Compost – Basics of On-Farm Composting

Introduction
This factsheet looks at pertinent information, methods and recommendations for New Brunswick
farmers who are interested in on-farm composting.

When compost is applied to farmland, it increases

the organic matter, enhances physical and chemical
properties of the soil, and thereby improves the tilth,
nutrient level and pH.

Compost can also be an excellent component in

greenhouse mixes as it holds moisture and nutrients.

Figure 1: Tractor pulled windrow turner

What is Compost and How is it Made

Composting is the biological decomposition of organic materials by microorganisms to a relatively
stable humus-like material that can be used as a soil amendment or as a component in a
greenhouse mix.

Organic materials such as hay, straw, manure, leaves,

bark, sawdust, potato waste and seafood waste can be
used as feedstock to make compost. They are mixed
together in a pile/row in the proper proportions that will
provide the optimal carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N).
Following the feedstock mixing, moisture is added if
required. With the proper moisture, the
microorganisms within the feedstock become active Figure 2: A typical compost windrow
and cause the pile to heat. When the pile/row heats to
an optimal temperature, it is turned. This turning action incorporates oxygen into the feedstock,
which in turn cools the pile down. Following the turning the microbial breakdown of the feedstock
starts heating the pile/row again and turning continues until the original feedstock has been
sufficiently digested by the microbes and the temperature of the pile stabilizes.
Revised 2015 Agriculture, Aquaculture and Fisheries
The process where compost is turned frequently, during the composting stage, allows for good air
circulation and penetration into the pile and is known as aerobic composting. Microbial degradation
is more efficient and the feedstock breaks down faster into a compost with aerobic composting.

The process where compost is produced in large windrows and infrequently turned is referred to as
anaerobic composting as little air is able to penetrate the pile. As a result the microbial breakdown
process is much slower. Each type has its own characteristics and use.

Key Requirements in Making Compost

Some very basic conditions are required for the necessary biological activities to occur. They
include:
1. Food Supply (carbon and nitrogen)
2. Moisture
3. Oxygen
4. Heat

1. Food Supply
The food supply for the microbes consists of a blend of both carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) sources.
Typically, the C:N ratio at the start of the composting process should be in the range of 20:1 to
40:1 with the optimal ratio between 25:1 to 30:1. Ratios below 25:1 result in the increasing loss of
N and if above 35:1, can take longer to produce a mature compost product.
In order to determine the right blend of carbon and nitrogen sources in a balanced compost recipe,
it is helpful to have the compost feedstock tested for its carbon and nitrogen content.
Composting Tip: The addition of a small amount of soil as part of the compost recipe at the start of the
composting process is beneficial as the soil helps bind ammonium (NH4+N), thus reducing its loss.
Listed below are some of the more common materials being composted in New Brunswick and
their C:N ratios.

Material C:N Ratios

Range Average
Softwood bark, sawmill yard waste 131 – 1285 496
Hardwood bark, sawmill yard waste 116 – 436 223
Sawdust 200 – 750 442
Softwood shavings, chips 212 – 1313 641
Hardwood shavings, chips 451 – 819 560
Hay 15 – 32₁ n/a
Straw 48 – 150₁ 60₁
Fresh green chop 9 – 25₁ 17₁
Silage n/a Est 30₁
Cattle manure 11 – 30 19₂
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 Horse manure 22 – 50 30₂
Chicken manure 3 – 10 6₂
Sheep manure 13 – 20 16₂
Hog manure 9 – 19 14₂
Cull potatoes n/a 18
Potato waste n/a 28
Crab & Lobster waste 4 – 5.4 4.9
Seaweed n/a 17
Fish waste 2.6 – 5 3.6
Yard and leaf waste 40 – 80 54

Source: Adapted from the On-Farm Composting Handbook, Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service
1. Nitrogen content will vary due to maturity of crop at time of harvest.
2. C:N ratios will vary due to percentage and type of bedding used.

2. Moisture
The generally accepted moisture range for producing compost is between 40 and 65% with an
optimal range of 50 to 60%. Moisture may have to be added depending upon the feedstock used
and during the active or thermophilic stages, if composting is done during the hot months. In hot
summer conditions, respiration from the composting process will tend to lower moisture below ideal
levels.

Excess moisture must be kept out of the compost during the curing or mesophilic stages and the
wet and cold months. Fleece covers protect compost from undesirable conditions. The fleece
covers also effectively shed water, while still allowing the compost underneath to breath.

If the moisture levels in the pile exceed 65%, the composting process tends to become anaerobic,
creating problems such as foul odours. It can also negatively affect the oxygen levels and slow
down the composting process.

Composting Tip: The squeeze moisture test is a good way to quickly determine the moisture level of the
compost pile. A handful of material should feel damp, not dripping wet. If you pick up a handful of material
and it drips without being squeezed, it is too wet. For sampling, grab from the interior of the pile in an area
that is well mixed, not from the outer shell. If the material appears dry and crumbles after squeezing, it is
too dry. If the material retains its clumped shape after squeezing without releasing excess water and your
hand is damp, then it is just right for composting. (On-Farm Composting Handbook)

3. Oxygen
Oxygen is supplied in various ways. Common methods include the act of turning compost
windrows or piles, the use of aeration vents or pipes inside the windrow/pile, and the natural air
movement between feedstock particles. Experts suggest that a minimum of 5% oxygen should be
present in the material with 10% being ideal. However, an instrument that measures oxygen levels
would have to be used to determine these levels. As the compost completes its decomposition
process, oxygen levels will increase.

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Oxygen levels and the resulting quality of the compost are influenced by:
 Material density due to particle size being very small may cause compaction of material,
especially if the materials are high in moisture. This results in the material being unable to
breath.
 High moisture in the pile (above 65%).
 Windrow size (larger means less air to the center of the pile).
 Frequency of turning during the active composting stage.
 Compost produced aerobically (with plenty of oxygen) will contain more beneficial bacteria
and fungi.
 Anaerobically produced compost will also contain bacteria and fungi, but not all are
beneficial. Generally, in anaerobic conditions, the compost is not broken down as well and
if used in greenhouse mixes, may compete with plants for nitrogen if C:N is high (eg. if C:N
is greater than 15:1). Anaerobic compost may still have a good moisture holding capacity
and if supplemented properly with nitrogen can be used successfully in these mixes.

4. Heat
When the C:N ratio, moisture and oxygen are within proper ranges, heat generation will occur from
microbial activity.
It is important to keep temperatures within the optimal thermophilic range in order to preserve the
quality of the compost and to destroy most pathogens and weed seeds which may be present in
the feedstock. A proper temperature range for the thermophilic stage (active stage) of composting
is between 55˚C and 70˚C, although some literature indicate that between 40˚C and 60˚C is an
optimal range. Temperatures below 45˚C, during the first two to three weeks of composting, can
point to problems with one of the three basic requirements: oxygen, moisture or the C:N ratio.
Temperatures above 70˚C are not good for the survival of beneficial bacteria and fungi and may kill
some of them.
The University of Maine Compost School recommends that compost piles or windrows be turned:
(1) at approximately 150˚F (66˚C), (2) if the temperature drops without cause, or (3) if the
difference between the one foot and three foot temperature readings is greater than 20˚F (7˚C).
(On-Farm Composting Handbook)
Temperature should be checked on a regular basis. This can be done by using a compost
thermometer which can reach two to three feet into the pile.
After the pile has reach the thermophilic temperatures for two to three weeks, the compost should
progressively start cooling down. This is called the curing stage. When the temperatures no
longer rise above 10 C˚ of the ambient temperature, the pile is considered cured or mature.
Composting Tip: If the inside of the pile is cool and the outside is hot, it means that the pile is either too
wet or lacking oxygen and should be turned. If the outside feels cool and the inside is hot, the pile is on the
dry side. Moisture should be added and the pile should be turned.
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Figure 3: Schematic of the composting process courtesy of the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and
Rural Affairs (OMAFRA).

The Composting Phases

There are three phases of the composting process: (Courtesy OMAFRA)
 Active or Thermophilic phase - This is the phase when the most rapid breakdown of
materials occurs. After the materials are mixed and the pile is created, temperatures rise
(above 45ºC) and decomposition is done by aerobic, thermophilic, organisms including
bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and protozoa.
The microorganisms use oxygen to consume the feedstock materials and respire carbon
dioxide. Temperature (40-60ºC)₁ and moisture (50-60%) beyond the optimum ranges, or low
oxygen levels will reduce biological activity. High moisture levels reduce oxygen. Low
moisture levels can result in temperatures rising too high.
The time required for the active phase will depend on the materials, ambient air
temperatures, and the composting method. In-vessel systems with turning and aeration can
offer the shortest times. A composting windrow with frequent turning may have an active
stage as short as 1-4 months, or up to 4-8 months with less frequent turning and 6-24
months for passive composting with no turning and no active aeration.

o Curing or Mesophilic stage - after the main thermophilic phase most materials have
broken down and are not recognizable from their original form. Temperatures are more
stable (usually less than 40ºC) even after the pile is turned. In this stage there is a shift in
the organism populations to those that prefer lower temperatures. Turning is not needed but
compost should remain aerobic. In the curing phase, compost is not yet mature. Immature
compost may have higher levels of organic acids, high C:N ratios, extreme pH values or
high salt contents all of which can damage or kill plants. The time to cure may vary up to a
year but is generally less than 3 months.

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 o Maturing - compost needs time in storage to mature. Maturity is an indication of the degree
of humification or the conversion of organic compounds to humic substances that are
resistant to microbial breakdown. There are various tests for compost maturity. Lab tests
can be used or germination tests using lettuce or cress seeds can be used. Immature
compost may injure the germinating seeds and plants will not survive. During the maturing
phase pile size is less critical than during the active or curing phases. Material can move
from storage to utilization when convenient but should be utilized as soon as possible.

For the complete article by OMAFRA on composting see the following link:
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/05-023.htm

o Note 1: Other sources list 55˚C to 70˚C as the ideal heat range. See above section titled
Heat.

Composting Tip: Regardless of the method used to make compost, it is helpful to preserve its
quality by covering the finished product.

Equipment & Methods Commonly Used to Produce Compost

In New Brunswick most on-farm composting is still performed using either an excavator or a loader
to turn the piles. Only a few operations use either the In-vessel system or a straddle turner.
Typical size of row Typical time to
Aerobic or
Method (width x height in make mature
Anaerobic₂
meters)₁ compost
Excavator 7.3 x 3.0 2 years Anaerobic
Loader 6.7 x 2.4 2 years Anaerobic
In-Vessel 1.8 x 1.2 6 – 8 weeks Aerobic
Straddle turner 2.4 x 1.2 8 – 12 weeks Aerobic
Manure spreader 2.1 x 1.1 10 – 14 weeks Aerobic
By hand 1.8 x 1.0 8 – 10 weeks Aerobic
1. Dimensions of windrows vary depending on equipment size and operator’s preference.
2. Anaerobic: When turned, the pile does receive oxygen making it aerobic for a short period.
Once the oxygen has been consumed, the pile is too large to remain aerobic and becomes
anaerobic again.

Figure 4 – Straddle Compost Turner Figure 5: In-Vessel Composter

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Pro’s and Con’s of each method
Method Pro’s Con’s
Excavator/  Piles can be larger and composted  Due to size of piles and because they are
loader outdoors as moisture will only penetrate generally not turned as frequently,
the outside two to three feet of the pile or composting is done more anaerobically.
windrow.  Takes much longer to compost

In-Vessel  One of the fastest methods of aerobic  Generally requires a building to house
composting. the unit.
 Does a very good job of mixing feedstock.  In-vessel machines are dedicated to
 An excellent method where a regular, compost production only.
steady volume of material is added daily.  Expensive infrastructure.
 Moisture management easily done.
Straddle  A versatile method of producing an  May require rows be covered to control
turner aerobic compost. moisture either by using fleeces or
 Mixes components very well, allowing composting under a roof.
each particle to get maximum air which  Due to smaller sized piles, it is difficult to
helps microbes break down substrates. compost in cold & snowy conditions even
if fleeces are used.
 The turner is a dedicated piece of
equipment which can only be used in
composting.
 If a tractor powered turner is employed a
tractor with a hydrostatic drive or a
creeper gear may be required.
Manure  Very similar process and benefits as  Much slower process.
spreader straddle turner.  Required spreader bar on the manure
 Utilizes an existing piece of farm spreader has to be changed between
equipment. field use and compost use.
By Hand  Can make small quantities of high quality  Manual labour.
(Pitch fork) compost inexpensively.  Small scale production only.

Evaluating the Finished Product

There are several criteria that are important to consider when evaluating a mature compost
product.
 The pH should be in the range of 6.5 to 8.0.

 The soluble salts₁ levels or Electrical conductivity (EC) should be 1.3 – 2.5 mS/cm, using
the 2:1 Water to Media (compost) method.

 The C:N ratio of the finished compost should be between 15:1 and 25:1.

 The moisture content should be between 40 and 65%.

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  The bulk density should be in the range of 475 to 700 kg/m³ (800 to 1200 lbs/yd³).

 The compost should have a good earthy smell.

 The original feedstock (e.g. straw, hay) should not be recognizable.

 The finished compost should reheat no more than 10˚C (if very mature) or between 10 -
20˚C (if moderately mature) with or without being turned or receiving more moisture.

 The compost should feel soft and slightly damp. – When squeezed tightly in a fist, a tiny
bit of moisture may appear between knuckles. The lump in your hand should hold
together when the squeeze is released, but easily fall apart when bounced in the hand.

 The heavy metal levels must meet the Canadian Council of the Ministers of the
Environment (CCME) guidelines.
http://www.ccme.ca/files/Resources/waste/compostgdlns_1340_e.pdf

 The volume of the finished compost is 50% or less than the volume of the original
feedstock.

Factors to Consider when using Compost

For Greenhouse Use
 Use compost with an EC level under 2.5 mS/cm. The final EC in the transplanting
mix should not be too high (eg. less than 1.5). It is best to avoid using chicken
manure based compost in a greenhouse mix as it is generally too rich in nitrogen and
the ammonia levels may be toxic to greenhouse plants.

 Keep the percentage of compost in a transplanting mix between 10 and 30%. If it is

aged bark, do not use more than 10% and preferably not more than 5% in the mix.

 It is best not to use compost in a germinating mix, and it is strongly recommended

NOT to try growing plants in straight compost.

For Agricultural Land Use

 Use compost wisely. Just because a little is good, does not mean that a lot is better
for the land. A good rule of thumb would be to keep compost applications between
38 – 76 m³/ha (20 and 40 yd³/ac). However, it would be best to obtain a lab analysis
of both the compost and the soil, so that a Professional Agrologist can recommend
appropriate application rates.

 Composts are considered soil amendments because they provide organic matter and
beneficial organisms to the soil, but often they do not contain enough available
nitrogen for the needs of the crop. Some composts, however, are rich in nutrients
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 and have low C:N ratios (eg. composted chicken manure) and may also be
considered fertilizer, as they may provide a significant amount of available nitrogen.

Resources
On-Farm Composting Handbook – Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service – Cooperative
Extension, Ithaca, New York (1992)

Field Guide to On-Farm Composting - Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service –
Cooperative Extension, Ithaca, New York (1999)

BC Agricultural Composting Handbook, Soils and Engineering Branch, BC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food

Agriculture Composting Basics, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/05-023.htm

Maine Compost School

Cooperators:
University of Maine, Cooperative Extension
Maine Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Resources
Maine Department of Environment
Maine State Planning Office

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