Question no .

Heat of hydration
When Portland cement is blended with water, heat will be generated. This heat is named the heat of
hydration, and it is the product of the exothermic chemical reaction between cement and water.

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is hydraulic cement and composed primarily of four kinds of minerals:
“alite (C3S), belite (C2S), aluminate (C3A), and aluminoferrite (C4AF)”. These four fundamental
compounds specify the hydraulic characteristics of the cement because they assimilate for over 90% of
Portland cement

Alkali–aggregate reaction
Alkali–aggregate reaction is a term mainly referring to a reaction which occurs over time
in concrete between the highly alkaline cementpaste and non-crystalline silicon dioxide, which is found in
many common aggregates. This reaction can cause expansion of the altered aggregate, leading
to spalling and loss of strength of the concrete.

Carbonation
Carbonation refers to reactions of carbon dioxide to give carbonates, bicarbonates, and carbonic acid.
In chemistry, the term is sometimes used in place of carboxylation, which refers to the formation
of carboxylic acids.

Sulfate attack
Sulfate attack in concrete and mortar can be 'external' or 'internal'. External: due to penetration of sulfates
in solution, in groundwater for example, into the concrete from outside. Internal: due to a soluble source
being incorporated into the concrete at the time of mixing, gypsum in the aggregate, for example.
QUESTION NO .2

Properties of Fresh Concrete:

Fresh Concrete can be easily molded into any designed shape in construction. It can be prepared on the
spot and may give a wide range of properties from easily available raw materials.

We will discuss in details below the different properties of Fresh concrete.

 Workability.

 Setting.

 Segregation.

 Plastic Shrinkage.

 Thermal Shrinkage.

Workability:
Workability, in the simplest language, is the ease with which freshly prepared concrete can be transported
and placed for the job and compacted to a dense mass.
The fresh concrete which may be expected to give the best results must possess the property of
workability. This is the most important property of fresh concrete.

Setting:
When concrete changes its state from fresh to hardened then this process is called setting. And the time
required to complete this process is known as Setting Time of Cement.

Setting time depends on the type of cement, aggregates, etc

Segregation:
The separation of concrete ingredients from each other is known as segregation. This can be caused due to
excessive vibration in concrete mixer machine or falling concrete from more than 1-meter height.

Thermal Expansion:
In massive concrete works, when the upper layers are laid before the lower layers have completely set,
there may arise a phenomenon of thermal expansions – in the lower layers.

This is because the heat of hydration gets accumulated in those layers and may attain magnitudes beyond
acceptable limits.
Properties of Hardened Concrete
Below are the properties of hardened concrete:-

 Strength

 Creep

 Durability

 Shrinkage

 Modulus of Elasticity

 Water Tightness

Strength:
When we refer to concrete strength, we generally talk about the compressive strengthof concrete. Because
concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension andbending.

Concrete compressive strength is measured in pounds per square inch (psi). It mostly depends upon
amount and type of cement used in concrete mix. It is also affected by the water-cement ratio, mixing
method, placing and curing.
Concrete tensile strength ranges from 7% to 12% of compressive strength. Both tensile strength and
bending strength can be increased by adding reinforcement.

Creep:
Deformation of a concrete structure under sustained load is defined as the concrete creep. Long term
pressure or stress on concrete can change its shape. This deformation usually occurs in the direction the
force is applied.

Durability:
Durability might be defined as the ability to maintain satisfactory performance over extended service life.
The design service life of most buildings is often 30 years, although buildings often last 50 to 100 years.
Most concrete buildings are demolished due to obsolescence rather than deterioration..

Shrinkage:
Shrinkage is the volume decrease of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes. In other words, the
reduction of volume for the setting and hardening of concrete is defined as shrinkage.
Modulus of Elasticity:
The modulus of Elasticity of concrete depends on the Modulus of Elasticity of theconcrete
ingredients and their mix proportions. As per the ACI code, the modulus of Elasticity can be calculated
using the following equation:
Ec = 33ωc1.5√f’c (psi)
Where, ωc = unit weight of concrete, lb/ft2
f’c = 28 days compressive strength of concrete
For normal weight concrete (90 lb/ft3 to 160 lb/ft3), we assume the formula as
Ec = 57000√f’c

Water Tightness:
Another property of concrete is water tightness. Sometimes, it’s called impermeability of concrete. Water
tightness of concrete is directly related to the durability of concrete. The lesser the permeability, the more
the durability of concrete. Now the question is, what is the permeability of concrete?
In simple word, the capability of penetrating outer media into concrete is the permeability of concrete.
Outer media means water, chemicals, sulphates, etc.

Factors affecting fresh and hardened:

Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.

1. Water Cement ratio

2. Suitable Temperature
3. Cement content
4. Type of Cement
5. Fineness of Cement
6. Relative Humidity
7. Admixtures
8. Type and amount of Aggregate
QUESTION NO .3

Curing of Concrete
Curing of Concrete is a method by which the concrete is protected against loss of moisture required
for hydration and kept within the recommended temperature range. Curing will increase the strength
and decrease the permeability of hardened concrete. Curing is also helps in mitigating thermal and plastic
cracks, which can severely impact durability of structures.

There are three main functions of curing:

1) Maintaining mixing water in concrete during the early hardening process

Ponding and immersion

Ponding is typically used to cure flat surfaces on smaller jobs. Care should be taken to maintain curing
water temperature at not more than 20 degrees Fahrenheit cooler than the concrete to prevent cracking
due to thermal stresses. Immersion is mainly used in the laboratory for curing concrete test specimens.

Spraying and fogging

Spraying and fogging are used when the ambient temperatures are well above freezing and the humidity is
low. Fogging can minimize plastic shrinkage cracking until the concrete attains final set.

Saturated wet coverings

Wet coverings saturated with water should be used after concrete has hardened enough to prevent surface
damage. They should be kept constantly wet.

2) Reducing the loss of mixing water from the surface of the concrete

Covering concrete with impervious paper or plastic sheets

Impervious paper and plastic sheets can be applied on thoroughly wetted concrete. The concrete
surface should be hard enough to prevent surface damage from placement activities.

Applying membrane-forming curing compounds

Membrane-forming curing compounds are used to retard or reduce evaporation of moisture from
concrete. They can be clear or translucent and white pigmented. White-pigmented compounds are
recommended for hot and sunny weather conditions to reflect solar radiation. Curing compounds
should be applied immediately after final finishing. Curing compound shall comply with ASTM C3094 or
ASTM C13155.
3) Accelerating strength gain using heat and additional moisture

Live steam
Live steam at atmospheric pressure and high-pressure steam in autoclaves are the two methods of steam
curing. Steam temperature for live steam at atmospheric pressure should be kept at about 140 degrees
Fahrenheit or less until the desired concrete strength is achieved.

Heating coils
Heating coils are usually used as embedded elements near the surface of concrete elements. Their purpose
is to protect concrete from freezing during cold weather concreting.

Electrical heated forms or pads

Electrical heated forms or pads are primarily used by precast concrete producers.

Concrete blankets
Concrete insulation blankets are used to cover and insulate concrete surfaces subjected to freezing
temperatures during the curing period. The concrete should be hard enough to prevent surface damage
when covering with concrete blankets.
QUESTION NO .4

What are Additives

Additives are chemical components added to cement during manufacturing to get new properties for
cement. The raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement are lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide.
These material are ground into a fine powder and are mixed followed by roasting. Heating of this mixture
to about 1500oC will initiate a number of chemical reactions that give the final chemical composition of
cement.

In order to obtain desired properties, various additives are added to cement while manufacturing.

Accelerators

Accelerators are added to reduce cement settling time and to speed up the development of compressive
strength.

Retarders

Retarders extend the cement settling time. This helps the cement to have sufficient time for slurry
placement in deep wells.

Dispersants

Dispersants are added to reduce the viscosity of cement slurry and to ensure good mud removal during
placement.

What are Admixtures

Admixtures are chemical components that are added to concrete mixtures while mixing to get new
properties. Admixtures are the components in concrete other than cement, water and aggregates.
Admixtures are added to cement immediately before or during mixing the concrete mixture.

Admixtures are added to:

 Intentionally entrain air

 Reduce water requirement

 Increase workability

 Adjust the settling time

 Adjust the strength

There are different types of admixtures classified as below with some examples .
  Air entraining admixtures – salts of wood resins, some synthetic detergents, salts of petroleum
acids

 Plasticizers

 Water-reducing admixtures – lignosulfonates, hydroxylated carboxylic acids, etc.

 Accelerating admixtures – calcium chloride, sodium thiocyanate, etc.

 Retarding admixtures – lignin, borax, sugars, etc.

 Corrosion inhibitors, etc.

Difference Between Additives and Admixtures

Definition
Additives: Additives are chemical components added to cement during manufacturing to get new
properties for cement.

Admixtures: Admixtures are chemical components that are added to concrete mixtures while mixing to
get new properties.

Raw Material
Additives: Additives are added to cement.

Admixtures: Admixtures are added to concrete.

Addition
Additives: Additives are added to cement while manufacturing.

Admixtures: Admixtures are added to concrete before or during mixing.

QUESTION NO.5

Factors affecting the workability of the fresh concrete

01. Water Content of the Concrete Mix:

Water content will have important influences on the workability in given volume of concrete. The higher
the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher will be the fluidity of concrete, which affect the
workability.
Water requirement is mainly associated with absorption by aggregates surface& filling up the voids
between aggregates.

02. The Size of Aggregates:

Workability is mainly governed by the maximum size of aggregates.Water and paste require, will be not
less if a chosen size of aggregates for concrete is bigger. Consequently, for a given quantity of water
content & paste, bigger size aggregate will give higher workability.

03. The shape of Aggregates:

The Shape of Aggregates Seriously Influences the Workability of Concrete:

 Angular, flaky & elongated aggregate reduces the workability of concrete.

 Rounded or subrounded aggregates increase the workability due to the reduction of surface area
for a given volume or weight.Therefore, an excess paste is available to give better lubricating
effect.

 Rounded shape aggregate has less frictional resistance and gives a high workability as compared
to angular, flaky or elongated aggregates.

Note: River sand & gravel provide greater workability to concrete than crushed sand.

04. Surface Texture of Aggregates:

The roughly textured aggregates have more surface area than Smoothly rounded aggregates of the same
volume. Smooth rounded or glassy aggregates will give better workability than roughly textured
aggregates. A reduction of interparticle frictional resistance offered by smooth aggregates also contributes
to higher workability.
Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete
Following are the factors affecting durability of concrete.

1. Cement Content

2. Aggregate Quality

3. Water Quality

4. Concrete Compaction

1. Cement Content

o Quantity of cement used in concrete mix will also be a factor affecting durability of concrete.

o If cement content used is lower than the required, then water cement ratio becomes reduced and
workability also reduced.

o Adding more water to this mix results in formation capillary voids which will make concrete as
permeable material.

o If excess cement content is used, problems like drying shrinkage, alkali-silica reaction may occur
which finally effects the durability of concrete.

2. Aggregate Quality

o Use of good quality aggregates in concrete mix will surely increase the durability of hardened
concrete.

o The shape of aggregate particles should be smooth and round. Flaky and elongated aggregates
effects the workability of fresh concrete.

o For better bond development between ingredients rough textured angular aggregates are
recommended but they require more cement content.

3. Water Quality

o Quality of water used in concrete mixing also effects the durability of concrete. In general,
potable water is recommended for making concrete.
 o pH of water used shall be in the range of 6 to 8.

o Water should be clean and free from oils, acids, alkalies, salts, sugar, organic materials etc.

o Presence of these impurities will lead to corrosion of steel or deterioration of concrete by

different chemical reactions

4. Concrete Compaction

o While placing concrete, it is important to compact the placed concrete without segregation.

o Improperly compacted concrete contain number of air voids in it which reduces the concrete
strength and durability.