Energy Automation

Fundamental
Theory

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Fundamental Theory Contents

1. Introduction 24

2. Vector algebra 25

3. Manipulation of complex quantities 27

4. Circuit quantities and conventions 29

5. Impedance notation 34 2
6. Basic circuit laws, theorems and network reduction 36

7. References 41

NRJED311332EN 23
 Fundamental Theory 1. Introduction

The Protection Engineer is concerned with limiting the effects of

disturbances in a power system. These disturbances, if allowed to
persist, may damage plant and interrupt the supply of electric
energy. They are described as faults (short and open circuits) or
power swings, and result from natural hazards (for instance
lightning), plant failure or human error.
2 To facilitate rapid removal of a disturbance from a power system,
the system is divided into ‘protection zones’. Relays monitor the
system quantities (current, voltage) appearing in these zones; if a
fault occurs inside a zone, the relays operate to isolate the zone
from the remainder of the power system.
The operating characteristic of a relay depends on the energizing
quantities fed to it such as current or voltage, or various
combinations of these two quantities, and on the manner in which
the relay is designed to respond to this information. For example, a
directional relay characteristic would be obtained by designing the
relay to compare the phase angle between voltage and current at
the relaying point. An impedance-measuring characteristic, on the
other hand, would be obtained by designing the relay to divide
voltage by current. Many other more complex relay characteristics
may be obtained by supplying various combinations of current and
voltage to the relay. Relays may also be designed to respond to
other system quantities such as frequency, power, etc.
In order to apply protection relays, it is usually necessary to know
the limiting values of current and voltage, and their relative phase
displacement at the relay location, for various types of short circuit
and their position in the system. This normally requires some
system analysis for faults occurring at various points in the system.
The main components that make up a power system are generating
sources, transmission and distribution networks, and loads. Many
transmission and distribution circuits radiate from key points in the
system and these circuits are controlled by circuit breakers. For the
purpose of analysis, the power system is treated as a network of
circuit elements contained in branches radiating from nodes to form
closed loops or meshes. The system variables are current and
voltage, and in steady state analysis, they are regarded as time
varying quantities at a single and constant frequency. The network
parameters are impedance and admittance; these are assumed to
be linear, bilateral (independent of current direction) and constant
for a constant frequency.

24 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 2. Vector Algebra

A vector represents a quantity in both magnitude and direction. In

Y Figure 2.1 the vector OP has a magnitude at an angle with the
reference axis OX.
It may be resolved into two components at right angles to each
P other, in this case x and y. The magnitude or scalar value of vector
is known as the modulus , and the angle is the argument, and is
|Z| written as arg . 2
y
The conventional method of expressing a vector is to write simply
X
∠ .
0 x
This form completely specifies a vector for graphical representation
or conversion into other forms.
Figure 2.1: For vectors to be useful, they must be expressed algebraically. In
Vector OP
Figure 2.1, the vector is the resultant of vectorially adding its
components x and y; algebraically this vector may be written as:

... Equation 2.1

where the operator j indicates that the component y is perpendicular

to component x. In electrical nomenclature, the axis OC is the ‘real’
or ‘in-phase’ axis, and the vertical axis OY is called the ‘imaginary’
or ‘quadrature’ axis. The operator j rotates a vector anti-clockwise
through 90°. If a vector is made to rotate anti-clockwise through
180°, then the operator j has performed its function twice, and since
the vector has reversed its sense, then:
or

whence
The representation of a vector quantity algebraically in terms of its
rectangular co-ordinates is called a ‘complex quantity’. Therefore,
is a complex quantity and is the rectangular form of the vector
∠ where:

Z= (x 2
)
+ y2 


θ = tan −1 y
 … Equation 2.2
x 
x = Z cos θ 

y = Z sin θ 


NRJED311332EN 25
 Fundamental Theory 2. Vector Algebra (cont.)

From Equations 3.1 and 3.2:

= … Equation 2.3

and since cos and sin may be expressed in exponential form by

the identities:
2
e jθ − e − jθ
sin θ =
2j

e jθ − e − jθ
cosθ =
2
it follows that Z may also be written as:

= … Equation 2.4

Therefore, a vector quantity may also be represented

trigonometrically and exponentially.

26 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 3. Manipulation of complex
quantities

Y Complex quantities may be represented in any of the four

co-ordinate systems given below:
a. Polar
|Z2|
y2
b. Rectangular
c. Trigonometric
|Z1| d. Exponential
2
y1
X
0 x1 x2
The modulus and the argument are together known as ‘polar
Figure
Figure 2.2: of vectors
3.2: Addition co-ordinates’, and x and y are described as ‘cartesian co-ordinates’.
Addition of vectors Conversion between co-ordinate systems is easily achieved. As
the operator j obeys the ordinary laws of algebra, complex
quantities in rectangular form can be manipulated algebraically, as
can be seen by the following:

…Equation 2.5

…Equation 2.6 (see Figure 2.2)

…Equation 2.7

3.1 Complex variables

Some complex quantities are variable with, for example, time; when
manipulating such variables in differential equations it is expedient
to write the complex quantity in exponential form.
When dealing with such functions it is important to appreciate that
the quantity contains real and imaginary components. If it is
required to investigate only one component of the complex variable,
separation into components must be carried out after the
mathematical operation has taken place.
Example:
Determine the rate of change of the real component of a vector
with time.

The real component of the vector is

Differentiating with respect to time:

NRJED311332EN 27
 Fundamental Theory 3. Manipulation of complex
quantities (cont.)

Separating into real and imaginary components:

d
dt
( )
Z e jwt = Z ( −w sin wt + jw cos wt )

Thus, the rate of change of the real component of a vector
is:
2 -

3.2 Complex Numbers

A complex number may be defined as a constant that represents
the real and imaginary components of a physical quantity. The
impedance parameter of an electric circuit is a complex number
having real and imaginary components, which are described as
resistance and reactance respectively.
Confusion often arises between vectors and complex numbers. A
vector, as previously defined, may be a complex number. In this
context, it is simply a physical quantity of constant magnitude acting
in a constant direction. A complex number, which, being a physical
quantity relating stimulus and response in a given operation, is
known as a ‘complex operator’. In this context, it is distinguished
from a vector by the fact that it has no direction of its own.
Because complex numbers assume a passive role in any
calculation, the form taken by the variables in the problem
determines the method of representing them.

3.3 Mathematical Operators

Mathematical operators are complex numbers that are used to
2P move a vector through a given angle without changing the
1 3 = j
a=− + j e 3 magnitude or character of the vector. An operator is not a physical
2 2 quantity; it is dimensionless.
The symbol , which has been compounded with quadrature
components of complex quantities, is an operator that rotates a
4P
1 3 j quantity anti-clockwise through 90°. Another useful operator is one
a =− − j
2 =e 3 which moves a vector anti-clockwise through 120°, commonly
2 2 represented by the symbol .
Operators are distinguished by one further feature; they are the
1=1+ j0 = e j0
1 −a 2 =− j 3 a roots of unity. Using De Moivre’s theorem, the nth root of unity is
given by solving the expression:
1/n
1+ a + a 2= 0 a −a 2 = j 3 11/ n = ( cos 2 π m + j sin 2 π m )

a −a 2 where m is any integer. Hence:

1 −a = j 3 a 2 j=
3 2 πm 2 πm
11/ n = cos + j sin
n n
Table 2.1:
Properties of the a operator where has values
From the above expression is found to be the 4th root and a the 3rd
root of unity, as they have four and three distinct values
respectively. Table 2.1 gives some useful functions of the
operator.

28 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 4. Circuit quantities and
conventions

Circuit analysis may be described as the study of the response of a

circuit to an imposed condition, for example a short circuit. The
circuit variables are current and voltage. Conventionally, current
flow results from the application of a driving voltage, but there is
complete duality between the variables and either may be regarded
as the cause of the other.
When a circuit exists, there is an interchange of energy; a circuit 2
may be described as being made up of ‘sources’ and ‘sinks’ for
energy. The parts of a circuit are described as elements; a ‘source’
may be regarded as an ‘active’ element and a ‘sink’ as a ‘passive’
element. Some circuit elements are dissipative, that is, they are
continuous sinks for energy, for example resistance. Other circuit
elements may be alternately sources and sinks, for example
capacitance and inductance. The elements of a circuit are
connected together to form a network having nodes (terminals or
junctions) and branches (series groups of elements) that form
closed loops (meshes).
In steady state a.c. circuit theory, the ability of a circuit to accept a
current flow resulting from a given driving voltage is called the
impedance of the circuit. Since current and voltage are duals the
impedance parameter must also have a dual, called admittance.

4.1 Circuit Variables

As current and voltage are sinusoidal functions of time, varying at a
Y e single and constant frequency, they are regarded as rotating
vectors and can be drawn as plan vectors (that is, vectors defined
by two co-ordinates) on a vector diagram.

t
For example, the instantaneous value, , of a voltage varying
X' 0 X
sinusoidally with time is:
…Equation 2.8

Y' t=0
where:
is the maximum amplitude of the waveform;
Figure 2.3:
Representation of a sinusoidal function is the angular velocity,
is the argument defining the amplitude of the voltage
at a time
At , the actual value of the voltage is . So if is
regarded as the modulus of a vector, whose argument is , then
. is the imaginary component of the vector | .
Figure 2.3 illustrates this quantity as a vector and as a sinusoidal
function of time.

NRJED311332EN 29
 Fundamental Theory 4. Circuit quantities and
conventions (cont.)

The current resulting from applying a voltage to a circuit depends

upon the circuit impedance. If the voltage is a sinusoidal function at
a given frequency and the impedance is constant the current will
also vary harmonically at the same frequency, so it can be shown
on the same vector diagram as the voltage vector, and is given by
the equation:
2
…Equation 2.9

where:

Z = R 2 +X 2
1
X= L−
C
=tan −1 X
R …Equation 2.10

From Equations 2.9 and 2.10 it can be seen that the angular
displacement between the current and voltage vectors and the
current magnitude is dependent upon the impedance
. In complex form the impedance may be written . The
‘real component’, , is the circuit resistance, and the ‘imaginary
component’, , is the circuit reactance. When the circuit reactance
is inductive (that is, , the current ‘lags’ the voltage by an
angle , and when it is capacitive (that is, ) it ‘leads’ the
voltage by an angle .
When drawing vector diagrams, one vector is chosen as the
‘reference vector’ and all other vectors are drawn relative to the
reference vector in terms of magnitude and angle. The circuit
impedance is a complex operator and is distinguished from a
vector only by the fact that it has no direction of its own. A further
convention is that sinusoidally varying quantities are described by
their ‘effective’ or ‘root mean square’ (r.m.s.) values; these are
usually written using the relevant symbol without a suffix.
Thus:
I = Im 2 

E = Em 2 
…Equation 2.11

The ‘root mean square’ value is that value which has the same
heating effect as a direct current quantity of that value in the same
circuit, and this definition applies to non-sinusoidal as well as
sinusoidal quantities.

30 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 4. Circuit quantities and
conventions (cont.)

4.2 Sign Conventions

In describing the electrical state of a circuit, it is often necessary to
refer to the ‘potential difference’ existing between two points in the
circuit. Since wherever such a potential difference exists, current
will flow and energy will either be transferred or absorbed, it is
obviously necessary to define a potential difference in more exact
terms. For this reason, the terms voltage rise and voltage drop are 2
used to define more accurately the nature of the potential
difference.
Voltage rise is a rise in potential measured in the direction of current
flow between two points in a circuit. Voltage drop is the converse. A
circuit element with a voltage rise across it acts as a source of
energy. A circuit element with a voltage drop across it acts as a sink
of energy. Voltage sources are usually active circuit elements,
while sinks are usually passive circuit elements. The positive
direction of energy flow is from sources to sinks.
Kirchhoff’s first law states that the sum of the driving voltages must
equal the sum of the passive voltages in a closed loop. This is
illustrated by the fundamental equation of an electric circuit:
Ldi 1
dt C ∫
iR + + idt = e
…Equation 2.12
where the terms on the left hand side of the equation are voltage
drops across the circuit elements. Expressed in steady state terms
Equation 2.12 may be written:

∑E = ∑I Z …Equation 2.13
and this is known as the equated-voltage equation [2.1].
It is the equation most usually adopted in electrical network
calculations, since it equates the driving voltages, which are known,
to the passive voltages, which are functions of the currents to be
calculated.
In describing circuits and drawing vector diagrams, for formal
analysis or calculations, it is necessary to adopt a notation which
defines the positive direction of assumed current flow, and
establishes the direction in which positive voltage drops and
voltage rises act. Two methods are available; one, the double suffix
method, is used for symbolic analysis, the other, the single suffix or
diagrammatic method, is used for numerical calculations.
In the double suffix method the positive direction of current flow is
assumed to be from node a to node b and the current is designated
Iab . With the diagrammatic method, an arrow indicates the
direction of current flow.
The voltage rises are positive when acting in the direction of current
flow. It can be seen from Figure 2.4 that and are positive
voltage rises and and are negative voltage rises. In the
diagrammatic method their direction of action is simply indicated by
an arrow, whereas in the double suffix method, and indicate
that there is a potential rise in directions and .
Voltage drops are also positive when acting in the direction of
current flow. From Figure 2.4(a) it can be seen that
is the total voltage drop in the loop in the direction of current flow,
and must equate to the total voltage rise .

NRJED311332EN 31
 Fundamental Theory 4. Circuit quantities and
conventions (cont.)

In Figure 2.4(b), the voltage drop between nodes and

designated indicates that point b is at a lower potential than a,
and is positive when current flows from to . Conversely is a
negative voltage drop.
Symbolically:

2 V ab =V an −V bn 

(a) Diagrammatic V ba =V bn −V an  …Equation 2.14

I
where is a common reference point.

4.3 Power
The product of the potential difference across and the current
through a branch of a circuit is a measure of the rate at which
(b) Double suffix
energy is exchanged between that branch and the remainder of the
circuit. If the potential difference is a positive voltage drop, the
Figure 2.4 : branch is passive and absorbs energy. Conversely, if the potential
Methods of representing a circuit
difference is a positive voltage rise, the branch is active and
supplies energy.
The rate at which energy is exchanged is known as power, and by
convention, the power is positive when energy is being absorbed
and negative when being supplied. With a.c. circuits the power
alternates, so, to obtain a rate at which energy is supplied or
absorbed, it is necessary to take the average power over one whole
cycle.
If , then the power equation is:

…Equation 2.15

where:
and

From Equation 2.15 it can be seen that the quantity varies from
0 to and quantity varies from - to + in one cycle, and that the
waveform is of twice the periodic frequency of the current voltage
waveform.
The average value of the power exchanged in one cycle is a
constant, equal to quantity , and as this quantity is the product of
the voltage and the component of current which is ‘in phase’ with
the voltage it is known as the ‘real’ or ‘active’ power.
The average value of quantity is zero when taken over a cycle,
suggesting that energy is stored in one half-cycle and returned to
the circuit in the remaining half-cycle.

32 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 4. Circuit quantities and
conventions (cont.)

is the product of voltage and the quadraturecomponent of current,

and is known as ‘reactive power’. As and are constants which
specify the power exchange in a given circuit, and are products of
the current and voltage vectors, then if is the vector product it
follows that with as the reference vector and as the angle
between and :

S = P + jQ …Equation 2.16 2
The quantity is described as the ‘apparent power’, and is the
term used in establishing the rating of a circuit. has units of
VA.

4.4 Single-Phase and Polyphase Systems

A A' A system is single or polyphase depending upon whether the
Phase branches
sources feeding it are single or polyphase. A source is single or
N N' polyphase according to whether there are one or several driving
C B C' B' voltages associated with it. For example, a three-phase source is a
source containing three alternating driving voltages that are
(a) Three-phase system assumed to reach a maximum in phase order, A, B, C. Each phase
driving voltage is associated with a phase branch of the system
Ea network as shown in Figure 2.5(a).
Direction If a polyphase system has balanced voltages, that is, equal in
of rotation magnitude and reaching a maximum at equally displaced time
120° 120°
intervals, and the phase branch impedances are identical, it is
called a ‘balanced’ system. It will become ‘unbalanced’ if any of the
120° above conditions are not satisfied. Calculations using a balanced
polyphase system are simplified, as it is only necessary to solve for
(b) Balanced system of vectors a single phase, the solution for the remaining phases being
obtained by symmetry.
Figure 2.5 :
Methods of representing a circuit The power system is normally operated as a three-phase,
balanced, system. For this reason the phase voltages are equal in
magnitude and can be represented by three vectors spaced 120° or
2 /3 radians apart, as shown in Figure 2.5(b).
Since the voltages are symmetrical, they may be expressed in
terms of one, that is:

E a =E a
E b =a 2 E a
E c =a E a …Equation 2.17

where a is the vector operator . Further, if the phase branch

impedances are identical in a balanced system, it follows that the
resulting currents are also balanced.

NRJED311332EN 33
 Fundamental Theory 5. Impedance notation

It can be seen by inspection of any power system diagram that:

a. several voltage levels exist in a system
b. it is common practice to refer to plant MVA in terms of per unit or
percentage values
c. transmission line and cable constants are given in ohms/km
2 Before any system calculations can take place, the system
parameters must be referred to ‘base quantities’ and represented
as a unified system of impedances in either ohmic, percentage, or
per unit values.
The base quantities are power and voltage. Normally, they are
given in terms of the three-phase power in MVA and the line voltage
in kV. The base impedance resulting from the above base
quantities is:

Zb =
( kV )
2

ohms
MVA …Equation 2.18
and, provided the system is balanced, the base impedance may be
calculated using either single-phase or three-phase quantities.
The per unit or percentage value of any impedance in the system is
the ratio of actual to base impedance values.

Hence:
MVA b
Z (p . u. ) =Z ( ohms ) ×
( kVb ) 2
Z ( % ) = Z ( p .u. ) ×100
…Equation 2.19

where

Simple transposition of the above formulae will refer the ohmic
value of impedance to the per unit or percentage values and base
quantities.
Having chosen base quantities of suitable magnitude all system
impedances may be converted to those base quantities by using
the equations given below:
MVA b2
Z b2 = Zb1 ×
MVA b1
2
kV b1
Z b2 = Zb1 ×
kV b2
…Equation 2.20
where
suffix denotes the value to the original base
and denotes the value to new base
The choice of impedance notation depends upon the complexity of
the system, plant impedance notation and the nature of the system
calculations envisaged.

34 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 5. Impedance notation
(cont.)

If the system is relatively simple and contains mainly transmission

line data, given in ohms, then the ohmic method can be adopted
with advantage. However, the per unit method of impedance
notation is the most common for general system studies since:
1. impedances are the same referred to either side of a transformer
if the ratio of base voltages on the two sides of a transformer is
equal to the transformer turns ratio 2
2. confusion caused by the introduction of powers of 100 in
percentage calculations is avoided
3. by a suitable choice of bases, the magnitudes of the data and
results are kept within a predictable range, and hence errors in
data and computations are easier to spot
Most power system studies are carried out using software in per
11.8kV 11.8/141kV 132/11kV
unit quantities. Irrespective of the method of calculation, the choice
132kV 11kV of base voltage, and unifying system impedances to this base,
Overhead line Distribution
should be approached with caution, as shown in Figure 2.6.
Wrong selection of base voltage
From Figure 2.6 it can be seen that the base voltages in the three
11.8kV 132kV 11kV
circuits are related by the turns ratios of the intervening
Right selection
transformers. Care is required as the nominal transformation ratios
11.8kV 141kV 141 x 11=11.7kV of the transformers quoted may be different from the turns ratios-
132
e.g. a 110/33kV (nominal) transformer may have a turns ratio of
Figure 2.6 : 110/34.5kV. Therefore, the rule for hand calculations is: ‘to refer an
Selection of base voltages impedance in ohms from one circuit to another multiply the given
impedance by the square of the turns ratio (open circuit voltage
ratio) of the intervening transformer’.
Where power system simulation software is used, the software
normally has calculation routines built in to adjust transformer
parameters to take account of differences between the nominal
primary and secondary voltages and turns ratios. In this case, the
choice of base voltages may be more conveniently made as the
nominal voltages of each section of the power system. This
approach avoids confusion when per unit or percent values are
used in calculations in translating the final results into volts, amps,
etc.
For example, in Figure 2.7, generators G1 and G2 have a sub-
T1
transient reactance of 26% on 66.6MVA rating at 11kV, and
G1
transformers T1 and T2 a voltage ratio of 11/145kV and an
132kV impedance of 12.5% on 75MVA. Choosing 100MVA as base MVA
overhead
lines and 132kV as base voltage, find the percentage impedances to
G2
new base quantities.
T2
a Generator reactances to new bases are:

26 ×
100
×
(11) =0.27%
2

Figure 2.7 : 66.6 (132 )2

Section of a Power System
b. Transformer reactances to new bases are:
100 (145 )
2

12.5 × × = 20.1%
75 (132 )2

NOTE: The base voltages of the generator and circuits are 11kV and
145kV respectively, that is, the turns ratio of the transformer. The
corresponding per unit values can be found by dividing by 100, and the
ohmic value can be found by using Equation 2.19.

NRJED311332EN 35
 Fundamental Theory 6. Basic circuit laws, theorems
and network reduction

Most practical power system problems are solved by using steady

state analytical methods. The assumptions made are that the
circuit parameters are linear and bilateral and constant for constant
frequency circuit variables. In some problems, described as initial
value problems, it is necessary to study the behaviour of a circuit in
the transient state. Such problems can be solved using operational
2 methods. Again, in other problems, which fortunately are few in
number, the assumption of linear, bilateral circuit parameters is no
longer valid. These problems are solved using advanced
mathematical techniques that are beyond the scope of this book.

6.1 Circuit Laws

In linear, bilateral circuits, three basic network laws apply,
regardless of the state of the circuit, at any particular instant of time.
These laws are the branch, junction and mesh laws, due to Ohm
and Kirchhoff, and are stated below, using steady state a.c.
nomenclature.

Branch law
The current in a given branch of impedance is proportional to
the potential difference appearing across the branch, that is, .

Junction law
The algebraic sum of all currents entering any junction (or node) in
a network is zero, that is:

∑ I =0
Mesh law
The algebraic sum of all the driving voltages in any closed path (or
mesh) in a network is equal to the algebraic sum of all the passive
voltages (products of the impedances and the currents) in the
components branches, that is:

∑ E = ∑Z I
Alternatively, the total change in potential around a closed loop is
zero.

6.2 Circuit Theorems

From the above network laws, many theorems have been derived
for the rationalisation of networks, either to reach a quick, simple,
solution to a problem or to represent a complicated circuit by an
equivalent. These theorems are divided into two classes: those
concerned with the general properties of networks and those
concerned with network reduction.
Of the many theorems that exist, the three most important are
given. These are: the Superposition Theorem, Thévenin’s Theorem
and Kennelly’s Star/Delta Theorem.

36 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 6. Basic circuit laws, theorems
and network reduction
(cont.)

O
a b
Superposition Theorem
(general network theorem)
The resultant current that flows in any branch of a network due to
the simultaneous action of several driving voltages is equal to the
algebraic sum of the component currents due to each driving 2
c
voltage acting alone with the remainder short-circuited.
(a) Star network

Thévenin’s Theorem

1 2 (active network reduction theorem)

Any active network that may be viewed from two terminals can be
replaced by a single driving voltage acting in series with a single
impedance. The driving voltage is the open-circuit voltage between
the two terminals and the impedance is the impedance of the
network viewed from the terminals with all sources short-circuited.
3
(b) Delta network
Kennelly’s Star/Delta Theorem
Figure 2.8 : (passive network reduction theorem)
Star-Delta network transformation Any three-terminal network can be replaced by a delta or star
impedance equivalent without disturbing the external network. The
formulae relating the replacement of a delta network by the
equivalent star network is as follows (Figure 2.8):

Z co = Z 13 + Z 23 ( Z 12 + Z 13 + Z 23 )
and so on.
The impedance of a delta network corresponding to and replacing
any star network is:

Z 12 = Z ao + Z bo + Z ao Z bo
Z co
and so on.

6.3 Network Reduction

The aim of network reduction is to reduce a system to a simple
2.55 Ω
equivalent while retaining the identity of that part of the system to be
1.6Ω 0.4Ω
A B studied.
0
0.75Ω 0.45 Ω For example, consider the system shown in Figure 2.9. The
E' E'' network has two sources E’ and E’’, a line AOB shunted by an
18.85Ω
impedance, which may be regarded as the reduction of a further
network connected between A and B, and a load connected
N
between O and N. The object of the reduction is to study the effect
of opening a breaker at A or B during normal system operations, or
Figure 2.9 : of a fault at A or B. Thus the identity of nodes A and B must be
Typical power system network
retained together with the sources, but the branch ON can be
eliminated, simplifying the study. Proceeding, A, B, N, forms a star
branch and can therefore be converted to an equivalent delta.

NRJED311332EN 37
 Fundamental Theory 6. Basic circuit laws, theorems
and network reduction
(cont.)

0.75 x 18.85
2.5Ω Z AN = Z AO + Z NO + Z AO Z NO = 0.75 + 18.85 +
1.6Ω 1.2Ω 0.4Ω Z BO 0.45
A B = 51 ohms
E' 51Ω 30.6Ω E''

0.45 x 18.85
2 Z BN = Z BO + Z NO + Z BO Z NO = 0.45 + 18.85 +
N Z AO 0.75
= 30.6 ohms
Figure 2.10 :
Reduction using star/delta transformation
Z AN = Z AO + Z BO + Z AO Z BO = 1.2 ohms (since Z NO >>> Z AO Z BO )
Z NO

1.6 x 51
The network is now reduced as shown in Figure 2.10.
Ω
1.6Ω 52.6
A A
By applying Thévenin’s theorem to the active loops, these can be
replaced by a single driving voltage in series with an impedance as
E' 51Ω 51 shown in Figure 2.11.
E'
52.6
The network shown in Figure 2.9 is now reduced to that shown in
N N Figure 2.12 with the nodes A and B retaining their identity. Further,
(a) Reduction of left active mesh the load impedance has been completely eliminated.
0.4 x 30.6 The network shown in Figure 2.12 may now be used to study
Ω
0.4Ω 31
B B system disturbances, for example power swings with and without
faults.
30.6Ω E'' 30.6 E''
31
Most reduction problems follow the same pattern as the example
above. The rules to apply in practical network reduction are:
N N
a. decide on the nature of the disturbance or disturbances to be
(b) Reduction of right active mesh
studied
Figure 2.11 : b. decide on the information required, for example the branch
Reduction of active meshes, currents in the network for a fault at a particular location
Thévenin’s Theorem
c. reduce all passive sections of the network not directly involved
with the section under examination
d. reduce all active meshes to a simple equivalent, that is, to a
simple source in series with a single impedance
2.5Ω With the widespread availability of computer-based power system
1.55Ω 0.39Ω
simulation software, it is now usual to use such software on a
A B routine basis for network calculations without significant network
1.2Ω reduction taking place. However, the network reduction techniques
0.97E' 0.99E''
given above are still valid, as there will be occasions where such
software is not immediately available and a hand calculation must
be carried out.
N
In certain circuits, for example parallel lines on the same towers,
Figure 2.12 : there is mutual coupling between branches. Correct circuit
Reduction of typical power system network reduction must take account of this coupling.

Three cases are of interest. These are:

a. two branches connected together at their nodes
b. two branches connected together at one node only
c. two branches that remain unconnected

38 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 6. Basic circuit laws, theorems
and network reduction
(cont.)

Considering each case in turn:

a. consider the circuit shown in Figure 2.13(a). The application of a
voltage V between the terminals P and Q gives:


where Ia and Ib are the currents in branches a and b,
2
respectively and , the total current entering at terminal P
I and leaving at terminal Q.
P Q

Solving for and :

I
P Q

Ia =
(Zbb − Zab )V
Zaa Zbb − Zab
2

from which
Figure 2.13 :
Reduction of two branches with mutual
Ib =
(Zaa − Zab )V
coupling
Zaa Zbb − Zab
2

and

V (Zaa + Zbb − 2 Zab )

I = Ia +Ib =
Zaa Zbb − Zab
2

so that the equivalent impedance of the original circuit is:

V Zaa Zbb − Zab
2
Z= =
I Zaa + Zbb − 2 Zab …Equation 2.21

(Figure 3.13(b)), and, if the branch impedances are equal, the

A usual case, then:
1
C Z=
2
(Zaa + Zab )
…Equation 2.22 (Figure 2.13(c)).
B

(a) Actual circuit

b. consider the circuit in Figure 2.14(a).
= -
The assumption is made that an equivalent star network can
A
replace the network shown. From inspection with one terminal
C isolated in turn and a voltage impressed across the remaining
= terminals it can be seen that:
B
= - + =
(b) Equivalent circuit + =
+ = + +
Figure 2.14 :
Reduction of mutually-coupled branches
with a common terminal Solving these equations gives:
Za = Zaa − Zab 

Zb = Zbb − Zab 

Z = Zab 
c …Equation 2.23 (see Figure 2.14(b)).

NRJED311332EN 39
 Fundamental Theory 6. Basic circuit laws, theorems
and network reduction
(cont.)

c. consider the four-terminal network given in Figure 2.15(a), in

1 1' which the branches 11’ and 22’ are electrically separate except
for a mutual link. The equations defining the network are:

V 1 = Z 11 I 1 +Z 12 I 2
V 2 = Z 21 I 1 +Z 22 I 2
2 2'
2 I 1 = Y 11 V1+Y 12 V2
(a) Actual circuit I 2 = Y 21 V1+Y 22 V2

where Z12=Z21 and Y12=Y21 , if the network is assumed to be
1 1' reciprocal. Further, by solving the above equations it can be
shown that:
Y11 =Z 22
Y22 =Z 11
2 2'
Y12 =Z 12
(b) Equivalent circuit
= Z11 Z22 Z122
…Equation 2.24

1 There are three independent coefficients, namely , , , so

the original circuit may be replaced by an equivalent mesh
containing four external terminals, each terminal being
connected to the other three by branch impedances as shown in
C Figure 2.15(b).
In order to evaluate the branches of the equivalent mesh let all
(c) Equivalent with all nodes points of entry of the actual circuit be commoned except node 1
commoned except 1 of circuit 1, as shown in Figure 2.15(c). Then all impressed
voltages except will be zero and:

1 1'


If the same conditions are applied to the equivalent mesh, then:

2 2'

(d) Equivalent circuit
These relations follow from the fact that the branch connecting
Figure 2.15 :
nodes 1 and 1’ carries current and the branches connecting
Equivalent circuits for four terminal network nodes 1 and 2’ and 1 and 2 carry current . This must be true
with mutual coupling since branches between pairs of commoned nodes can carry no
current.
By considering each node in turn with the remainder commoned,
the following relationships are found:

40 NRJED311332EN
Fundamental Theory 6. Basic circuit laws, theorems
and network reduction
(cont.)

Hence:
Z11Z22 − Z122 
Z '= 
11 Z22

Z11Z 22 − Z122 
Z '= 
22 Z11 
2
Z Z −Z  2
Z12 = 11 22 12 
Z12 
…Equation 2.25

A similar but equally rigorous equivalent circuit is shown in Figure

2.15(d). This circuit [2.2] follows from the fact that the self-
impedance of any circuit is independent of all other circuits.
Therefore, it need not appear in any of the mutual branches if it is
lumped as a radial branch at the terminals. So putting and
equal to zero in Equation 2.25, defining the equivalent mesh in
Figure 2.15(b), and inserting radial branches having impedances
equal to and in terminals 1 and 2, results in Figure 2.15(d).

References
2.1 Power System Analysis.
J. R. Mortlock and M. W. Humphrey Davies.
Chapman & Hall.

2.2 Equivalent Circuits I.

Frank M. Starr,
Proc. A.I.E.E.
Vol. 51. 1932, pp. 287-298.

NRJED311332EN 41