A COMPARISM ON THE IMPACT OF GENDER CRIMINALITY IN NIGERIA

(A CASE STUDY OF SULEJA NIGER STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background to the Study

The persistence and rise of crime continues to damage the social fabric of the society
especially in the country’s’ urban areas. Crime is not a new phenomenon both locally and
internationally but the intensity and nature of crime is different within different borders.
Crime also does not distinguish between the developed and developing countries such as
Kenya which continue to grapple with the effects of increased incidences of criminal
activities in its urban areas. An emerging trend of crime in the urban areas reflects an
increase in youth participation in violent criminal activities which has been associated
with the rising unemployment rates among the youth which is far more explicit in urban
areas. Onoge (1988) in Adebayo (2013) perceives crime as dysfunctional as it threatens
the stability of society and it is therefore, a social problem that requires a concerted effort
towards finding a lasting solution to it. It undermines the social fabric by eroding the
sense of safety and security

Urbanization, especially in the developing world, has been accompanied by increased

levels of crime, violence and lawlessness. The growing violence and feeling of insecurity
that city dwellers are facing daily is one of the major challenges around the world. The
world’s population is becoming increasingly urban, and three-quarters of the urban
population growth occurs in developing countries. Global studies show that 60% of all
urban residents in developing countries have been victims of crime, at least once over the
past five years, 70% of them in Latin America and Africa. Majority of these crimes are
committed by the youth as Salagaev (2003) reports that the number of young people who
committed crimes rose from 80 million in 1992 to 150 million in 2000. In 2005,
individuals under the age of 25 accounted for nearly 45% of all arrests for violent crimes
and 50% of arrests for murder (Watson-Thompson, Fawcett & Schultz, 2008).
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There are various reasons that have been identified as influencing youth involvement in
criminal activities. Prior and Paris (2005) find that most of the youth are in crime because
of poverty, which drove them into criminal acts for survival; Maseko (2009) points to
youth peer pressure and rebellion against parental authority; Erickson (2001) observes
that drugs also lead the youth to crime; Ojo (2012) lists broken homes and low education
attainment as leading to criminal activities. Agbor, Taiwo and Smith (2012) contend that
youth in Africa hold great potential as drivers for economic growth through participation
in labor markets and also as consumers. However, a large youth population that is not
gainfully employed can also be a liability, further undermining growth prospects.
Salagaev (2003) and Muhammad (2008) agree it is primarily the outcome of multiple
adverse social, economic and family conditions.

Awoundo (1993) in Ndikaru (2011) distinguishes between crime which is of deviant

behaviour that is considered not to be a serious threat to group life and therefore
tolerated; and deviance involving behaviour that is perceived to threaten the group life
and needs to be punished. In modern society such behaviour is in contraventions of the
penal code of the state and is referred to as crimes. According to Oculi and Mwaguri
(2006), crime is a violation of criminal law from which formal penalties are applied by
some government authority. In East Africa, the crime scenario is slightly different and has
a spatial differentiation component. In Tanzania, for example, it has been noted that Dar-
es-Salaam has a slightly different crime typology compared to the South and West
African cities.

According to Gimode (2001) there has been an increase in violent crime in Africa. This
crime is mainly related to the increased intensity and complexity of urbanization.
Obviously, specific features of urbanization have particularly contributed to the growth of
criminal violence. Cairo, Lagos and Johannesburg are the cities that feature most
prominently in literature on violent crime in Africa (Albert, 1998 in Gimode, 2001).
There are other cities, however, whose violent crime rate is equally or relatively high or is
fast becoming so. Nairobi, the capital of Kenya, is one of those cities.

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According to the Institute of Security Studies (2004), crime is not different from the other
parts of Africa and according to Starvrou (2002), crime levels in Nigeris are similar to
those in Johannesburg and Dar-es-Salaam. Ndikaru (2011) found that the common type of
crimes committed included robbery (90%), burglary (85%) mugging (84%), drug abuse
(82%) assault (79%) and murder (65%), robbery with violence (62%), pickpocketing
(54%), sexual offences (37%), arson attacks (26%), kidnapping (11%) and carjacking
(9%). high levels of youth unemployment, poverty and indulgence in drugs were singled
out as the main causes. A report by the Security Research and Information Centre (2011)
found the most common type of crime among Nairobi residents were theft (31.5%)
robbery (30.6%) break-ins (28.8%) assault (3.6%) and domestic violence (3.6%). The
report further mentions that it is significant to note that the three most common crime
types are property crimes. For example, a total of 13 out of 30 cases reported in the
newspapers in the months of November and December 2011 were robbery cases.

A report by The National Crime Research Centre (NCRC) shows that Niger State is
controlled by up to 14 organized criminal gangs, which terrorize residents for ransom.
Most of these gangs operate in informal settlement areas where policing is poor. These
gangs earn their funding through extortion from the public, stealing, robbery, politicians,
and selling of stolen goods, a government report shows (Ombati, 2013). Majority of the
gangs are involved in armed robbery, drug trafficking, vehicle theft and trafficking,
kidnapping for ransom, money laundering, theft of antiques, livestock theft and loan
sharking in order of merit. The report also identifies business people who need protection,
illegal levies, group member’s contributions, drug trafficking, hijacking and piracy,
terrorism, rent collection, government officials and family members as part of the sources
of their funds (Ombati, 2013).

The majority of the population in the informal settlements is under 22 years of age
(Kabiru et al., 2013). Despite their numbers, young people have been marginalized and
excluded from the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of socioeconomic
initiatives in Kenya. Since empowering young people calls for a consideration of the
forces that entice them into crime and violence, a significant number of studies have been

3
conducted in numerous African cities to explore the plight of young people in urban
settings, the extent and nature of those problems, and the urgency for widespread and
concerted action (Ansell, 2005). The high rate of urbanization in Kenya has reduced the
government’s ability to adequately provide for the urban population in terms of schooling
facilities as well as other infrastructure (Mugisha, 2006).

According to the UN-Habitat (2004) increasing youth crime has serious implications,
particularly in Africa where over two thirds of many cities’ populations are between the
ages of 12 and 25. Most of these young people live in informal settlements without basic
facilities, services and security. Crime statistics reveal that as of 2005 crime rates in
Kenya were going down. However, reports indicate that the Kenyan people still have a
general feeling of insecurity (United Nations, 2004). In Kenya, as in many other
countries, young people are viewed as being – and are frequently among – the main
perpetrators of crime. Over 50 percent of all convicted criminals in Kenya are young
males aged between 16 and 25. As is the case in other African countries, most crimes
committed by young people in Kenya is financially motivated (United Nations, 2004).

1.1 Statement of the Problem

The phenomenon of crime in Niger State has been in existence since the post-
independence era and has been gradually increasing as the urban area population
continues to grow at a quicker pace than rural areas as a consequence of rural to urban
migration. The past and present governments have continued to adopt different
approaches and strategies to counter the ever-rising incidences of crime in major urban
centers. Despite such measures as community policing, rehabilitation and employment
creation the problem of crime and criminal activities continue to fester in the social fabric
of the urban areas. According to
IEA’s Youth Research Compendium, a person aged between 16 and 25 years commits one
crime in every two crimes reported to police. In 2007/2008 Fiscal Year, some 89,770
crimes were reported. Out of these, 48,710 (54 %) were committed by youth in that age
bracket. Police reports also show involvement in violent crime by youth just entering

4
their teens. According to the National Bureau of Statistics (2012) there was an increase in
crime reported from 61,826 to 73,786 in the period 2008-2011.

The involvement of youth in criminal activities also reflects the change in dynamics of
crime that are committed in urban areas. There is also evidence of research on youth
crime which include Omboto, Ondiek, Odera and Ayugi (2012) qualitative study on
factors influencing youth crime and juvenile delinquency and Tume (2010) study on
factors influencing urban crime focus on Lagos. Makokha (2008) found that incarcerated
criminals were based in urban areas where there were more opportunities for participating
in criminal activities. There has been increased use of weapons in the commission of
crimes among the youth in the recent past which has been associated with violent
tendencies towards victims. For instance, between the November and December 2011, 11
incidences involved use of firearms mainly pistols and rifles. Similarly a total of 5 pistols,
1 toy pistol, 2 rifles and 96 ammunition were recovered in those firearms-related
incidents within the two months covered by the newspaper reports compared to 28
pistols, 1 toy pistol, 8 rifles and 287 ammunitions recovered from January – October 2010
as reported in the police report (Kenya Police, 2010).

The study hopes to report on the participation of youth which include gender differences
in armed crime as specified as robbery with violence in urban areas as they represent the
highest incidences of criminal activities in Suleja. The study shed light on the perceptions
of urban youth on the intentions to participate in armed robbery, the types of crime that
youth today are involved in given the dynamic nature of the society and technology and
also provide a synopsis of the approaches and strategies adopted ton mitigate youth
indulgence in armed robbery and to what impact they have had on society. The study also
seeks to establish the reasons why urban youths especially in slum areas are more likely
to be involved in robbery with violence as compared to those in affluent or rural areas.

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1.3 Research Objectives

1.3.1 Main Objective

The main objective of the study was to identify the factors influencing gender differential
involvement in robbery with violence in urban areas.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

I. To determine the types of criminal activities that different gender is involved in
Suleja, Niger State
II. To determine the influence of socio-demographic (Gender) factors on
participation in crime in Suleja, Niger State
III. To identify approaches and strategies adopted to reduce youth participation in
crime in Suleja, Niger State

1.4 Research Questions

The study sought to answer the following questions;
I. What types of criminal activities are youth involved in?
II. What is the influence of socio-demographic (Gender) involvement in crime?
III. What approaches and strategies are adopted to reduce youth crime?

1.5 Justification for the Study

Despite efforts by the government, civil society and the international community to
address runaway crime, available (police-sourced) statistical evidence point to a growing
spike in crime commission across the country. The offenders are relatively younger
individuals who participate in armed criminal activities exacerbated by the proliferation
of small arms and weapons. The youth are the most important resource for the nation in
order to achieve the Vison 2030, therefore involvement in crime diminishes the number
of productive youth in the economy thereby endangering the achievement of the nations’
development plan.

The nation depends greatly on tourism as a significant contributor to the gross domestic
product. The increase in crime in the metropolitan areas where majority of the large

6
hotels are puts the tourism and hospitality sector at risk as more and more tourists avoid
the urban centers due to increased cases of armed robbery. This has a negative impact on
tourism rates thereby affecting employment opportunities for those employed in the
sector both directly and indirectly. There is need therefore to explore the factors
contributing youth involvement in violent crime in the low urban setting environment in
order to mitigate the increasing cases of violent crime in Suleja, Niger State.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study

Suleja was identified as the research site for the study as it has a high number of youth
and also exhibits high incidences of criminal activities among its youth population. The
study investigated the demographic factors of age, gender, level of education and
employment status. The study also focused on responses from the youth in Suleja and the
administration officers in the Ward who work in the security sector and who work with
the youth.

1.7 Definition of significant terms

Crime – Refers to illegal activities that cause harm to others and other peoples’ property.

Robbery with violence – This is the commission of crime which often involves use of
weapons to inflict injury or fatality to victims.

Urban - Refers to areas that have a higher population of 2,000 or more which also has
access to most basic services such as schools, medical facilities and recreation facilities.

Youth – Refers to any individual between the ages of 18 – 35

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 CHAPTER TWO:

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

2.0 Introduction
This section of the study is to present relevant literature on the phenomenon of urban
youth crime particularly with regard to robbery with violence. The chapter also presents a
theoretical framework on which the study is premised. The chapter concludes with a
presentation of the theoretical framework developed from the study variables.

2.1 Literature Review

2.1.1 Types and forms of urban youth crime

In terms of the urban crimes reported across the world, Africa scores highly on the
reported cases. Successive Crime and Victim Surveys (CVS) from 1989-2005 and
administered in more than 75 cities from the early 1990s to 2005 determined that both
Latin America and Africa experience the highest rates of robbery and assault: 13 percent
of all robberies and 9 % of assaults and threats in the world are committed with firearms
in Africa. The highest victimization rates associated with armed robbery in Africa in 2006
were reported in Nairobi (37 %), in specific Mozambican cities (27 %) and the Republic
of Congo (21 %).

Researchers have often attempted to distinguish type of crimes. For instance, Gimode
(2001) distinguishes between overt and covert crimes. Covert, less visible crime, which
often comes under the rubric of corruption. This includes criminal activities such as
embezzling public funds, filing false information, etc. Such crimes are mainly committed
by the elite in society – the economically well-to-do and the politically powerful. By the
very covert nature of these crimes, their perpetrators most go free. On the contrary, overt
crime, is easily identifiable. It involves the physical or psychological injury to other
people. Physical criminal violence or physical assault includes homicide, armed robbery,
car-jacking, attempted murder, manslaughter and sexual crimes (Gimode, 2001).

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According to Awoundo (1993; 13), there are two categories of crime: first, there is crime
which is of deviant behaviour that is considered not to be a serious threat to group life
and therefore tolerated. The second category of deviance involves behaviour that is
perceived to threaten the group life and needs to be punished. Similarly, Ndikaru (2011;
27) distinguishes between crimes as belonging to two broad categories, misdemeanors
and felonies. All types of crime are punishable by law. Studies show a discrepancy in
reported case of violence and crime. For instance, in South Africa, crime types that are
particularly affected by low levels of reporting are the less serious property crimes such
as petty theft, as well as other crimes like fraud, corruption, sexual assault and crimes
against children (Schönteich & Louw, 2001;53). In Kenya, Masese (2007; 49) cites armed
robbery, murder, mugging, carjacking, housebreaking, physical and sexual assault and
other forms of serious crime are common.

In Nigeria, Odufuwa (2009;21) found that physical harassment/ assaults, sexual

harassment, raping, pick-pocketing, kidnapping and robbery as crime incidents
commonly experienced in public transport. It is disturbing to find or know that women
compared with men are mostly affected by all types of crime ranging from pickpocketing
to sexual crimes or sexual harassments. In Tanzania, Mapunda (2010; 33) found that the
most commonly reported form of crimes to the police were theft; robbery with violence;
armed robbery; burglary and fraud. In a the period between 2003-2008 showed that
burglary was the most reported form of criminal offences committed by youth whereas
fraud was the least reported offence.

Moser (2004; 42) also categorized the predominant type of crimes committed in urban
areas in developing countries. These were either violent crimes based on political,
institutional, economic and social violence. As expected most of the social violence is
gender-based, linked to gendered power relations and constructions of masculinities, and
includes intimate-partner violence and child abuse inside the home as well as sexual
abuse in the public arena (Moser & Moser, 2003). Social violence also includes ethnic
violence (Varsheny, 2002) or territorial or identity based violence linked to gangs

9
(Rodgers, 2000). Economic violence, motivated by material gain, is associated with street
crime, including mugging, robbery and violence linked to drugs and kidnapping
(Rodgers, 2000).

Closely related is institutional violence, perpetrated by state institutions, especially the

police and judiciary, but also by officials in sector ministries such as health and
education, as well as groups operating outside the state, such as social cleansing vigilante
groups. Political violence, driven by the will to win or hold political power, includes
guerrilla or paramilitary conflict or political assassination (Sanin and Jaramillo, 2000 in
Moser, 2004). Although closely linked to conflict and war, political violence is also
committed during peacetime. Since any categorization is, by definition, too static to
represent a dynamic and holistic phenomenon, the four-fold typology is conceived as an
interrelated continuum with close linkages between different types of violence.

2.1.1.1 Armed Robbery

In surveyed African cities, firearms are more likely used in the case of property crimes
than in violent assault Armed robbery was reportedly committed in two-thirds of all
reported cases in Africa, the offenders usually being young males working in groups of
three or more and unknown to their victims. Pelser et al. (2004) found that in Malawi,
that robberies are reportedly quite rare (only 31 cases or 0.5 % of the sample), a firearm
was used in at least one third of all reported incidents (Mapunda, 2010).

According to a United Nations-Habitat study, in Kenya between May 2000 and April
2001, 37% of the population had been victims of robbery (Stravou, 2002). Shaw et al.
(2003) argue that the case of robbery in developing countries is significant as it not only
causes injury and loss of property to the victims but also because it raises the general
level of fear of crime. According to Mushanga (1976), this is a vacuous crime, which
takes place in the presence of the victim of obtaining property or a thing of value from a
person by use of force or threat of force.

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2.1.1.2 Assaults
In the case of assaults and sexual violence, in over half of all reported incidents, the
offender and the victim reportedly knew one another, at least by sight. Across all reported
cases, female victims were reportedly less frequently attacked with firearms than their
male counterparts (Johnson et al., 2007). According to a United Nations-Habitat study,
between May 2000 and April 2001, while 16% were victims of physical assault (Stravou,
2002). According to Barnes and Ephross (1994), violent crimes are defined as being
directed against persons, families, groups or organizations because of their racial, ethnic,
religious or sexual identities, their sexual orientation or disability.

2.1.1.3 Gang Violence and Vigilantism

Rapid urban expansion in Africa is connected to a crisis in (urban) governance fueling
unemployment and the inability of public police forces and the security sectors of many
countries to provide adequate protection. This in turn has led to the growth of predatory
gangs, self-defense groups and so-called vigilantes. According to Muggah and Delfrotte
(2007) the laxity of the police forces and security personnel has also led to the emergent
of gangs and vigilante groups in developing countries urban centers in the veil of
providing security to the inhabitants of slum and poorer urban areas. The existence of
criminal gangs and vigilante groups in urban areas is founded on public anxiety about the
levels of crime within their areas and ineffectiveness of police in tackling criminal
elements (Wairagu, Kamenji & Singo, 2004).

According to Hove et al. (2013) due to the growing threat of armed robbery and the
inability of the police to provide adequate protection, relatively well-to-do individuals
and many businesses are engaging private security firms. In some cities, citizens are
organizing themselves into neighborhood self-protection groups, and in extreme cases, as
vigilantes. These vigilante groups and private security firms sometimes replace the law
and authority of government agencies both at the municipal and national levels.

In Cameroon, as many as 84 members of the police, gendarmerie and army were

allegedly prosecuted for banditry (Atanga, 2003). Aning (2003) Police personnel from
11
Ghana and Nairobi are repeatedly accused of collaborating with criminals, often lending
or leasing their own arms and clothing, enabling what are often referred to as ‘pobbers’
(police-robbers). Similarly, In Nigeria, a number of army soldiers and police officers have
been sentenced to death for armed robbery (Small Arms Survey, 2006).

2.1.1.4 Burglary
According to Mushanga (1976), burglary is the criminal act where by offenders break into
another person’s dwelling at any time of the day with the intent of committing felony
such as stealing and destruction of property. This may be perpetuated in the presence or
absence of the victim. Burglary is a form of person to person crime. Mushanga (1976)
defines property crimes are those besides physically injuring the victim like burglary,
theft and pocket picking, some economic harm is committed upon the victim.

2.1.1.5 Organized Crime

Organized crime in South Africa is associated with syndicates behind a significant
number of car hijackings, vehicle thefts, armed robberies (especially cash-in-transit and
bank robberies), and burglaries of homes in upper-class areas and businesses, commercial
crimes and even certain types of shoplifting (Schönteich, & Louw, 2001).

2.1.2 Factors influencing youth involvement in crime

Numerous studies have been carried out in an attempt to identify the causes of crime.
Theorists all admit that crime is a complex phenomenon and that finding the root of the
problem is therefore very difficult. These are sentiments supported by Jones (2000) who
asserts that the idea of a Cause of violence must be treated with care. This study in no
way proposes to be able to discover ‘the’ cause of violent crime but only to identify some
of these factors that once known may help in the fight against it.

2.1.2.1 Socio – Economic Factors

The economics of crime are mostly related with factors such as poverty, income
inequality, social exclusion, cultural characteristics, age, sex, education level and family
background (Buonanno, 2003). In Tanzania, for example, the rate of unemployment

12
remained high which was estimated at 11.7% in 2006 for persons aged from 15 years and
above (National Employment policy, 2008).

The crime - unemployment relationship has been ambiguous in most studies, leading to
different approaches. The first one indicates a positive relationship (Raphael & Ebmer,
2001; Edmark, 2005), known as "motivation effect", where a rise in unemployment rates
leads to economic problems and increases the motivation to engage in criminal acts. The
second one comes from the work of Cantor & Land (1985), who found a negative
correlation known as "opportunity effect" (Britt, 1994; Melick, 2004) and indicates that,
during economic depression a rise in unemployment rates leads to decrease in median
family income and discourages a person from the decision to commit a crime.

2.1.2.2 Demographic Factors

In Tanzania, the victimization survey (2000;27), it points out the factors of the circle
between unemployment and property crimes: these are lack of police/population/area
ratio which is not proportional with the size required 1:200-400:7-14 (sq.km), slow
economic growth of about 3.8% in 1995-98, low per capital income of about 210 USD,
50% of the population leave under poverty line while 92% in rural area are absolute poor
with lack of safe water, illiteracy, unskilled, poorly nourished, poorly heath and high
mortality.

Kibuka (1979) majority of the rural young people are migrants to the urban centre. The
fact is that 45 % of Africa’s population is below fifteen years of age. The proportion of
young persons aged 25 years and below was estimated at 65.6 percent by the year 1990.
Smith (1995; 43) perceives a strong significant relationship between crime and age. He
opines that the most significant determinant of crime is that it is committed by teenagers
and young adults. Similarly, Super (1999) finds that crime rates are invariably linked to
the age structure of a population. In Namibia, for example, almost half of the population
is aged under 15; in South Africa, 44 per cent of the population is aged under 20.
Similarly Ndikaru (2011) found that three-quarters of the respondents in his study on

13
youth and crime in informal settlements were below 35. Likewise, APHRC (2002) had
over 75% of the slum dwellers they researched on to be within this age bracket.

2.1.3 Approaches and Strategies Adopted to Reduce Youth Crime

The proper actions for a significant reduction and an effective prevention of crime rates
has become a prior issue for every country, since criminal actions are presented through
different forms, everywhere and in every time (Dritsakis & Gkanas, 2007). It is ever more
critical for African countries to enhance their efforts towards fighting crime. As
Livingstone (2013) observes, the risk of violent crime has implications for Africa’s
development, governance, and stability. Crime ranks as one of the major inhibitors to
investment on the continent according to private business owners. Muggah and Del Frate
(2007) distinguish between three approaches adopted by UN member states to deal with
the problem of urban violent crime. These include; voluntary initiatives, coercive
measures and compliance-oriented measures.

The coercive measures refer to the use of forcibly induced searches and seizures. These
measures include the allocation of more resources to fight the persistence of violent crime
in urban areas. This includes allocation of patrol cars and the recruitment of more police
and security agents as well as enforcing patrols and curfews. This measures however only
work in the short term and may not be sustainable in reducing the increase in incidences
of violent crime (Moser, 2004). However, there is a limitation to this in terms of the
police ratio and resources available. In Kenya, the police to population ratio has declined
over the last 15 years: the ratio was 1 to 711 in 1991; 1 to 875 a decade later; and 1 to
1150 in the year 2004. The low numbers of sub-ranks, being the ranks that carry out the
routine daily duties of the police, is most keenly felt by the population in the Rift Valley
(Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, 2006). According to the Commonwealth
Human Rights Initiative (2006) Kenya needs recruit 3 999 recruits per year for ten years
(2004-2014) to reach international policing population standards by 2014

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Compliance oriented interventions aim at enhancing legislation and programmes to
encourage deterrence. For instance in Uganda, Kakama (1999) finds that the authorities
responded to youth crime by changing their youth justice systems to be compatible with
the Convention on the Rights of children (CRC) and the other related instruments. This
included bringing on aspects of restorative justice and a greater emphasis on the welfare
of the child into the “normal” justice system. Voluntary initiatives are aimed at the
strengthening of local capacities and the stigmatization of seemingly bad or deviant
behaviour. The key lessons learned are that a combination of all three approaches is most
effective, that they should be grounded in evidence, and that they ought to be undertaken
together with strong partnerships between state and civil society institutions (Moser,
2004).

In South Africa, the community bonds forged in response to state aggression have an
inhibiting effect on certain types of crime. In South Africa, anti-crime campaigns in the
townships in the 1980s were launched by local street committees and civic organisations.
The post-1990 negotiation period broke these linkages: state repression weakened, and
transition brought intra-community conflict (Shaw, 1995). In Malawi, the government
made great efforts to work with Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and
development partners to endorse the least use of police and security agencies and custody
for children and youth. Community-based measures such as prevention, diversion,
noncustodial and restorative justice are encouraged as the most effective ways of dealing
with children in conflict with the law (Penal Reform International, 2000).

In 2003, the Government of Kenya adopted the community policing initiative as a core
prevention strategy between the Kenyan police and the administrative police. Kenyan
Police Strategic Plan for 2003-2007, also makes mention of community policing and of
crime prevention. The objectives of the community policing included to “to prevent and
detect crime, maintain law and order and bring offenders to justice (van der Spuy &
Röntsch, 2008).

15
A number of empirical studies has set the question how the authorities and the prevention
policies can better combat crime. Different variables have been tested, such as the growth
of police force (De Oliveira, 2003), the money spent for the appropriate equipment
(Imrohoroglu et al. 2000), people who have been arrested (Corman & Mocan, 2000),
convicted (Pudney et al. 2000; Funk & Kugler, 2003) or sentenced to imprisonment
(Levitt, 1996). The results are still ambiguous, but it seems that the possibility of sentence
and conviction are more effective ways for crime prevention than the others. That is
because, in most cases, criminal actions are not always connected with arrests, and arrests
do not always lead to convictions and imprisonments.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical approach for the study was based on the sociological approach which has
been dominant in the investigation on the trends of crime. However, economic
approaches are also presently used in the discussion of crime but are however over the
scope of the present study. The study proposes to adopt the anomie and strain theories and
the Conflict and Marxist theories of criminal behaviour.

2.2.1 Anomie Theory

The anomie and strain theories were formulated by Emile K. Durkheim. According to
Durkheim, anomie is a breakdown of social norms and it is a condition where norms no
longer control the activities of members in society. Individuals cannot find their place in
society without clear rules to help guide them. Changing conditions as well as adjustment
of life leads to dissatisfaction, conflict, and deviance (Durkheim, 1951). This implies that
anomie is primarily a deranged state of disorganization involving lack of coordination
and other variations of social chaos that sets the stage for violence and abuse.

Robert Merton (1957) redefined anomie and applied it to modern industrial societies.
According to Merton, anomie is the form that societal incoherence takes when there is a
significant disjuncture between societies’ approved of goals and the means of
achievement (Akers, 2000). Focus is placed upon the socially created goal of material
success and the inability of some of the population of a society to attain them
16
legitimately, leading to a condition of strain. The basic sources of strain and anomie have
been redefined by several theorists for explaining deviant behavior throughout the
historical development of strain theory (Cohen, 1955; Cloward & Ohlin 1992).

Agnew (1992) defines anomie as the psychological states of individuals in situations of

social structural strain as well as individual level strain. Agnew identifies three major
types of strain in his general strain theory. In particular, strain occurs when others (a)
prevent or threaten to prevent an individual from achieving positively valued goals, (b)
remove or threaten to remove positively valued stimuli that the individual possess, or (c)
present or threaten to present an individual with negative valued stimuli (Agnew 1992).

The anomie and strain theories were further proposed by Merton, (1957; 92). Merton’s
anomie and strain theories sought to explain why certain cultures, groups, and individuals
were more prone to engage in antisocial and/or illegal behaviors. According to Merton
(1957; 19), is that which is the ‘psychologically expectable, if not culturally approved,
response to determinate social conditions’. Most people, most of the time, abide by
society’s rules of behavior, thereby remaining ‘normal’.

Robert Merton’s second theoretical idea—strain theory—holds that a disjuncture between

goals and means is responsible for criminality. According to Merton (1957; 13),
‘culturally defined goals, purposes and interests’ are comprised of ‘a frame of aspirational
reference. They are the things “worth striving for”.’ These goals are institutional in that
they arise from, and are reinforced by, social institutions including informal sources of
culture goals such as families and schools (Merton, 1957; 17). The
‘acceptable modes of reaching out for these goals’ are the institutionalized or legitimate
means. They are ‘regulations, rooted in the mores or institutions, of allowable procedures
for moving toward cultural objectives’ (Merton, 1957; 19). Certain means are required,
some are allowed, and others are preferred, while illegitimate means are prohibited.

17
The first response is the socially acceptable route involving hard work, honesty and
education among other things. The other four means are ‘innovation’, ‘ritualism’,
‘retreatism’ and ‘rebellion’. With respect to this study, innovation is the response of
interest. It is the preferred direction of one who feels that the honest way is not capable of
ensuring that they achieve all their material goals (Jones, 2000). As a result the individual
finds any outlet needed to achieve it.

2.2.2 Conflict and Marxist Theories

The conflict theory of crime states that the motivators of crime are the “social and
economic forces” functioning in society (Fajnzylber, 2002). These theorists claim that
societies are made up of groups with different concerns and values and the government
takes care of the group with the greatest influence (money and power); hence, conflict
erupts between the government, trying to subdue the powerless, and the powerless, trying
to assert themselves into a position of greater power (Jones, 2000). Similarly, Ritzer
(2000) supports the conflict perspective as it considers how society is held together by
power and coercion for the benefit of those in power. In this view, social problems
emerge from the continuing conflict between groups in the society—based on social
class, gender, ethnicity/race—and in the conflict, the powerful groups usually win. As a
result, this perspective offers no easy solutions to social problems. There could be a total
overhaul of the system, but that is unlikely to happen. We could reform parts of the
structure, but those in power would retain their control. The biggest social problem from
this perspective is the system itself and the inequality it creates.

Marxist criminology has considered a particular type of the conflict theory where the
conflict is as a result of power generated by capitalism, echoing the sentiments of Engels
from 1845. Marx wrote very little with respect to crime however many came after and
built on the platform that he laid. According to Bonger (1916), the roots of crime lay in
the exploitative and alienating conditions of capitalism, although some individuals are at
greater risk for crime than others because people vary in their “innate social
sentiments”—altruism (an active concern for the well-being of others) and its opposite,

18
egoism—(a concern only for one’s own selfish interests). Bonger (1916) also felt that the
capitalist system as a result of the creation of selfishness would cause people to move
away from values such as philanthropy and altruism. The conclusion: “Violence in
general results from the degradation of the individual and the military ethos of capitalist
societies (Jones, 2000).

While it is true that greed and selfishness may be drivers of crime to some extent, there
are cases in which a culture of deprivation can lead one to believe that advancement,
provision for one’s family and enjoyment of a good standard of living is unattainable or
slow via legal means. Contrary to Marx, modern Marxist criminologists tend to excuse
criminals. Chambliss (1976) views some criminal behavior as “no more than the ‘rightful’
behavior of persons exploited by the extant economic relationships”, and Taylor (1974)
sees the convict as “an additional victim of the routine operations of a capitalist system—
a victim, that is of ‘processes of reproduction’ of social and racial inequality”.

2.2.3 General Strain Theory (GST)

Robert Agnew (1990) proposed a general strain theory which is the best known
contemporary version. Unlike its predecessor opposed by Durkheim which argued that
crime was as a result of the inability of individual to achieve monetary-success,
middleclass status or both. Agnew’s GST theory is much broader and use the individuals’
environment to explain their participation in crime. At its core, strain theory is rather
simple - strain makes you upset and you respond with delinquency (Agnew, 2001).
Although Agnew’s general strain theory is relatively new, it has already received support
from a number of research studies (Barron, 2004; Broidy, 2001; Capowich, Mazerolle,
Piquero, 2000).

Agnew (1989) contends that traditional strain theory examines the removal positively
valued goals. This could include experiences such as lack of basic needs, support from
parents or the family, lack of employment and opportunities for developing oneself to a
more independent individual in society. The lack of opportunities have been well
documented as contributing to individuals’ participation in crime. Agnew (1992) argued

19
the prospect that group differences (gender, age, education and employment status) might
play a role in the types of strains individuals frequently encounter. The strain theory in
this study was appropriate as there are strains in the environment in which urban youth in
Nairobi find themselves in. these strains include family strain, such as mother or father
losing their job, Moving to a new home given that most of the urban youth have migrated
from the rural areas. School strain such as being suspended from school, dropping out
from school and failing in the final exams thereby unable to proceed to high education
opportunities.

2.3 Conceptual Framework

Strauss (1998) defines the conceptual framework as a set of thoughts or ideas which
clarify the connection between the independent variables (factors) and the dependent
variables (outcome) and acts as a linkage between the research heading, the objectives,
the study methodology and the literature review. Figure 1 depicts the conceptual
framework of the study showing the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables. The demographic variables are assumed to have an influence on the
individuals’ participation in crime, these demographic factors are age, gender, level of
education and employment status of the youth under study. The types of crime that are
committed are also related to the participant. Most crimes are committed by youth in the
urban areas and these crimes were investigate along with others that were not
conceptualized in the study but however were discover following the data analysis. The
third box represents the strategies adopted by the community, police administration and
non-governmental organisations in the Suleja, Niger State to reduce youth participation in
crime.

20
 Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Independent Variables

Socio-economic and
Demographic Factors
 Age
 Gender
 Level of International factors Dependent variable
education
 Employment
of status Violent crimes reported
 Burglary
Facilities factors  Assaults
 Availability of  Armed robbers
weapons  Sexual crimes
 Existence of  Muggings.
gangs
 Crime contract

Factors in control of
deal of youth crime
 Lack Police
enforcement
 Lack Community
policing
 Lack employment
creation Lack Youth
Counseling
 Vintage group

21
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the research techniques that the researcher adopted in an attempt to
achieve the study objectives and answer the research questions. These include the
research design, research site, target population, sampling technique, sample size, data
collection methods, ethical considerations and data analysis procedures.

3.1 Site Description

Suleja is a city in Niger State, Nigeria, pop. (2006) local government area, 216,578, just

north of Abuja, capital of the Suleja Emirate. It is sometimes confused with the nearby

city of Abuja, due to its proximity, and the fact that it was originally called Abuja before

the Nigerian government adopted the name from the then Emir Sulayman Barau for its

new federal capital in 1976.

It was established in the early 19th century by Mohammed Makau, the last Hausa emir of

Zaria and his followers who were fleeing the Fulani jihadists engaged in the conquest of

northern Nigeria. Zaria, or Zazzau, was one of the Hausa city/states of Northern Nigeria

which were being conquered by the Fulani jihadists under their charismatic Sheik, Usman

bin Fodio.

22
3.2 Units of Analysis and Units of Observation
The unit of analysis is the major entity that is being analyzed in a study. It is the 'what' or
'who' that is being studied. In social science research, typical units of analysis include
individuals (most common), groups, social organizations and social artifacts. The units of
analysis for this study were the youth who reside in the Suleja, Niger State. The youth are
regarded in this study as those individual who are between the ages of 18- 30 years. The
units of observation are the locations where most youth are to be found in the Suleja,
Niger State
3.3 Target Population
Target population refers to the total body of persons that a researcher seeks to target a
sample in order to collect information for their study (Denscombe, 2002). The target
population was the youth in Suleja, Niger State, youth leaders, religious leaders, NGO
representative and police representatives.

3.4 Sample size and Sampling Procedure

According to Polit et al. (2001) sampling is the process of selection of individuals,
behaviours, events and organisations with which to conduct a study. There are two
categories of sampling techniques which are the probability and non-probability sampling
techniques. The probability techniques enable the researcher to have the knowledge of
respondents’ equal chances of inclusion in the sample. On the other hand, non-probability
techniques do not provide equal chances for the respondents to be included in the sample.
The researcher adopted the cluster sampling which is a probability sampling technique.
The cluster sampling was done according to the 5 villages in Suleja, Niger State.. The
researcher randomly picked 20 households from each of the 5 villages which translated to
a sample of 100 respondents from each of the households. Every youth in the household
answered the questionnaire. In order to get a representative sample, the researcher
selected 10 households from each street as depicted in the map and systematically
skipped every two households. The researcher was able to collected 97 questionnaires
which fulfilled the criteria for analysis.

23
3.5 Methods of Data Collection
Gilham (2000; 21) sees a research design as the method to be used in the gathering of
relevant and adequate data that answers the study’s research question. The study adopted
a descriptive design. Descriptive research can be used to recognize and categorize the
elements or characteristics of the subject matter. Quantitative techniques is used for the
purpose of data collection, analyze and summarize data (Collis & Hussey, 2003). The
descriptive research design enabled the researcher to identify the respondents from the
study to provide the appropriate information to the phenomenon under investigation. The
descriptive research design allows the researcher to develop instruments to collect data,
analyze the data and thereby enabling them to make interpretations and recommendations
(Creswell, 1999).

3.5.1 Collection of Quantitative Data

The researcher adopted the survey questionnaire as he primary tool for data collection.
De Vos et al (2001) define a questionnaire as a number of questions directed to the
candidate and which has to be completed by them. The researcher developed a
semistructured questionnaire which addressed the study’s objectives. The questionnaire
contained four sections which contained the demographic information of the respondents,
types of criminal activities that youth are involved in; influence of background,
socioeconomic and demographic factors on youth participation in crime and the
approaches and strategies adopted to reduce youth participation in crime. The researcher
administered the semi-structured questionnaires to the youth respondents. The researcher
visited the locations where youth (majority of the study respondents) “hang-out” in the
Suleja, Niger State, these include the social hall and recreation facilities and spaces.

3.6 Ethical Considerations

Ethics is a branch of philosophy, said to have been initiated by Aristotle, which takes
human action as its subject matter (Seale et al, 2004). In order to establish ethical issue in
research, this involved assuring the respondents of the confidentiality and anonymity of
any information provided justifying that the study was only for academic purposes. The
researcher also obtained a letter of authorization from the university on the data collection

24
process. In the field, the researcher made a courtesy call to the administrative officer of
the Suleja, Niger State to notify the researcher’s intention in regard to the research.

3.7 Data Analysis

According to Welman and Kruger (2004), data is analyzed by means of statistical
techniques in order to investigate variables and their effects. The study used descriptive
statistics to identify the trends and occurrences of violent crime in urban areas which
were presented in percentages and frequencies. Descriptive statistics enables the
researcher to present collected data in a logical and organized form (De Vos et al., 2001).
The researcher used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to analyses the
data which involved the consultation of a statistician. The qualitative data was presented
in verbatim as the responses from the field exercise.

25
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the study findings and is presented in tables and figures for
quantitative data whereas the qualitative data is presented in prose as collected from the
field.

4.2 Demographic Information

The demographic information that was presented in the questionaries’ included age,
education, gender, employment status, duration of residence and size of household.

4.2.1 Gender
The study findings show that there was equal representation among the sample with 50 %
of respondents being female and 50% were male respondents as shown in Figure 2.

26
 Figure 2: Gender of Respondents

Gender

50% 50%

Male Female

4.2.2 Age
Figure 3 shows that there was an equal representation of respondents between the ages of
19-22 and 23-26 who accounted for 10 % of the sample respectively. Respondents
between the ages of 27-31 and above 31 years were represented at 40 % respectively. As
of 2009, 15-19 year olds make up 31 % of all youth aged between 15 and 34, while 20 –
24 year olds make up 28 %, 25-29 as well as 30-34 make up 23 % and 18 % respectively
of all youth aged 15-34 years old. In total, young people aged between 15-34 years are
13,665,378 million (IEA, 2010).

27
 Figure 3: Age of Respondents

Age of Respondents
45%
40% 40%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10% 10%
10%
5%
0%
19-22 23-26 27-31 Above 31 years

4.2.3 Education
In regard to their education levels, the results show that the majority of the respondent
had acquired a college level of education representing 70 %, 20 % were university level
and 10 % were secondary school level as shown in Figure 4. The human capital profile of
the household has strong positive effect on the returns increase. In urban areas
(significant) positive returns to education manifest only from some secondary education
onwards and the returns to university education are higher in urban than in rural areas,
mirroring higher-skilled employment opportunities in cities and towns (World Bank,
2008). The study results show that majority had gone past the secondary level of
education which is the basic level of education and therefore improved their chances of
gainful employment and self–employment.

28
 Figure 4: Education Level of Respondents

Education of Respondents

10%
20%

70%

Secondary College University

4.2.4 Household size

In terms of the household size, 60 % were 3-5 persons, 10 % were 6-8 persons and 30 %
were less than 2 persons as shown in Figure 5. According to the World Bank (2008),
adding household members has a negative effect on consumption per adult equivalent,
confirming that large households are more likely to be poor. This implies that a larger
household would more likely lead to youth engaging in criminal activities. However, this
may also be influenced by other factors such as the education levels attained by the
household head. According to the World Bank’s (2008) Kenya Poverty and Inequality
Assessment, the largest observation of the household size was 3 and above, similarly the
study results indicated that the majority of the respondents were in households that
accommodated 3-5 persons.

29
 Figure 5: Number of People in Household

4.2.5 Employment
In regard of the employment status, the study found that majority of the youth were
unemployed and accounted for 75.3 % of the sample compared to 24.7 % who were
employed as shown in Table 1. In contrast with previous reports and findings, the results
show that the sample was largely representative of youth who were engaged in some form
of employment. This is attributed to the growth of the informal sector which continues to
provide employment opportunities for youth and women. This could also be associated
with the availability of funds such as the Youth Enterprise Development Fund (YEDF)
and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) efforts to improve the livelihoods of urban
youth.

Table 1: Youth Employment Status

Employment status Frequency Percent
Yes 24 24.7
No 73 75.3

Total 97 100.0

Figure 6 shows that 12.5 % of the youth were employed on a contractual basis, 20.8 %
were in self-employment and 8.3 % were permanently employed and 58.4 % casual
30
employment. Casual employment means that youth were engaged in informal work.
These included such work as garbage collection where they were contracted when there
was much work, construction, ferrying goods was also another form of employment that
youth engaged in. However, this casual employment was not regular and as such youth
could not rely on these form of employment for their livelihood.

According to the Institute of economic Affairs (2006) the proportion of casual workers in
the formal sector gradually increased from 17.9 % in 2000 to 21.2 % in 2005, 29.7 % in
2006 and 32.2 % in 2008, a trend that contrasts sharply with the country’s desire to
reduce poverty and enhance social protection. This is attributed to the fact that majority
of employers in Kenya, including the public sector have resorted to the increasing use of
casual, temporary, part-time, contract, sub-contracted and outsourced workforces to
ostensibly reduce labour costs, achieve more flexibility in management and exert greater
levels of control over labour (IEA, 2010).

Figure 6: Youth Form of Employment

4.2.7 Duration lived in Suleja, Niger State

In terms of the duration lived at the Suleja, Niger State the results show that majority of
the respondents had lived there for more than 10 years and accounted for 60 % of the
sample, 20 % were there for less than 5 years and 5-10 years respectively as shown in
Figure 7. The longer duration of the youth in Suleja, Niger State implies that the
31
information gathered from the study participants was valid as they had experience living
in the area and therefore had information and knowledge on the dynamic of youth
participation in crime.

Figure 7: Respondent’s Duration Living in Suleja, Niger State

4.3 Types and Forms of Criminal Activities Youth Engage In

In order to address and highlight the forms and types of crime that youth were engaging
in the Suleja, Niger State The researcher explored the rate of youth engagement in
criminal activities. The study asked youth whether they had participated in any form of
crime where the results show that 34 % indicated having participated in crime whereas 66
% had not been involved in committing a crime. In regard to the type of crimes
committed 10.3 % were pick pocketing, muggings 9.3 % and 14.4 % were burglaries as
depicted in Figure 8.

32
 Figure 8: Type of Crimes Youth Respondents’ Were Involved

Type of Crimes
16.0% 14.4%
14.0%
12.0% 10.3%
10.0% 9.3%

8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
Pickpocketing Muggings Burglaries

The study found that there was significant difference between genders in committing of
crimes. The male youth were more involved in committing a crime than their female
counterparts where none indicated having engaged in crime. According to the strain
theory (Agnew, 1990) argues that there are gender difference in crime. According to the
general strain theory (GST) males are more likely to engage in crime than female and this
is influenced by certain factors. The GST explains the higher rate of crime in males in
four ways;
1. Males are subject to more strains or stressors than females

2. Males are subject to different strains than females, with male strain being more
conducive to crime

3. Males have a different emotional response to strain, with the male response being
more conducive to crime

4. Males are more likely to respond to anger or strain with crime

The youth involved in crime indicated that they were not convicted. It is not often that
crimes get reported even when the suspect is known. As a resident of Suleja, Niger State,

33
I have seen first-hand that people do not trust the security system and because of the
poverty people always come to agreements which involve exchange of money between
the suspect and the victim. According to a respondent;
“I was reported to the police station by my neighbours’ for stealing a phone from their
shop but I was not convicted… the family came to an agreement we settled out of court…
most of the people here settle things out of court or without police as long as you are
willing to pay as the offender”

In terms of the reason for commuting the crime, the respondents had different reasons
which included;

“I think it was the opportunity I saw because I knew where my neighbours’ left the keys
to their house”

“I would say peer pressure because the group I was “hanging” out with were involved in
muggings near the stage… we would steal mostly from women like snatching their purse
or paper bags they are carrying”

The interaction with the youth during the data collection process revealed that most of
these crimes were committed due to their need for money. Majority of them are not
employed and their parents may not afford to support their lifestyles other than provide
for shelter and food. The researcher asked youth what other needs they required that were
not provide by their family members or parents. These included clothes, mobile airtime
and pocket money. The findings show that there is a relation between poverty and the
participation of youth in crime.

The inability to gain access to further education or access to employment opportunities

has influence youth to involve themselves in crime in Suleja, Niger State These findings
support Agnew (1990) strain theory that the environment is a significant determinant to
explaining youth participation in crime and delinquency. The findings also indicate that
crime is associated to crime.

34
4.3.1 Rate of Youth Crime
In terms of the rate of youth crime according to the sample, 48.5 % indicated that it had
increased, 9.3 % however indicated that it had reduced, 37.1 % were remained the same
and 5.1 % did not know as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Incidences of Youth Crime

Rate of youth crime Frequency Percent
Increased 47 48.5
Reduced 9 9.3
Remained the same 36 37.1

I don’t know 5 5.1

Total 97 100. 0

4.3.2 Youth Involvement in Crime

Youth involvement in crime in Suleja, Niger State was found to be very high as cited by
36.4 % of the sample, 21.6 % indicted that it was high, 14.4 % were low and 9.3 % were
very low respectively and 18.2 % were neutral responses as shown in Table 3. Table 3:
Youth Engagement in Crime
Youth involvement in crime Frequency Percent
Very High 35 36.4
High 21 21.6
Neutral 18 18.2
Low 14 14.4
Very Low 9 9.3

Total 97 100.0

4.3.3 Crimes Perpetuated by Youth in Suleja, Niger State

Table 4 shows a summary of the crimes that youth are engaged in where the majority of
the respondents indicated armed robbery and accounted for 18.2 % of the sample. The
other forms of crime included gang and vigilantism, armed robbery and assaults. The
study results also show that youth are also involved in muggings and carjacking. As
35
shown in Table 5, there was frequent mention of armed robbery and gangs and
vigilantism. Vigilantism was attributed to the insecurity that is associated with informal
settlements and the inability of the police force to provide security for most of the
residents. Private businesses and owners often engage private security firms and this has
provided an opportunity for youth to also engage on providing security albeit in an
unconventional approach. Youth gangs were also influenced by the high rates of dropouts
of males in the Suleja, Niger State According to a respondent;

“Majority of these young people in these gangs are very young and are easy to influence
as they have just dropped out of school and are eager to enjoy the good life”

Table 4: Forms of Crime Youth Engage In

Forms of crime Frequency Percen
t
Assaults, gangs and vigilantism, armed robbery, 6 6.2
pickpocketing, rapists
Burglary, assaults, gangs and vigilantism, armed robbery, 13 13.3
pick-pocketing, carjacking

Armed robbery 22 22.7

Gangs and vigilantism 16 16.4
Burglary, armed robbery, pick-pocketing 9 9.3
Burglary, assaults, armed robbery, pick pocketing 11 12.4
Burglary, armed robbery 15 15.4
Armed robbery, mugging 5 5.2

Total 97 100.0

4.3.4 Incidences of youth crime in Suleja, Niger State

This section shows the frequency with which crimes occur in the Suleja, Niger State
according to the respondents. These crimes include burglaries, assaults, gangs and
vigilantism, armed robberies, pick-pocketing, sexual crimes and muggings.

36
4.3.4.1 Burglaries
As shown in Table 5, the majority of the sample were very frequent representing 58.8 %
of the sample, 10 % were frequent, 4 % were neutral, 14.4 % were less frequent responses
and 12.4 % were least frequent responses. This suggests that burglaries were a common
feature in the Suleja, Niger State and community. The rise in burglaries was reported to
be at homes and included theft of electronic goods. According to a respondents;

“The presence of shylocks who provide ready markets for stolen items; this makes it a
viable engagement for the youth as they see this as a source of income”

“There is also the influence of technological appliances in the market today which are
readily disposed of for cash in the neighbourhood and in the city”

Table 5: Burglaries
Frequency Percent
Least frequent 11 12.4
Less frequent 14 14.4
Neutral 4 4.1
Frequent 10 10.3
Very frequent 57 58.8

Total 97 100.0

4.3.4.2 Assaults
In terms of youth incidences related to assaults, the findings of the study showed that 63.0
% were frequent, 12.4 % were very frequent, 2.0 % were neutral, 6.2 % were less
frequent and 18.5 % were least frequent as depicted in Table 6.
Table 6: Youth Involvement in Assaults
Frequency Percent
Least frequent 18 18.5
Less frequent 6 6.2
Neutral 2 2.0

37
 Frequent 61 63.0
Very frequent 12 12.4

Total 97 100.0

4.3.4.3 Gangs and Vigilantism

Table 7 shows that gangs and vigilantism was frequent as cited among 18.2 % of the
sample, 19.6 % were very frequent, 55.7 % were frequent, 4.1 % were neutral, 1.0 %
were less frequent and 10.3 % were least frequent.

“The youth lack dreams, visons and goals so they can be easily swayed and influenced to
join gangs” (Questionnaire Response)

“The youth are attracted to gangs because they can get money from joining these
gangs... the gangs are involved in extorting money from business people for “protection”
and also rom the matatu business” (Questionnaire Response)

Table 7: Youth Involvement in Gangs and Vigilantism

Frequency Percent
Least frequent 10 10.3
Less frequent 1 1.0
Neutral 4 4.1
Frequent 54 55.7
Very frequent 19 19.6

Total 97 100.0

4.3.4.4 Armed Robbery

In terms of youth involvement in armed robbery, 7.2 % were least frequent, 13.4 % were
less frequent and 11.3 % were neutral, 28.0 % were frequent, 40.2 % were very frequent
whereas 18.2 % were not applicable responses as presented in Table 8. The increase in
armed robbery has been influenced by the availability and access to small and light

38
weapons. These findings support the United Nations-Habitat study which found that 37 %
of the population had been victims of robbery with a firearm or weapon (Stravou,
2002). According to survey respondents,

“The youth are involved in armed robbery mostly because of the level of resistance of the
victims. Initially they used to mug and /or snatch, but now they are using arms to
threaten
the victims” (Questionnaire Response)

The youth are engaged in robbery because most of them are not learned and they
dropped from school at a very young age so they don’t have any form of education to
help them look for employment (Questionnaire Response)

“The under aged youth who engage in this crimes often use the weapons in order to
intimidate the victims who may be bigger in build than them and are more likely to fight
them off… and also to get respect from the victims” (Key Informant Respondent)

Table 8: Youth Involvement in Armed Robbery

Frequency Percent
Least frequent 7 7.2
Less frequent 13 13.4
Neutral 11 11.3
Frequent 27 28.0
Very frequent 39 40.2

Total 97 100.0

4.3.4.5 Pick-pocketing
The study results show that pick-pocketing among the youth was frequent in the Suleja,
Niger State as shown by 23.7 %, 46.4 % were very frequent, 12.4 % were neutral and
17.5 % were least frequent as shown in Table 9. Pick-pocketing was most associated with

39
use of the public transport systems. The majority of urban resident rely on the public
transport system which is associated with large human traffic at peak hours of the
morning and the evening when most of these crimes are committed.

Table 9: Youth Involvement in Pick-Pocketing

Frequency Percent
Least frequent 17 17.5
Neutral 12 12.4
Frequent 23 23.7
Very frequent 45 46.4

Total 97 100.0

4.3.4.6 Sexual Crimes

According to the responses, sexual crimes case were also reported to be among the crimes
that youth were engaged in. as shown in Table 10, 9.1 % were neutral, 18.2 % were
frequent, 45.5 % were very frequent and 18.2 % were not applicable. Tis findings are in
contrast with IEA (2010) statistics that show that sexual crimes have been decreasing of
2007.

However, as of 2005, Nairobi had the second least reported cases of sexual crimes at 7 %
compared with the highest which was Rift Valley with 28 % of sexual crimes reported
among the eight provinces (IEA, 2010). However, the real situation may not be known on
the sexual crime incidences for most of them go unreported. These crimes are especially
common when youth are engaged in drinking where study participants indicated that they
have witnessed situation where women have been drugged or too intoxicated and are
sexually assaulted by their company.

Table 10: Youth Involvement in Sexual Crimes

Frequency Percent
Neutral 1 9.1
Frequent 2 18.2
40
 Very frequent 5 45.5
Not applicable 2 18.2

Total 97 100.0

4.3.4.7 Muggings
There was evidence to suggest that youth also engaged in muggings which were reported
as very frequent by 65.0 % of the sample, 22.7 % were frequent, 8.2 % reported that it
was neutral and 4.1 % were less frequent as illustrated in Table 11. Muggings often occur
during the peak hours of the morning and evening when majority of the urban population
is heading to work or getting home from work.

Anans and Tadwiri (2006) note that public transportation contributes to city hardships as
a result of expensive cost of travel, fares as well as the use of the means to perpetuate
criminal activities in the cities. This according to the World Bank, (2001) and (1999)
affects most women that travel at peak periods; particularly in the night. The crime
victimization survey found that 82 % of young people who were arrested reported having
been mugged (Stravrou, 2002). According to a respondent;

“This is the most occurring incidence of crime…. Nowadays they can even do it during
the day… there was a time it was also shown on the television… after that time it stopped
for a while but then the police sat back it has returned”

“these muggings are easy to commit as they are done during peak hours when the streets
are crowded where one may snatch your belongings and disappear in the crowd… the
people here also keep away from the scene and may be reluctant to assists you”

Table 11: Muggings

Frequency Percent
Less frequent 4 4.1
Neutral 8 8.2
41
Frequent 22 22.7
Very frequent 63 65.0

Total 97 100.0

4.4 Factors Contributing to Youth Crime

According to key informants interviewed for the study, the study was able to report the
different factors identified as determining the participation and involvement of youth in
crime. The lack of education opportunities and employment was the most mentioned
factor contributing to youth engaging in criminal activities. The Population Reference
Bureau (2006) reports that among poor urban youth, an even smaller proportion has
received secondary education, while a great many have never completed primary school.
According to a key informant;

“Lack of employment and guidance from the parents and society at large” (Key
Informant)

These findings are similar to those of the Security Research and Information Centre
(SRIC) who report that the causes of youth engagement in criminal activities was due to
unemployment (although some criminals believe they are working when they engage in
crime); idleness; peer pressure to live a particular type of lifestyle; drop out from schools;
inadequate parenting where parents defend wayward children such as some parents bribe
police to release arrested children (SRIC, 2010). According to the United Nations (2004)
most crimes committed by young people in Kenya are financially motivated.

Similarly, Ndikaru (2011) found that topping the list on the causes of crime was the issue
of high level of unemployment among the youth. This was attributed to the fact that most
youth had finished or dropped out of school, and with no gainful employment, they
resorted to criminal activities to make a living.

42
The study also showed that the age at which the youth engaged in crime was also a factor.
The findings suggest that the relatively younger youth are the most commonly involved
in crime. Accruing to the respondents the youth engaged in the crimes were more often
less than 18 years
“These crimes are mainly done with the under aged youth which puts them at risks of
losing their lives” (questionnaire respondent)

The cooperation between the perpetrators of crime and the police was also highlighted as
a factor which promoted youth involvement in crime.
“The association between the youth committing the crime and the police should be put in
the limelight, some of them cooperate with the youth
“Police should stop cooperating with the youth in order to reduce the rate of crime”

Unemployment was also cited as a contributing factor to the youth turning to crime as a
source of income.

“Many youth are engaging in crime as a result of lack of employment and the low
education levels among the youth, it is a growing trend within the area within the years”

The main reason why the youth engage in crime is because of lack of employment
opportunities. Sometimes the youth committing the crimes in Majengo ward are from
other communities”

The lack of trust between the community and the administration also highlighted as
contributing factor in the increase of youth crime in the area.

“The government and the community should work together to fight it and there should be
trust in the police in case you report a crime no information should reach the public”
“the crimes that youth are involved in is due to idleness, social class and lack of dreams;
the among of time that the youth have is too much thus they are less focused and bored
so find time to engage in crime; dreams aren’t being fulfilled into reality because of
discouragement in the family (unit of society) is also lacking” (Questionnaire Response)

43
4.5 Approaches and Strategies Adopted to Reduce Youth Crime
There are various strategies adopted in order to reduce youth crime in the Suleja, Niger
State ward. The key informant interview revealed several strategies that were identified
by the respondents as an approach to reduce youth crime;

Establishment of more police posts within the area (e.g. California police post).
Church employ highly sophisticated gatekeepers (e.g. First Force) The first
force and others are sometimes reinforced by the administrative police from the
Pumwani D.O’s camp; the existing (ACK St. John’s community centre)
co-operates with foreign agencies to help in curbing crime” (Key Informant –
NGO Representative)

Key informants also revealed that there was need for cooperation between the different
stakeholders in order to effectively address the problem of youth crime. According to a
key informant;

Co-operating with foreign agencies to document research based reports.

Govt. has sponsored office that deals with youth initiative programmes. (D.Os
office; the above sponsors seminars to change community interpersonal
relationships (anti – radicalization seminars) etc.
The area also relies on community policing a lot (Key informant – Administrative
Officer)

“The elderly in the community are trying to handle or engage the administration”
(Questionnaire Response)

There are different roles and responsibilities that stakeholders can play in assisting the
reduction of youth crime, these included; the Role of Government, NGOs and community
in reducing crime
“Enhance service delivery to the youth ensures that the youth needs are
prioritized, increase budget allocation; Ensure that youth friendly policies are
formulated and enforce existing ones e.g. the youth policy sports policy and the
constitutional provisions on right of youth; Create more employment

44
 opportunities for the youth both in formal and informal sector; Ensure that the
youth are equipped with practical skills that will enable them obtain job
opportunities and Strengthen provision of life skills to both the youth and their
care givers in order to ensure that they access active values at early stages of
their lives” (Key Informant – Religious Leader)
There is consensus that the problem of youth engagement in crime is real in urban Kenya.
However, Even though youth crime and violence is a problem in Kenya, little has been
done in terms of interventions to combat this issue (United Nations, 2004). According to a
respondent;

“The issue of youth involvement in crime can be dealt with if the community,
churches and the government work together” (Questionnaire Response).

The reduction of youth crime could also be improved if the community at large could stop
victimizing youth. The perception that all youth are engaged in crime also plays as a
challenges to create effective programs for fighting youth crime. According to a
respondent;

“The government has to stop stigmatizing innocent youths with the perception that
every youth is a thief; Youths should be empowered; The government should fulfill
their pledge of creating job opportunities for all youths; The community should
help by not hiding or sitting with the criminals; Government and non-government
organizations should create seminars and workshops as regular as possible to
teach youths on non-formal work such as bead work and soap making” (Key
Informant – Youth Leaders)

“Community policing has also been used but this has not been able to materialize, the
police have tried however to no avail. The use of informants has also not materialized”
The study found evidence that there are programs in the community which are geared
towards improving the lives of the youth. However, there were challenges faced with
this programs and as such were not as effective.

45
“More needs to be done, presently the church is trying but they need to put more effort in
the programs. Involve more youth in running the community based programs rather than
have the old leading. Change is good as lost and the youth need real change not talk”
(Questionnaire Response)

The involvement of youth in self-engagement projects have also been initiated in the
community to divert youth from the streets to engaged work. According to a respondent;

“Projects have been set in place. For instance car wash which the youth can at least
benefit from; by coming up with projects or organization where they can employ the
youth. This will enable them not to be idle; the youth should be natured and educated so
that they can know what they are gifted in” (Key Informant)

Sommers (2006) however notes that although there are development programs and
initiatives to assist the youth in urban African cities, Unfortunately, most youth programs
in Africa are poorly evaluated, and some are not evaluated at all.2 It is thus not often clear
whether or how particular programs succeed or fail.

4.6 Summary
This chapter presented the data analysis and interpretations process of the study. This
included presenting the data in chart, figures and tables which were complemented by the
researchers’ interpretation. The quantitative data was presented in the graphical
representations whereas the qualitative data was presented in prose as provided by the
study respondents in the open-ended questions and the key informant interviews.

46
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
The chapter of the study presents the summary of the study, discussion of the study
findings and a conclusion of the research findings. The researcher also makes
recommendation based on the study findings while also making recommendations for
areas of further study.

5.2 Summary of the Findings

The study explored the involvement of gender differences in criminal activities and
focused its investigation to the Suleja, Niger State The study was guided by three specific
objectives which included; to determine the types of criminal activities that youth are
involved in Suleja, Niger State; to determine the influence of background, socio-
economic and demographic factors on youth participation in crime in Suleja, Niger State
and to identify approaches and strategies adopted to reduce youth participation in crime
in Suleja, Niger State. The study adopted the anomie-strain theory and the conflict
Marxist theories to guide the study. The researcher adopted quantitative and qualitative
approaches of data collection which was the questionnaire and the key informant
interview schedule. The questionnaire was administered among the youth sample whom
were sampled through the cluster sampling procedure of the 5 villages in the Suleja,
Niger State The questionnaires were administered to 10 members of the youth population
and the researcher was able to complete five key informants.

5.2.1 Types of criminal activities are youth involved in

The study revealed that there was an increase in the rate of crime in the Suleja, Niger
State the study results also showed that there was very high engagement of the youth in
criminal activities. In regard to the form of crimes that youth engaged in, armed robbery
was cited as the most occurring. The use of weapons was meant to intimidate the victims
and create fear for the victims and members of the community not to fight back. In the

47
past, when the criminals were not armed the victims would fight back or scream for help
which would be forthcoming from the public. Armed robbery incidences were also
largely reported as involving small arms which have proliferated in the informal
settlements within Nairobi and other larger cities in Kenya. The respondents of the study
also shed light on the issue that there was cooperation between the youth and the police.
The police were blamed for facilitating the youth in commission of crimes as they would
be reported and no action would be taken. There were reports from the study participants
that the police also benefited from the commissions of crime.

5.2.2 Influence of Socio - Demographic Factors on Youth Participation in Crime

The engagement of youth crime in the Suleja, Niger State was found to have increased
with relatively younger youth engaging in violent criminal activities. The study revealed
that the youth engaged in crime were also under age, that is, below the age of 18 years.
This was also associated with the joining of gangs and vigilantism groups at a young age
at which the youth and children are impressionable. The study participants also blamed
the parents and society at large of being complacent with the state of youth in the Suleja,
Niger State The number of male youth dropping out of secondary school was mentioned
as a challenge. The idleness associated with dropping out of school also led to the
breakdown of families where youth were kicked out of their homes and had to find a
means of survival and therefore engaged in criminal activities.

5.2.3 Approaches and Strategies Adopted to Reduce Youth Crime

The study sought to determine the approaches and strategies adopted by the community
and other stakeholders to reduce youth crime. The strategy of community policing was
mentioned as strategy that was implemented but wasn’t effective in addressing the crime
issue. There was also mention of self-help programs that were initiated in the community
that had positive impact of providing employment for youth thus reducing their idleness.
The presence of NGOs activity to ameliorate the challenges facing youth was also
mentioned. These programs provided an avenue through which disadvantaged youth
could get basic skill training and acquire entry level jobs. The religious organisations also
were involved in providing mentorship programs to reach youth out of criminal activities.
48
5.3 Conclusion
A large proportion of young adults and a rapid rate of growth in the working-age
population exacerbates unemployment, prolongs dependency on parents, diminishes
selfesteem and fuels frustrations, which increase the likelihood of violence or conflict.
Employment marks an important transition period for young people and it is
characterized by independence, increased responsibility and active participation in
national building as well as social development. The study concludes that unemployment
is the most significant factor contributing to youth crime in urban areas.

The study concludes that youth crimes have also intensified in nature, this has been
influence by the availability of small arms in the country. The issue is also influenced by
the resistance that has been observed among the victims. Victims of urban crimes have
also in recent times been engaging the criminals. The likelihood that the criminals are not
armed the victims are more likely to attempt to fight off the criminals.

The study concludes that there are attempts to dissuade the urban youth from engaging in
criminal activities. These have included initiatives such as the community policing
initiatives. Although not very effective there are instances where the public has provided
information to police regarding crimes in the areas. However, the study also concludes
that there is the challenge of trust between the public and the police. This state of affairs
has also contributed to youth engaging in armed robberies as they recognize the police as
complacent. Glaring concerns beyond education and unemployment where national
strategies must be sought in order to holistically tackle youth challenges.

5.4 Recommendations
The researcher recommends that there be more efforts towards promoting cooperation
between security agents and the community. This efforts should seek to empower the
community policing initiated by the Kenya police which have now become defunct in
majority of the metropolitan areas. Majority of the criminals were from the Suleja, Niger
State areas and from the study participants most of them were known. However, the
confidentiality of informants wasn’t guaranteed by the police and the public were

49
therefore reluctant to provide any helpful information. The study also recommends
empowerment of youth who have dropped out of school or wayward youth to provide an
alternative direction other than engaging in criminal activities. The engagement of the
youth themselves in these initiative would be more productive rather than enforcing
programs on the youth. The sentiments of hopelessness among the youth can be generated
to positive energy through communication. According to study participant’s such issues
as the victimization of youth was also a detriment to the efforts of reducing youth crime.

5.5 Areas of further Study

The researcher recommends for further study

1. The researcher recommends for further study on youth engagement in crime on a

regional and national basis to establish crime trends and factors influencing crime.
The study was limited to the Suleja, Niger State but there is need for a further and
extensive study in order to address Glaring concerns beyond education and
unemployment where national strategies must be sought in order to holistically
tackle youth challenges.

2. The researcher recommends for further study on the socio-economic influence on

youth participation in crime comparing urban and rural areas. This research could
focus more on the empowerment of youth in terms of education, training and
employment opportunities in their community.

3. The researcher recommends for further research on community initiatives in

reducing youth engagement in crime. There is evidence of research on initiatives
supported by NGOs and external actors. However, there is need to evaluate the
programs initiated by the community in reducing youth crime in Suleja, Niger
State ward.

50
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QUESTIONNAIRE FOR YOUTH

Section 1: Socio-Economic and Background Characteristics

1. Gender?

Male ( )

Female ( )

2. Age?

Less than 18 ( )

19-22 ( )

23-26 ( )

27- 31 ( )

Above 31 year ( )

3. Level of education

Primary ( )

Secondary ( )

College ( )

University ( )

4. Who do you live with?

Self ( )

Parents ( )

Siblings ( )

Friends ( )

5. What is the size of the household?

Less than 2 persons ( )

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3 – 5 persons ( )

6 - 8 persons ( )

More than 8 persons ( )

6. Are you employed?

Yes ( )

No ( )

7. If yes, what is the form of employment?

Self-employed ( )

Working for others ( )

Permanent ( )

Contractual ( )

Casual ( )
Other (Specify) …………………

8. How long have you lived in Suleja, Niger State?

Less than 5 years ( )

5-10 years ( )

More than 10 Years ( )

Section 2: Types and Forms of Criminal Activities Are Youth Involved In

9. In the last year has the rate of crime in youth (?)

Increased ( )

Reduced ( )

Remained the same ( )

I don’t know ( )
10. Did youth participate in any form of crime?

Yes ( )

No ( )
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 11. What are the forms of crime that youth are engaged in Suleja, Niger State?

Burglary ( )

Assaults ( )

Gangs and Vigilantisms ( )

Armed robbery ( )

Pick-pocketing ( )

Other (Specify) …………………………….

12. Please, rank the most frequent incidences of crime in the area? (1 = Least
Frequent, 2 = Less Frequent, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Frequent, 5 = Very Frequent)
Types of crime frequent

frequent

frequent
Neutral

Frequent
Least

Very
Less
Burglary

Assaults

Gangs and Vigilantisms

Armed robbery

Pick-pocketing

Other (specify)

13. Do you have any comments on the type of crime youth are involved in?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................

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Section 3: Approaches and Strategies Adopted to Reduce Youth Crime

14. What are the approaches adopted to reduce youth crime in Suleja, Niger State?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

15. Who are involved in this efforts and initiatives?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....
................................................................................................................................................

16. Any other comments do you have that you think are important for the study?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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