Artikel Unesco
Artikel Unesco
Artikel Unesco
A Background Paper
Kenneth King
Kenneth.King@ed.ac.uk
We do not really know how we are doing on skills, because we have not figured out
properly how to define them and measure them’, Nick Burnett, Assistant Director-
General, Education, UNESCO, Gaitskell Lecture, 22 May 2008, University of
Nottingham
Summary
This outline review of issues for the UNESCO TVET strategy covers the crucial
normative dimension of skills, capacities and qualifications; the role of new upstream
policy analytic work on skills development; the concerns with capacity, critical mass
and a skills development community of practice; the statistical challenge of skills
development data; and the relation of these suggestions to the current draft of
UNESCO’s Programme and Budget for 2010-2011.
A consultation process with some of the key stakeholders has been underway since
early August 2008, initiated appropriately through a discussion in Bonn with the
German Commission for UNESCO and supportive German organizations.
Consultations followed with DFID, GTZ and BMZ. At the end of August there was a
small expert meeting held, again in Bonn, but hosted by UNEVOC. In early
September there was a formal exchange with a significant number of the permanent
delegations to UNESCO, hosted by the German Ambassador to UNESCO.
Discussions followed with the ILO in Geneva and the European Training Foundation
(ETF) in Turin. At the end of September there was a consultation with the Leadership
Group of UNESCO (Education),1 and a meeting with the OECD. In November, there
were discussions with the World Bank, UNICEF and USAID; and an internal
UNESCO consultation was carried out within the framework of the International
Conference on Education in Geneva, as well as a formal presentation about the
progress on the strategy to one of its working sessions. There was a further expert
1
King, K. ‘The momentum towards a UNESCO TVET Strategy’, 29th September 2008.
1
meeting held in Bonn in early January 2009 which captured reactions from a wide
range of member states as well as from bilateral and multilateral agencies. There was
also an intensive series of face-to-face and email exchanges with those who have been
responsible, at different points in the last two decades, for the leadership of education
or one of its sub-sectors in UNESCO. Drawing on the reports, papers2 and discussions
from the Bonn meeting, as well as its own resources, UNESCO Headquarters will
develop a Draft Strategy which will be presented to the 181st Session of the Executive
Board in April 2009.
For one thing, we shall need to understand better why no formal UNESCO strategy
paper was ever developed from the Seoul process. A very obvious reason was that
within a year of Seoul, in April 2000, there was the Dakar World Forum on Education
for All (EFA), with its six EFA Goals. This refocusing of the world’s and UNESCO’s
attention on basic education ten years after Jomtien was one explanation for a possible
shift of emphasis towards Education for All. Indeed, UNESCO was eventually
assigned by the World Education Forum a clear leadership role and mandate in
respect of the huge ambitions of the EFA agenda: ‘UNESCO will serve as the
Secretariat. It will refocus its education programme in order to place the outcomes
and priorities of Dakar at the heart of its work’ (WEF 2000). But the new
administration in UNESCO4 had to fight hard in the international community to try
and maintain the expanded Dakar vision of basic education when there was strong
pressure to reduce the vision to primary education and gender parity. This narrowing
actually happened outside UNESCO in September 2000 when the Millennium
2
There were some 10 expert papers submitted to Bonn, as well as a Headquarters commissioned paper
on ‘UNESCO’s historical roles in the area of TVET provision’. These will all be available on the
UNEVOC website in due course.
3
The role of East Germany and the Soviet Union in promoting the Convention needs to be recalled.
4
Both UNESCO’s Director General and the Assistant Director General (Education) changed around
the time of the Dakar World Forum.
2
Summit and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) focused merely on primary
education and gender parity in education within the education sector.5 In this context
of restructuring education at UNESCO around EFA, the Seoul vision and related
initiatives were temporarily lost, though the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre
for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (UNEVOC) was set up in Bonn
with the strong support of a united Germany in 1992.
Another explanation could be that compared to the six short, goals associated with
Dakar, which could be captured in a single paragraph, there were no less than 8
detailed pages of recommendations from Seoul. These too were organised around six
themes, but they covered a massive if very relevant canvas: Challenges to TVE in the
changing knowledge economy; Reforming TVE systems for life-long learning;
Innovating the education and training systems; Technical vocational education for all;
Changing roles of government and other stakeholders; and international cooperation
in TVE. It was a persuasive and comprehensive vision, but in a world that was
increasingly driven by the politics of target-setting and time-bound goals, Seoul did
not translate into anything remotely like an immediate agenda for action.
If the pressing demands of implementing and monitoring the EFA Dakar Goals did
indeed contribute to reducing the impact and follow-up to Seoul, UNESCO was not
alone amongst agencies in focusing on the immense challenges of keeping the world
on track to reach the Goals by the agreed target dates. But there had in fact been an
opportunity in Dakar itself for the TVE/Skills agenda from Seoul and the EFA agenda
to come closer together, since Dakar had sought to restate in 2000 the 6 suggested
targets from Jomtien in 1990. One of these targets at Jomtien had been ‘provisions of
basic education and training in other essential skills required by youth and adults’,
which in Dakar became ‘equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills
programmes’ (Goal 3). With the benefit of hindsight, Goal 3 in Dakar could have
benefited from the Seoul recommendations, and not least from Seoul’s strong
emphasis on making access to TVE open to all, thus linking skills centrally to the
refocused, rights-based EFA agenda. The Bonn Declaration, five years after Seoul,
sought to do this, in part, by affirming that ‘It is especially important to integrate
skills development in Education for All (EFA) programmes and to satisfy TVET
demand created by learners completing basic education.’ We shall see below that the
explicit integration of TVET into EFA programming would not fully happen in
UNESCO till 2009, in its Draft Programme and Budget for 2010-2011.
3
challenge of sustaining, accelerating and sharing the signs of economic growth across
many parts of the developing world (DFID 2008). It should be added, however, that
knock-on pressure from primary education expansion, and the urgings of member
states are important but not sufficient reasons for the development of a TVET strategy
by UNESCO. The organisation must also value the intrinsic importance of a TVET
strategy, given the vital contribution of skills development in both education and
training. For this reason, the organisation needs to caution against drivers of TVET
that are politically opportune, such as the mantra of skills-for-employment-creation,
or skills-for-security. High quality skills are a necessary but not a sufficient condition
for the creation of decent work or secure livelihoods.
We should not simply agree that a country should promote TVET, but should clarify
the global debate about the role of vocational skills, indeed their very definition.
(Burnett 2008)
In the consultation process for this background paper, most institutions and individual
TVET experts were aware of what UNESCO can and cannot be expected to do for
this particular domain. They acknowledge UNESCO as the only UN agency, with
universal world membership, charged with responsibility for the whole of the
education sector, but equally they are aware that it is not a donor agency in the usual
sense of a body funding projects, sector programmes, or general budget support. It is
supremely a knowledge agency, generating innovative ideas, as well as norms and
standards, critically synthesising ‘best practice’,7 and doing so, ideally, not just for the
developing world, but for all its five regions.
Unlike the World Bank (1991; 2004) or the Asian Development Bank (2008) whose
policies on vocational and technical education and training or skills development are
directly related to their investment programmes, UNESCO has an unique obligation
to conceptualise and continually to reconceptualise the changing domain of skills and
of technical and vocational education (TVE). Some of this conceptual clarification
has been captured in the Recommendation concerning technical and vocational
education (1962), and the subsequent revisions of 1974 and 2001 point to exactly this
need regularly to revisit the conceptual landscape of this large and complex domain.
Mapping the conceptual terrain of skills and of TVE is as urgent a concern today as it
was in these earlier explorations.
7
For a critique of the widespread, casual use of ‘best practice’, see NORRAG NEWS No. 39
4
This is not to say that the Revised Recommendation takes a narrow approach to TVE.
Quite the opposite. It considers, for instance, that TVE can even ‘permit the
harmonious development of personality and character, and foster spiritual and human
values, the capacity for understanding, judgment, critical thinking and self-
expression’ (8). Indeed, it has a broad vision of the capacities and qualities associated
with TVE whether in life, in work or in the community. TVE is certainly not seen as a
dead end but is conceived to be part of a ‘learning culture that permits individuals to
expand their intellectual horizons’ (10). Such bold characterization is essential to a
vision statement for TVE that sees it contributing to the societal goals of greater
democratization, to a critical understanding of the environmental implications of
technological change, and through horizontal and vertical articulation within
education, and between education and work, contributing to the elimination of
discrimination and exclusion. This is precisely the role that UNESCO can uniquely
play in the international community, by positioning TVE as a full part of a liberal
education, but also arguing powerfully that it is an investment with significant returns,
including the well-being of workers, enhanced productivity and international
competitiveness (13).
Thus, Jomtien and Dakar both used the term skills rather than TVE for their suggested
targets and goals. And arguably the case for what may be termed a ‘Skills GMR’ will
be easier to make than a TVE GMR.8 A skills matrix can cover at least three, and
possibly four, conceptually different if related domains.
First are the core, essential or communication skills which are now routinely
measured at basic levels of literacy, numeracy and IT, but also at higher levels
of analysing, interpreting and manipulating text and number.
Second, there are the so-called soft skills or new skills. These refer to crucial
capacities such as team-work, decision-making, problem-solving, learning to
8
The Global Monitoring Report team is located within UNESCO, and its publications are by
UNESCO, but it is institutionally independent of UNESCO, with its own ‘editorial board’ and funding
sources. The decision to undertake a Skills GMR would not be UNESCO’s.
5
learn, adaptability and negotiating, as well as using the core skills
interactively. The influential Delors Report termed these ‘personal
competence’ and ‘social skills’ (1996). These soft skills are widely regarded
as crucial to work and to successful living, and hence are also termed work
skills and life skills, and some elements are beginning to be regularly assessed,
for example by the OECD. Terms such as employability and trainability may
also be considered here.
9
For detail on the crucial framing of this goal 3, see King and Palmer 2008. Also Lauglo’s paper to
Bonn expert meeting (2009).
6
responsibility of ministries of education, or under their oversight in the case of private
provision. The second and third are under a multiplicity of sector ministries (including
education), employers, NGOs and private sector concerns. In all of these different
locations, the successful acquisition of the technical and vocational skills will be
dependent on accompanying core skills, soft skills and behavioural skills.
7
methodologically and statistically improbable, and not least as the informal sector
maintains a preference for its own enterprise-based training or apprenticeship.10
10
For a thoughtful discussion of the dilemmas around demand-driven training, see de Moura Castro’s
paper to the UNESCO Bonn meeting (2009).
8
a key skills-and-growth paper by DFID from 2008.11 There are many similar claims
about the connections between skills provision and the creation of jobs, much of this
based on ‘a false belief that unemployment is because of a lack of skills on the supply
side rather than a lack of demand’ (Burnett 2008). Skills-for-poverty-reduction is a
third very current claim, and yet here too the evidence might suggest that skills
systems, if left to the market, will favour the non-poor. It is precisely this awareness
of the growing inequality of most education and training systems (see GMR 2009)
that has led both UNESCO and ILO to consider how skills can also be accessed by
rural communities, disadvantaged youth, migrants and persons with disabilities.
This particular terminology, like the wider use of language mentioned above, is
another key element in the conceptual architecture of skills development. Arguably,
the terminology should encompass the primary activities and primary documents of
the organization rather than its aspirations for collaboration. For this reason, some
organizations have adopted ‘skills development’, others particularly in Europe have
preferred ‘VET’, and there has been some exploration of technical vocational skills
development (TVSD). What is clear from this brief outline is that ‘skills’ is a broader
concept than TVE or TVET, and captures many dimensions of the cognitive and
conative domain that UNESCO regards as important.
11
Definitions for the purposes of this paper: schooling = school attendance; education = activities
undertaken while at school; skills and knowledge = learning outcomes. (DFID 2008)
9
specialized agencies of the UN, and with regard to the One UN process, the discourse
of skills might commend itself more than either TVE or TVET to the life skills
interests of UNICEF, the work skills of ILO, the agricultural skills of FAO, and the
technological and industrial skills of UNIDO.
One possible modality for this reflective phase would be a Consultative Group on
Skills or a Commission on Skills. It could review the impact of UNESCO’s existing
skills mandate and the existing normative instruments, but crucially it could draw
together insights and conclusions from the conceptual and methodological challenges
sketched above. Such a ‘flagship’ project could have many programmatic outcomes,
but its essential contribution would be at the conceptual level. It could well lead to a
revised or new Convention. See further below in UNESCO’s planned activities for the
biennium of 2010-2011.
10
reasons of coherence of new qualifications, links to the labour market, or new
approaches to access and status. It is a prime theatre where the results of the above
conceptual phase could provide UNESCO with some particular advantage in terms of
policy review and advice to selected countries.
A possible model for such reviews in the developing world would be the OECD’s
‘Learning for Jobs: the country policy reviews’ on the responsiveness of VET systems
to labour market needs. These are being carried out by a small team in a whole series
of OECD countries with a focus on upper secondary technical education. Within
UNESCO Bangkok, an exploratory set of country studies of secondary technical
education has been underway since 2007.
In the shorter term, until capacity and resources were more built up within UNESCO,
there would need to be external support assembled to help execute and finance these
policy reviews of technical secondary education. Doubtless, as now with the OECD,
middle-income countries might be able to finance these reviews themselves. But with
the financially weaker developing countries, a major methodological challenge would
be the statistical capacity within the ministry of education to provide the relevant data
for the review team. However, here is precisely where there could be synergy with the
UIS. In the GMR 2009, it is anticipated that there will be a treatment of these precise
‘problems of definition and lack of data’ for Dakar Goal 3 and part of Goal 4 by the
GMR, which have been discussed above (UNESCO 2008).12
12
‘A future EFA Global Monitoring Report will examine these issues as part of an overarching theme’
(GMR 2008: 91)
11
expansion. Again, it will be a policy arena that may require some new statistical
coverage from UIS. At the moment, the GMR volumes actually report on detailed
fields of study in higher education at the university level in their statistical tables, but
they provide no data on post-secondary technical education. In due course, it can be
anticipated that there could be country pressure for policy reviews and advice in this
important area.
Nevertheless, like many of the other fields of skills development noted above, this is
an area where UNESCO could make a valuable initial contribution primarily at the
conceptual level, almost 40 years after the term NFE was first used. Repositioning
non-formal technical and vocational education within UNESCO, and more widely,
would be enormously valuable. Arguably, understanding non-formal skills
development, and its relations with formal and informal skills development, could
have important programmatic implications later on.
12
discussed above would not be feasible. But it would be entirely possible to improve
upon the currently minimal reporting to the GMR on technical and vocational
secondary education (now just total numbers and percentage female). Precisely what
additional data could be asked for would derive from the conceptual phase one and
from feasibility work on the policy reviews of technical secondary education. But the
improvement of the current tables on technical and vocational secondary education is
a high priority that could be carried out at relatively little additional cost.
Though there remain major challenges to data analysis and monitoring of non-formal
skills provision, UNESCO has also made much progress towards developing a
framework of indicators to monitor non-formal education (and has developed a
methodology for setting up a Non-Formal Education Management Information
System). Several of the indicators within the framework do relate directly to skills
training.
Overall, it is suggested that the conceptual analysis of the skills arena and the
requirements for data related to the proposed policy reviews of secondary technical
education would make very valuable a new edition of the UNESCO-UNEVOC/UIS
(2006) Participation in Formal TVET Worldwide. An Initial Statistical Study,
UNESCO-UIS/UNEVOC, Bonn.
To the outside world, UNEVOC has constituted, first in Berlin and then in Bonn, the
best-known focus of UNESCO’s capacity in skills development. And as far as our
priority for conceptual clarification of the landscape of skills is concerned, UNEVOC
is making a major contribution through the International Handbook which is focused
13
on Bridging academic and vocational learning (forthcoming 2009), and on our
specific focus for the articulation of general and technical secondary education
through its work on the Vocationalisation of secondary education revisited (2005).
UNEVOC has also made an important public contribution to the understanding of
training for work in - and meeting the basic learning needs of, the informal sector
(Singh 2005; Haan 2006), and skills development in relation to sustainable
development.
For the proposed work in phases one and two, the existing staff will need to be
selectively refocused around upstream policy work and conceptual standard-setting
that is outlined here, and supplemented, for the short-term, by targeted high quality
external resources in skills research and policy analysis.
14
seven GMRs have shown just how ‘woefully undocumented’ and ‘particularly
neglected’ this whole area of skills and life skills is. A new normative instrument on
skills and competencies across the education and training sector would be extremely
welcome, and could complement current 35C/5 proposals for the monitoring and
reporting of selected normative instruments (see MLA 4 below). Indeed, in this
context, it would be appropriate to consider why the 20 year-old Convention
concerning technical and vocational education (1989) has only been signed by 17
member states, and not a single OECD country, and also review the influence and
impact of the Revised Recommendation. The current Convention, for example, may
have attracted little support because it is very much concerned with the right to access
TVE for all those with the educational level for admission, and the employment
equity for all those teaching in TVE (articles 2, 5). In other words, it has a very rights-
based approach to TVE, and is not at all concerned with the demand from employers
for those actually trained.
Skills as one of the three ‘EFA Building Blocks’ for 2010-2011 (MLA 1)
Through good forward planning, ‘skills’ have been included as one of the three EFA
building blocks for the next UNESCO biennium (2010-1), and it is noted that
individuals need ‘practical skills for the world of work’. The recognition that skills
are a full and legitimate component of EFA has been a long time coming, we have
noted earlier. But it will be important to argue the case for what skills, from those
discussed above, are central to EFA. Certainly as secondary education becomes
routinely part of the EFA framework in UNESCO’s wider EFA leadership as well as
in the GMRs, the core skills, ‘personal competencies’ (or soft skills), and the practical
technical and vocational skills will come to be included as preparation for the world
of work and for continuation to further and higher education. Whether, as the 35C/5
suggests, it will be possible in the first instance to cover both formal secondary and
post-secondary, formal and non-formal will need to be considered in the light of
human and financial resources. But the targeting of a smaller number of countries
(20) for MLA 1 seems realistic. Whether these targeted countries should all be those
in danger of NOT reaching the Dakar Goals or the MDGs is a moot question; it would
perhaps be also valuable to include at least one or two countries that are ‘on track’ to
reach these EFA Goals. Otherwise, the TVE systems of the target countries may
prove to be very rudimentary. It was argued above that it is precisely the successful
achievement of universal primary education that is encouraging member states to
address general and technical secondary education.
The international cooperation proposed in the 35C/5 with the ETF and the OECD
could fit in well with the suggestion above that OECD-style country policy reviews of
the articulation of technical with academic secondary become a possible model for
UNESCO’s upstream TVET work. It was also suggested that ETF’s five year
experience of policy learning would be invaluable to UNESCO’s entry into policy
sharing of relevant experience in technical secondary reform. Equally, if the proposal
for a phase one of conceptual and normative work around the skills landscape is
agreed, then it would be crucial to coordinate with ILO’s latest work on ‘Skills for
improved productivity, employment growth and development’ (2008). ILO’s new
conceptualisation of skills development as covering ‘basic education, initial training
and lifelong learning’ would appropriately complement an holistic approach to skills
by UNESCO. Unlike earlier collaboration where their joint recommendations on
TVET (2002) covered two completely separate policies on education and training, a
15
new collaboration around skills for life, skills for employability and work, and skills
for growth would commend itself to both organisations, and would share much
common ground and language.
In the same spirit, higher education is currently discussed for this MLA2 but there is
no acknowledgement of the key role of post-secondary further and higher technical
education.
Leading the education agenda: the role of the GMR and other global education
reports (MLA 4)
As mentioned above, the GMR 2009 has already mentioned that it intends to deal
with the definitional and data challenges of Goal 3 (appropriate learning and life
skills) in the future. It also intends to give more coverage to skills development in the
regular section of the next report that assesses progress on all six EFA Goals. It would
certainly provide synergy with any such forthcoming Skills GMR that UNESCO was
making skills one of the three key building blocks for EFA, for its own programming,
from 2010. In addition, all the three planned world conferences for 2009, on
14
See the British Council’s support to King and Palmer’s (2008) Skills for Work, Growth and Poverty
Reduction. Challenges and Opportunities in the Global Analysis and Monitoring of Skills, at
http://www.unesco.org.uk/Skills_Seminar.htm There is also a Report of the meeting on the Skills for
Work, Growth and Poverty Reduction conference, available from February 2009.
15
See www.norrag.org/wg
16
The first five-year assessment of Seoul was in October 2004, but the second might need to be in
2010 given the number of world conferences already planned by UNESCO for 2009.
16
sustainable development, adult education, and higher education could provide
opportunities for different dimensions and levels of technical vocational skills
development to be discussed.
Normative and standard setting instruments: the case of skills and competencies
(MLA 4)
UNESCO’s next biennial draft programme and budget has already proposed the
review of three of UNESCO’s normative instruments. But as part of the suggested
normative work on the landscape of skills and competencies, it would be valuable, as
was said earlier, to review the apparently minimal take-up of the Convention
concerning technical and vocational education, and of the influence of the Revised
Recommendation. UNESCO’s regional bureaux have regularly arranged meetings
around these two instruments, and can already assess their current impact. It is
possible that a new instrument covering knowledge, skills, competencies and
qualifications would prove very relevant to the ongoing reform of national skills
development systems in many developing and developed countries.
The regional bureaux and field offices of UNESCO’s Education programme are
expected to receive some 70% of the total budget for Education in the next biennium,
with the largest part of the proposed decentralised budget going to Africa. The field
offices might participate in the rethinking of skills development through the
mechanism of the regional conferences proposed for the conceptual phase. As for the
new emphasis on upstream policy advisory work proposed for the organisation, it
needs to be recalled that good policy advice is inseparable from the expertise and
authority that come from projects, even if these are increasingly pilot projects related
to some of the areas of UNESCO’s comparative advantage.
17
Conclusion
This outline summary of issues for the UNESCO TVET strategy has covered the
crucial normative dimension; the role of new upstream policy analytic work; the
concerns with capacity, critical mass and a skills development community of practice;
the statistical challenge; and the relation of these proposals to the draft of the
Programme and Budget for 2010-2011. In the resulting UNESCO TVET Strategy, it
will be valuable to provide the financial data to illustrate shifts in the skills
development budget over the last two biennia and into the next biennium. It may also
be possible for the TVET Strategy to review what pattern of TVET/Skills activities
and priorities may be revealed either by the UNESS data or the regional meetings of
national commissions of UNESCO.
The purpose of this document, in its earlier form, was to afford an opportunity for
comment, reaction and critique at the international consultative meeting on technical
and vocational education in Bonn in January 2009. The present version has been
enriched by commentary at that meeting from individual experts located in
development agencies, in academia, in think-tanks and in UNESCO itself. The
meeting profited greatly from the experts nominated by member states in UNESCO’s
Executive Board, and from the particular member state, Germany, that took the
initiative in proposing the development of a UNESCO TVET Strategy, - a proposal
that generated such widespread support from UNESCO’s member states, in both
developing and industrialised regions of the world.
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