1

MAXVALUE 999999999999999999999999999

INCREMENT BY 1 START WITH 81 CACHE 20 NOORDER NOCYCLE ;

Core Java | JPA Solutions Page 173