A REPORT ON SUMMER VOCATIONAL TRAINING CARRIED

OUT AT
POWERGRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED
GURUGRAM, HARYANA

TOPIC: - EFFECT OF HVDC ON POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

(FROM 2ND JUNE, 2019 TO 30TH JUNE, 2019)

SUBMITTED BY:
SHREYANSH SINGH
B.TECH (Electrical Engineering)
Manipal University Jaipur,Jaipur
 CONTENTS:-

1. Introduction to HVDC ............................................................................................................................................3

1.1 History of HVDC ...........................................................................................................................................3
1.1.1 High voltage transmission ....................................................................................................................3
1.1.2 Electromechanical (Thury) systems .....................................................................................................4
1.1.3 Mercury arc valves ...............................................................................................................................5
1.1.4 Thyristors .............................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Types of HVDC transmission system ...........................................................................................................6
1.2.1 Back to back system configuration.......................................................................................................6
1.2.2 Monopolar Configuration ......................................................................................................................6
1.2.3 Bipolar Configuration ...........................................................................................................................6
1.3 HVDC Converters .........................................................................................................................................7
1.3.1 Line-commutated converters ...............................................................................................................8
1.3.2 Voltage-sourced converters .................................................................................................................9
1.3.3 Converter transformers ...................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.4 Reactive power .................................................................................................................................. 11
1.3.5 Harmonics and filtering ...................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.6 Filters for line-commutated converters ............................................................................................... 12
1.3.7 Filters for voltage-sourced converters ................................................................................................ 12
1.4 Costs of HVDC ........................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5 Applications of HVDC:- ............................................................................................................................... 14
1.5.1 AC network interconnections ............................................................................................................. 14
1.5.2 Renewable electricity superhighways ................................................................................................ 15
1.5.3 Advancements in UHVDC .................................................................................................................. 16
2. Power System Stability ........................................................................................................................................ 16
2.1 Introduction to power system stability ......................................................................................................... 16

2.2 Types of power system stability……………………………………………………………………………………17

2.2.1 Rotor Angle Stability .......................................................................................................................... 17

2.2.2 Voltage Stability ................................................................................................................................. 18
2.2.3 Frequency Stability ............................................................................................................................ 18
3. Effects of HVDC on power system stability ......................................................................................................... 18
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 18
3.2 LCC Improving the Power System Stability ................................................................................................ 19
3.3 VSC improving the Power System Stability ................................................................................................ 20
3.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 21
 1. Introduction to HVDC
A high-voltage direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also called a power
superhighway or an electrical superhighway) uses direct current for the bulk transmission of
electrical power, in contrast with the more common alternating current (AC) systems. For long-
distance transmission, HVDC systems may be less expensive and suffer lower electrical losses.
For underwater power cables, HVDC avoids the heavy currents required to charge and discharge
the cable capacitance each cycle. For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC conversion
equipment compared to an AC system may still be justified, due to other benefits of direct
current links. HVDC currently uses voltages between 100 kV and 800 kV, with an 1,100 kV link
in China due to become operational in 2019.
HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC transmission systems. Since the
power flow through an HVDC link can be controlled independently of the phase angle between
source and load, it can stabilize a network against disturbances due to rapid changes in power.
HVDC also allows transfer of power between grid systems running at different frequencies, such
as 50 Hz and 60 Hz. This improves the stability and economy of each grid, by allowing exchange
of power between incompatible networks.
The modern form of HVDC transmission uses technology developed extensively in the 1930s
in Sweden (ASEA) and in Germany. Early commercial installations included one in the Soviet
Union in 1951 between Moscow and Kashira and a 100 kV, 20 MW system
between Gotland and mainland Sweden in 1954. The longest HVDC link in the world is the Rio
Madeira link in Brazil, which consists of two bipoles of ±600 kV, 3150 MW each,
connecting Porto Velho in the state of Rondônia to the São Paulo area. The length of the DC line
is 2,375 km (1,476 mi).

1.1 History of HVDC

1.1.1 High voltage transmission
High voltage is used for electric power transmission to reduce the energy lost in the resistance of
the wires. For a given quantity of power transmitted, doubling the voltage will deliver the same
power at only half the current. Since the power lost as heat in the wires is directly proportional to
the square of the current, doubling the voltage reduces the line losses by a factor of 4.
While power lost in transmission can also be reduced by increasing the conductor size, larger
conductors are heavier and more expensive.
High voltage cannot readily be used for lighting or motors, so transmission-level voltages must
be reduced for end-use equipment. Transformers are used to change the voltage levels
in alternating current (AC) transmission circuits. Transformers made voltage changes practical,
and AC generators were more efficient than those using DC. Because of this, AC became
dominant after the conclusion of the War of Currents in 1892.The War of Currents was a
competition fought in the US between the DC system of Thomas Edison and the AC system
of George Westinghouse.
conversion of power between AC and DC became possible with the development of power
electronics devices such as mercury-arc valves and, starting in the 1970s, semiconductor devices
as thyristors, integrated gate-commutated thyristors (IGCTs), MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs)
and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT).

1.1.2 Electromechanical (Thury) systems

Fig.1 Schematic diagram of a Thury HVDC transmission system

The first long-distance transmission of electric power was demonstrated using direct current in
1882 at Miesbach-Munich Power Transmission, but only 1.5 kW was transmitted. An early
method of high-voltage DC transmission was developed by the Swiss engineer René Thury and
his method was put into practice by 1889 in Italy by the Acquedotto De Ferrari-
Galliera company. This system used series-connected motor-generator sets to increase the
voltage. Each set was insulated from electrical ground and driven by insulated shafts from
a prime mover. The transmission line was operated in a 'constant current' mode, with up to 5,000
volts across each machine, some machines having double commutators to reduce the voltage on
each commutator. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a distance of
120 km.The Moutiers–Lyon system transmitted 8,600 kW of hydroelectric power a distance of
200 km, including 10 km of underground cable. This system used eight series-connected
generators with dual commutators for a total voltage of 150 kV between the positive and
negative poles, and operated from 1906 until 1936. Fifteen Thury systems were in operation by
1913.Other Thury systems operating at up to 100 kV DC worked into the 1930s, but the rotating
machinery required high maintenance and had high energy loss. Various other electromechanical
devices were tested during the first half of the 20th century with little commercial success.
One technique attempted for conversion of direct current from a high transmission voltage to
lower utilization voltage was to charge series-connected batteries, then reconnect the batteries in
parallel to serve distribution loads. While at least two commercial installations were tried around
the turn of the 20th century, the technique was not generally useful owing to the limited capacity
of batteries, difficulties in switching between series and parallel connections, and the inherent
energy inefficiency of a battery charge/discharge cycle. (A modern battery storage power
station includes transformers and inverters to change energy from alternating current to direct
current forms at appropriate voltages.)

1.1.3 Mercury arc valves

First proposed in 1914, the grid controlled mercury-arc valve became available for power
transmission during the period 1920 to 1940. Starting in 1932, General Electric tested mercury-
vapor valves and a 12 kV DC transmission line, which also served to convert 40 Hz generation to
serve 60 Hz loads, at Mechanicville, New York. In 1941, a 60 MW, ±200 kV, 115 km buried
cable link was designed for the city of Berlin using mercury arc valves (Elbe-Project), but owing
to the collapse of the German government in 1945 the project was never completed. The nominal
justification for the project was that, during wartime, a buried cable would be less conspicuous as
a bombing target. The equipment was moved to the Soviet Union and was put into service there
as the Moscow–Kashira HVDC system.The Moscow–Kashira system and the 1954 connection
by Uno Lamm's group at ASEA between the mainland of Sweden and the island of Gotland
marked the beginning of the modern era of HVDC transmission.
Mercury arc valves require an external circuit to force the current to zero and thus turn off the
valve. In HVDC applications, the AC power system itself provides the means
of commutating the current to another valve in the converter. Consequently, converters built with
mercury arc valves are known as line-commutated converters (LCC). LCCs require rotating
synchronous machines in the AC systems to which they are connected, making power
transmission into a passive load impossible.
Mercury arc valves were common in systems designed up to 1972, the last mercury arc HVDC
system (the Nelson River Bipole 1 system in Manitoba, Canada) having been put into service in
stages between 1972 and 1977. Since then, all mercury arc systems have been either shut down
or converted to use solid state devices. The last HVDC system to use mercury arc valves was
the Inter-Island HVDC link between the North and South Islands of New Zealand, which used
them on one of its two poles. The mercury arc valves were decommissioned on 1 August 2012,
ahead of commissioning of replacement thyristor converters.

1.1.4 Thyristors
Since 1977, new HVDC systems have used only solid-state devices, in most
cases thyristor valves. Like mercury arc valves, thyristors require connection to an external AC
circuit in HVDC applications to turn them on and off. HVDC using thyristor valves is also
known as Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC.
Development of thyristor valves for HVDC began in the late 1960s. The first complete HVDC
scheme based on thyristor valves was the Eel River scheme in Canada, which was built
by General Electric and went into service in 1972.
On March 15, 1979, a 1920 MW thyristor based direct current connection between Cabora
Bassa and Johannesburg (1,410 km) was energized. The conversion equipment was built in 1974
by Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft AG (AEG), and Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC)
and Siemens were partners in the project. Service interruptions of several years were a result of
a civil war in Mozambique.The transmission voltage of ±533 kV was the highest in the world at
the time.

1.2 Types of HVDC transmission system

There are several configurations to browse when planning and arranging of HVDC system and
the most normally and commonly used HVDC configurations are:
a. Back-to-back system configuration
b. Monopolar system configuration
c. Bipolar system configuration

1.2.1 Back to back system configuration

Back to back configuration is consists of two converters at the same site, they are connected
directly to each other, without any transmission line in between, Where both rectifier and
inverter located at one station. This configuration is basically used to tie asynchronous systems
consists of two neighboring AC systems with different frequencies or with different control
philosophies, system reliability and security. The disturbances mentioned in the definition could
be faults, load changes, generator outages, line outages, voltage collapse or some combination of
these.

1.2.2 Monopolar Configuration

The monopolar configuration uses one conductor between both converters while the return path
is through ground or sea. It is used with generally and relatively low power ratings and in
possibility conditions with bipolar systems.

1.2.3 Bipolar Configuration

The bipolar configuration is the most broadly used one in HVDC transmission. Two converters
are used at each end of the link and the midpoint between the converters is grounded.
Consequently, the upper converter operates with a positive DC voltage with respect to ground,
while the lower converter operates with a negative DC voltage with respect to ground. The
Ground way is used by both converters and the DC currents flows stream in opposite directions
in the ground. In this way the net ground DC current is very small and it has little effect on the
neighboring metallic structures.
 1.3 HVDC Converters

An HVDC converter converts electric power from high voltage alternating current (AC) to high-
voltage direct current (HVDC), or vice versa. HVDC is used as an alternative to AC for
transmitting electrical energy over long distances or between AC power systems of different
frequencies. HVDC converters capable of converting up to two gigawatts (GW) and with voltage
ratings of up to 1,100 kilovolts (kV) have been built, and even higher ratings are technically
feasible. A complete converter station may contain several such converters in series and/or
parallel.

Fig 2. Symbol for HVDC converter

Almost all HVDC converters are inherently bi-directional; they can convert either from AC to
DC (rectification) or from DC to AC (inversion). A complete HVDC system always includes at
least one converter operating as a rectifier (converting AC to DC) and at least one operating as
an inverter (converting DC to AC). Some HVDC systems take full advantage of this bi-
directional property (for example, those designed for cross-border power trading, such as
the Cross-Channel link between England and France). Others, for example those designed to
export power from a remote power station such as the Itaipu scheme in Brazil, may be optimised
for power flow in only one preferred direction. In such schemes, power flow in the non-preferred
direction may have a reduced capacity or poorer efficiency.
At the heart of an HVDC converter station, the equipment which performs the conversion
between AC and DC is referred to as the converter. Almost all HVDC converters are inherently
capable of converting from AC to DC (rectification) and from DC to AC (inversion), although in
many HVDC systems, the system as a whole is optimized for power flow in only one direction.
Irrespective of how the converter itself is designed, the station that is operating (at a given time)
with power flow from AC to DC is referred to as the rectifier and the station that is operating
with power flow from DC to AC is referred to as the inverter.
Early HVDC systems used electromechanical conversion (the Thury system) but all HVDC
systems built since the 1940s have used electronic (static) converters. Electronic converters for
HVDC are divided into two main categories:
 Line-commutated converters (LCC)
 Voltage-sourced converters or current-source converters
 1.3.1 Line-commutated converters

Most of the HVDC systems in operation today are based on line-commutated converters. The
basic LCC configuration uses a three-phase bridge rectifier or six-pulse bridge, containing six
electronic switches, each connecting one of the three phases to one of the two DC rails. A
complete switching element is usually referred to as a valve, irrespective of its construction.
However, with a phase change only every 60°, considerable harmonic distortion is produced at
both the DC and AC terminals when this arrangement is used.

Fig.3 A twelve-pulse bridge rectifier

An enhancement of this arrangement uses 12 valves in a twelve-pulse bridge. The AC is split
into two separate three phase supplies before transformation. One of the sets of supplies is then
configured to have a star (wye) secondary, the other a delta secondary, establishing a 30° phase
difference between the two sets of three phases. With twelve valves connecting each of the two
sets of three phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase change every 30°, and harmonics are
considerably reduced. For this reason the twelve-pulse system has become standard on most line-
commutated converter HVDC systems built since the 1970s.
With line commutated converters, the converter has only one degree of freedom – the firing
angle, which represents the time delay between the voltage across a valve becoming positive (at
which point the valve would start to conduct if it were made from diodes) and the thyristors
being turned on. The DC output voltage of the converter steadily becomes less positive as the
firing angle is increased: firing angles of up to 90° correspond to rectification and result in
positive DC voltages, while firing angles above 90° correspond to inversion and result in
negative DC voltages. The practical upper limit for the firing angle is about 150–160° because
above this, the valve would have insufficient turnoff time.
Early LCC systems used mercury-arc valves, which were rugged but required high maintenance.
Because of this, many mercury-arc HVDC systems were built with bypass switchgear across
each six-pulse bridge so that the HVDC scheme could be operated in six-pulse mode for short
periods of maintenance. The last mercury arc system was shut down in 2012.
The thyristor valve was first used in HVDC systems in 1972. The thyristor is a solid-
state semiconductor device similar to the diode, but with an extra control terminal that is used to
switch the device on at a particular instant during the AC cycle. Because the voltages in HVDC
systems, up to 800 kV in some cases, far exceed the breakdown voltages of the thyristors used,
HVDC thyristor valves are built using large numbers of thyristors in series. Additional passive
components such as grading capacitors and resistors need to be connected in parallel with each
thyristor in order to ensure that the voltage across the valve is evenly shared between the
thyristors. The thyristor plus its grading circuits and other auxiliary equipment is known as
a thyristor level.

Fig.4 Thyristor valve stacks for Mono-Pole of the HVDC Inter-Island between the North
and South Islands of New Zealand. The man at the bottom gives scale to the size of the
valves.
Each thyristor valve will typically contain tens or hundreds of thyristor levels, each operating at a
different (high) potential with respect to earth. The command information to turn on the
thyristors therefore cannot simply be sent using a wire connection – it needs to be isolated. The
isolation method can be magnetic but is usually optical. Two optical methods are used: indirect
and direct optical triggering. In the indirect optical triggering method, low-voltage control
electronics send light pulses along optical fibres to the high-side control electronics, which
derives its power from the voltage across each thyristor. The alternative direct optical triggering
method dispenses with most of the high-side electronics, instead using light pulses from the
control electronics to switch light-triggered thyristors (LTTs), although a small monitoring
electronics unit may still be required for protection of the valve.
In a line-commutated converter, the DC current (usually) cannot change direction; it flows
through a large inductance and can be considered almost constant. On the AC side, the converter
behaves approximately as a current source, injecting both grid-frequency and harmonic currents
into the AC network. For this reason, a line commutated converter for HVDC is also considered
as a current-source inverter.

1.3.2 Voltage-sourced converters

Because thyristors can only be turned on (not off) by control action, the control system has only
one degree of freedom – when to turn on the thyristor. This is an important limitation in some
circumstances.
With some other types of semiconductor device such as the insulated-gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT), both turn-on and turn-off can be controlled, giving a second degree of
freedom. As a result, they can be used to make self-commutated converters. In such converters,
the polarity of DC voltage is usually fixed and the DC voltage, being smoothed by a large
capacitance, can be considered constant. For this reason, an HVDC converter using IGBTs is
usually referred to as a voltage sourced converter. The additional controllability gives many
advantages, notably the ability to switch the IGBTs on and off many times per cycle in order to
improve the harmonic performance. Being self-commutated, the converter no longer relies on
synchronous machines in the AC system for its operation. A voltage sourced converter can
therefore feed power to an AC network consisting only of passive loads, something which is
impossible with LCC HVDC.
because HVDC systems based on voltage sourced converters normally use the six-pulse
connection the converter produces much less harmonic distortion than a comparable LCC and
the twelve-pulse connection is unnecessary.
Most of the VSC HVDC systems built until 2012 were based on the two level converter, which
can be thought of as a six pulse bridge in which the thyristors have been replaced by IGBTs with
inverse-parallel diodes, and the DC smoothing reactors have been replaced by DC smoothing
capacitors. Such converters derive their name from the discrete, two voltage levels at the AC
output of each phase that correspond to the electrical potentials of the positive and negative DC
terminals. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is usually used to improve the harmonic distortion of
the converter.
Some HVDC systems have been built with three level converters, but today most new VSC
HVDC systems are being built with some form of multilevel converter, most commonly
the Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC), in which each valve consists of a number of
independent converter submodules, each containing its own storage capacitor. The IGBTs in
each submodule either bypass the capacitor or connect it into the circuit, allowing the valve to
synthesize a stepped voltage with very low levels of harmonic distortion.

1.3.3 Converter transformers

Fig.5 A single-phase, three-winding converter transformer.

The long valve-winding bushings, which project through the wall of the valve hall, are shown on
the left. The line-winding bushing projects vertically upwards at center-right
At the AC side of each converter, a bank of transformers, often three physically separated single-
phase transformers, isolate the station from the AC supply, to provide a local earth, and to ensure
the correct eventual DC voltage. The output of these transformers is then connected to the
converter.
Converter transformers for LCC HVDC schemes are quite specialized because of the high levels
of harmonic currents which flow through them, and because the secondary winding insulation
experiences a permanent DC voltage, which affects the design of the insulating structure (valve
side requires more solid insulation) inside the tank. In LCC systems, the transformers also need
to provide the 30° phase shift needed for harmonic cancellation.
Converter transformers for VSC HVDC systems are usually simpler and more conventional in
design than those for LCC HVDC systems.

1.3.4 Reactive power

A major drawback of HVDC systems using line-commutated converters is that the converters
inherently consume reactive power. The AC current flowing into the converter from the AC
system lags behind the AC voltage so that, irrespective of the direction of active power flow, the
converter always absorbs reactive power, behaving in the same way as a shunt reactor. The
reactive power absorbed is at least 0.5 Mvar/MW under ideal conditions and can be higher than
this when the converter is operating at higher than usual firing or extinction angle, or reduced
DC voltage.
Although at HVDC converter stations connected directly to power stations some of the reactive
power may be provided by the generators themselves, in most cases the reactive power
consumed by the converter must be provided by banks of shunt capacitors connected at the AC
terminals of the converter. The shunt capacitors are usually connected directly to the grid voltage
but in some cases may be connected to a lower voltage via a tertiary winding on the converter
transformer.
Since the reactive power consumed depends on the active power being transmitted, the shunt
capacitors usually need to be subdivided into a number of switchable banks (typically four per
converter) in order to prevent a surplus of reactive power being generated at low transmitted
power.
The shunt capacitors are almost always provided with tuning reactors and, where necessary,
damping resistors so that they can perform a dual role as harmonic filters.
Voltage-source converters, on the other hand, can either produce or consume reactive power on
demand, with the result that usually no separate shunt capacitors are needed (other than those
required purely for filtering).

1.3.5 Harmonics and filtering

All power electronic converters generate some degree of harmonic distortion on the AC and DC
systems to which they are connected, and HVDC converters are no exception.
With the recently developed Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC), levels of harmonic
distortion may be practically negligible, but with line-commutated converters and simpler types
of voltage-source converters, considerable harmonic distortion may be produced on both the AC
and DC sides of the converter. As a result, harmonic filters are nearly always required at the AC
terminals of such converters, and in HVDC transmission schemes using overhead lines, may also
be required on the DC side.

1.3.6 Filters for line-commutated converters

The basic building-block of a line-commutated HVDC converter is the six-pulse bridge. This
arrangement produces very high levels of harmonic distortion by acting as a current source
injecting harmonic currents of order 6n±1 into the AC system and generating harmonic voltages
of order 6n superimposed on the DC voltage.
It is very costly to provide harmonic filters capable of suppressing such harmonics, so a variant
known as the twelve-pulse bridge (consisting of two six-pulse bridges in series with a 30° phase
shift between them) is nearly always used. With the twelve-pulse arrangement, harmonics are
still produced but only at orders 12n±1 on the AC side and 12n on the DC side. The task of
suppressing such harmonics is still challenging, but manageable.
Line-commutated converters for HVDC are usually provided with combinations of harmonic
filters designed to deal with the 11th and 13th harmonics on the AC side, and 12th harmonic on
the DC side. Sometimes, high-pass filters may be provided to deal with 23rd, 25th, 35th, 37th...
on the AC side and 24th, 36th... on the DC side. Sometimes, the AC filters may also need to
provide damping at lower-order, non characteristic harmonics such as 3rd or 5th harmonics.
The task of designing AC harmonic filters for HVDC converter stations is complex and
computationally intensive, since in addition to ensuring that the converter does not produce an
unacceptable level of voltage distortion on the AC system, it must be ensured that the harmonic
filters do not resonate with some component elsewhere in the AC system. A detailed knowledge
of the harmonic impedance of the AC system, at a wide range of frequencies, is needed in order
to design the AC filters.
DC filters are required only for HVDC transmission systems involving overhead lines. Voltage
distortion is not a problem in its own right, since consumers do not connect directly to the DC
terminals of the system, so the main design criterion for the DC filters is to ensure that the
harmonic currents flowing in the DC lines do not induce interference in nearby open-
wire telephone lines. With the rise in digital mobile telecommunication systems, which are much
less susceptible to interference, DC filters are becoming less important for HVDC systems.

1.3.7 Filters for voltage-sourced converters

Some types of voltage-sourced converters may produce such low levels of harmonic distortion
that no filters are required at all. However, converter types such as the two-level converter, used
with pulse-width modulation (PWM), still require some filtering, albeit less than on line-
commutated converter systems.
With such converters, the harmonic spectrum is generally shifted to higher frequencies than with
line-commutated converters. This usually allows the filter equipment to be smaller. The
dominant harmonic frequencies are sidebands of the PWM frequency and multiples thereof. In
HVDC applications, the PWM frequency is typically around 1 to 2 kHz.

1.4 Costs of HVDC

Costs vary widely depending on the specifics of the project (such as power rating, circuit length,
overhead vs. cabled route, land costs, and AC network improvements required at either
terminal). A detailed comparison of DC vs. AC transmission costs may be required in situations
where there is no clear technical advantage to DC, and economical reasoning alone drives the
selection.

Fig.6 Cost Comparision of AC vs DC Transmission System

However, some practitioners have provided some information:
For an 8 GW 40 km link laid under the English Channel, the following are approximate primary
equipment costs for a 2000 MW 500 kV bipolar conventional HVDC link (exclude way-leaving,
on-shore reinforcement works, consenting, engineering, insurance, etc.)
 Converter stations ~£110M (~€120M or $173.7M)
 Subsea cable + installation ~£1M/km (~€1.2M or ~$1.6M/km)
So for an 8 GW capacity between Britain and France in four links, little is left over from £750M
for the installed works. Add another £200–300M for the other works depending on additional
onshore works required.[37]
An April 2010 announcement for a 2,000 MW, 64 km line between Spain and France is
estimated at €700 million. This includes the cost of a tunnel through the Pyrenees.

1.5 Applications of HVDC:-

The controllability of a current-flow through HVDC rectifiers and inverters, their application in
connecting unsynchronized networks, and their applications in efficient submarine cables mean
that HVDC interconnections are often used at national or regional boundaries for the exchange of
power (in North America, HVDC connections divide much of Canada and the United States into
several electrical regions that cross national borders, although the purpose of these connections is
still to connect unsynchronized AC grids to each other). Offshore windfarms also require
undersea cables, and their turbines are unsynchronized. In very long distance connections
between two locations, such as power transmission from a large hydroelectric power plant at a
remote site to an urban area, HVDC transmission systems may appropriately be used; several
schemes of these kind have been built. For interconnections to Siberia, Canada, India, and
the Scandinavian North, the decreased line-costs of HVDC also make it applicable.

1.5.1 AC network interconnections

AC transmission lines can interconnect only synchronized AC networks with the same frequency
with limits on the allowable phase difference between the two ends of the line. Many areas that
wish to share power have unsynchronized networks. The power grids of the UK, Northern
Europe and continental Europe are not united into a single synchronized network. Japan has
50 Hz and 60 Hz networks. Continental North America, while operating at 60 Hz throughout, is
divided into regions which are unsynchronized: East, West, Texas, Quebec,
and Alaska. Brazil and Paraguay, which share the enormous Itaipu Dam hydroelectric plant,
operate on 60 Hz and 50 Hz respectively. However, HVDC systems make it possible to
interconnect unsynchronized AC networks, and also add the possibility of controlling AC
voltage and reactive power flow.
A generator connected to a long AC transmission line may become unstable and fall out of
synchronization with a distant AC power system. An HVDC transmission link may make it
economically feasible to use remote generation sites. Wind farms located off-shore may use
HVDC systems to collect power from multiple unsynchronized generators for transmission to the
shore by an underwater cable.
In general, however, an HVDC power line will interconnect two AC regions of the power-
distribution grid. Machinery to convert between AC and DC power adds a considerable cost in
power transmission. The conversion from AC to DC is known as rectification, and from DC to
AC as inversion. Above a certain break-even distance (about 50 km for submarine cables, and
perhaps 600–800 km for overhead cables), the lower cost of the HVDC electrical conductors
outweighs the cost of the electronics.
The conversion electronics also present an opportunity to effectively manage the power grid by
means of controlling the magnitude and direction of power flow. An additional advantage of the
existence of HVDC links, therefore, is potential increased stability in the transmission grid.

1.5.2 Renewable electricity superhighways

Fig.7 Two HVDC lines cross near Wing, North Dakota

A number of studies have highlighted the potential benefits of very wide area super grids based
on HVDC since they can mitigate the effects of intermittency by averaging and smoothing the
outputs of large numbers of geographically dispersed wind farms or solar farms. Czisch's study
concludes that a grid covering the fringes of Europe could bring 100% renewable power (70%
wind, 30% biomass) at close to today's prices. There has been debate over the technical
feasibility of this proposal[50] and the political risks involved in energy transmission across a
large number of international borders.
The construction of such green power superhighways is advocated in a white paper that was
released by the American Wind Energy Association and the Solar Energy Industries
Association in 2009. Clean Line Energy Partners is developing four HVDC lines in the U.S. for
long distance electric power transmission.
 1.5.3 Advancements in UHVDC
UHVDC (ultrahigh-voltage direct-current) is shaping up to be the latest technological front in
high voltage DC transmission technology. UHVDC is defined as DC voltage transmission of at
least 800 kV (HVDC is generally just 100 to 600 kV).
One of the problems with current UHVDC super grids is that – although less than AC
transmission or DC transmission at lower voltages – they still suffer from power loss as the
length is extended. A typical loss for 800 kV lines is 2.6% over 800 km. Increasing the
transmission voltage on such lines reduces the power loss, but until recently, the interconnectors
required to bridge the segments were prohibitively expensive. However, with advances in
manufacturing, it is becoming more and more feasible to build UHVDC lines.

2. Power System Stability

2.1 Introduction to power system stability

It is mainly concerned with the production of electrical power and its transmission from the
sending end to receiving end as per requirements, incurring a minimum amount of losses. The
power often changes due to the variation of load or due to disturbances.
For these reasons, the term power system stability is of utmost importance in this field. It is
used to define the ability of the system to bring back its operation to steady state condition within
a minimum possible time after having undergone any transience or disturbance. Ever since the
20th century, till the recent times, all major power generating stations over the globe has mainly
relied on AC system as the most effective and economical option for generation and transmission
of electrical power.
In power plants, several synchronous generators are connected to the bus having the same
frequency and phase sequence as the generators. Therefore, for a stable operation, we have to
synchronize the bus with the generators over the entire duration of generation and transmission.
For this reason, the power system stability is also referred to as synchronous stability and is
defined as the ability of the system to return to synchronism after having undergone some
disturbance due to switching on and off of load or due to line transience. To understand, stability
well, another factor needs to be considered, and that is the stability limit of the system. The
stability limit defines the maximum power permissible to flow through a particular part of the
system for which it is subjected to line disturbances or faulty flow of power.

2.1.1 Steady State Stability of a Power System

The steady-state stability of a power system is defined as the ability of the system to bring itself
back to its stable configuration following a small disturbance in the network (like normal load
fluctuation or action of automatic voltage regulator). It can only be considered only during a very
gradual and infinitesimally small power change. In case the power flow through the circuit
exceeds the maximum power permissible, then there are chances that a particular machine or a
group of machines will cease to operate in synchronism, and result in yet more disturbances. In
such a situation, the steady-state limit of the system is said to have reached, or in other words,
the steady state stability limit of a system refers to the maximum amount of power that is
permissible through the system without loss of its steady state stability.

2.1.2 Transient Stability of a Power System

Transient stability of a power system refers to the ability of the system to reach a stable condition
following a large disturbance in the network condition. In all cases related to large changes in the
system like sudden application or removal of the load, switching operations, line faults or loss
due to excitation the transient stability of the system comes into play. It in fact deals in the ability
of the system to retain synchronism following a disturbance sustaining for a reasonably long
period. And the maximum power that is permissible to flow through the network without loss of
stability following a sustained period of disturbance is referred to as the transient stability of the
system. Going beyond that maximum permissible value for power flow, the system would
temporarily be rendered as unstable.

2.1.3 Dynamic Stability of a Power System

Dynamic stability of a system denotes the artificial stability given to an inherently unstable
system by automatically controlled means. It is concerned to small disturbances lasting for about
10 to 30 seconds.

2.2 Types of power system stability

Power system stability can be broadly classified into:

i. Rotor angle stability
ii. voltage stability
iii. Frequency stability
Each of these three stabilities can be further classified into large disturbance or small
disturbance, short term or long term.

2.2.1 Rotor Angle Stability

Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of synchronous machines of an interconnected power
system to remain in synchronism after being subjected to a disturbance. The rotor angle of a
generator is depends on the ability to maintain/restore balance or equilibrium between
electromagnetic torque due to the generator electrical power output and mechanical torque of
each synchronous machine in the system due to the input mechanical power through a prime
mover.

2.2.2 Voltage Stability

Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady voltages at all buses in
the system after being subjected to a disturbance from a given initial operating condition. If the
disturbance is large then it is called as large-disturbance voltage stability and if the disturbance is
small it is called as small-disturbance. Voltage stability depends on the ability to maintain/restore
equilibrium between load demand and load supply from the power system therefore, the main
difference between voltage stability and angle stability is that voltage stability depends on the
balance of reactive power demand and generation in the system where as the angle stability
mainly depends on the balance between real power generation and demand.

2.2.3 Frequency Stability

Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady frequency
following a severe system upset resulting in a significant imbalance between generation and
load. It depends on the ability to maintain/restore equilibrium between system generation and
load, with minimum unintentional loss of load. Frequency instability may lead to sustained
frequency swings leading to tripping of generating units or loads. During frequency excursions,
the characteristic times of the processes and devices that are activated will range from fraction of
seconds like under frequency control to several minutes, corresponding to the response of
devices such as prime mover and hence frequency stability may be a short-term phenomenon or
a long-term phenomenon.

3. Effects of HVDC on power system stability

3.1 Introduction

The power transfer capability of long AC transmission lines is generally limited by large signal
stability. The development of effective ways to utilize transmission system close to its thermal
limit has attracted much attention recently.
The central purpose of conventional HVDC transmission is to transfer a specific amount of
electric power in one node to another and to offer the fast controllability of real power transfer. If
the HVDC link is operated in parallel with a crucial AC line the load-flow of the AC line could
be controlled directly. The HVDC link can therefore be employed for improving stability.
HVDC links, under traditional controls, don't provide synchronizing or damping effects in a
reaction to disturbance on AC side. However, the capacity of an HVDC connect to rapidly
modulate the power flow, in response to manage signals, has been utilized for some time to
enhance the stability of AC-DC systems.
Because HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution systems, it
can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from propagating from one
part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause portions of
an AC network to become unsynchronized and to separate, would not similarly affect a DC link,
and the power flow through the DC link would tend to stabilize the AC network. The magnitude
and direction of power flow through a DC link can be directly controlled, and changed as needed
to support the AC networks at either end of the DC link. This has caused many power system
operators to contemplate wider use of HVDC technology for its stability benefits alone.

3.2 LCC Improving the Power System Stability

Stability in a power system refers to the ability of a power system to maintain a connected
generator in synchronism after the system has been subjected to a major disturbance such as
transmission system faults. The stability control strategy is based on fast balancing of the
accelerating energy. The driving mechanical power must be balanced by the electrical power to
keep the system in synchronism. This is performed by controlling the power through the HVDC.
The equal area criteria for stability study may be adopted to assess the stability limit of the
system.We know that the system becomes unstable for high value of pre-fault power i.e;
Ptotal(=Pm), which is equal to the mechanical power input. If the fault clearing time is not very
fast then the corresponding angle becomes larger than the critical angle and the system becomes
unstable. HVDC links, under traditional controls, do not provide synchronizing or damping
effects in response to disturbance on AC side. However, the controllability of an HVDC link is
inherently fast and this can be used to modulate the power flow after the fault clearance for
producing sufficient decelerating energy to improve the stability.
 Fig.8 showing how HVDC improves system stability.
(Blue line in the fig indicates when HVDC is not connected whereas red line shows when
HVDC is connected to the system)

3.3 VSC improving the Power System Stability

The power system is dependent of a stable and reliable control of active and reactive power to
keep its integrity. Loosing this control may lead to a system collapse. Voltage Source Converter
transmission system technology such as HVDC has the advantage of being able to almost
instantly change its working point within its capability curve. This can be used to support the
grid with the best mixture of active and reactive power during stressed conditions. In many cases
is a mix of active and reactive power the best solution compared to active or reactive power only.
VSC transmission systems can therefore give added support to the grid. For asynchronous in-
feed, active power modulation damp ~4 times better than reactive power modulation and that
local load ability can increase with ~2 times installed converter MVA size. In a parallel case
where the VSC transmission system is connected in parallel with the AC system, the VSC
transmission system can damp ~2-3 times better than reactive shunt compensation and increase
loading ability ~1.5 times installed MVA converter size. The benefits with a VSC transmission
system during a grid restoration can be considerable since it can control voltage and stabilize
frequency when active power is available in the remote end. The frequency control is then not
limited in the same way as a conventional power plant where boiler dynamics may limit the
operation during a grid restoration.
The transmission capacity and converter sizes of a VSC transmission system are becoming large
enough to also play a role in system stability improvement. Different applications will make
good use of the high controllability of active and reactive power considerably improving system
stability. In case of asynchronous infeed of power where the two ends of a VSC transmission
system do not have any mutual coupling the control of the VSC transmission can improve
stability further in the connection point. Criterions like (N-1) or similar are used to establish the
maximum amount of load that a critical grid section can transfer. If a large generator or
transmission line trips, the VSC transmission can change its operating mode and temporary
strengthen the grid until other remedial actions restore grid security. Many HVDC links are
connected between asynchronous grids operating with different frequency. In the connection
point where active power is fed into the AC grid VSC transmission can add improved
performance.

Fig.9 showing how VSC improves system stability with Q control, P control and Mixed
control.

3.4 Conclusion

The power through the HVDC helps to make the system more stable during disturbances. In case
of LCC (Line Commutated Converters) the power flow in the HVDC link is modulated by the
addition of an auxiliary signal to the current reference of the rectifier firing angle controller to
enhance the stability in power system.
In case of VSC (Voltage Source Converters) the best support from a VSC transmission system is
provided for various stability problems using a mixture of active and reactive power control. A
VSC DC transmission system is able to support the AC grid with a suitable power factor and
modulation of power transfer through VSC HVDC and hence thus improves stability.
Therefore, from above discussion we can clearly see how HVDC helps to improve
power system stability.