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Low-Voltage Power System Surge Overvoltage Protection: Dev Paul, Senior Member, IEEE

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Low-Voltage Power System Surge Overvoltage Protection: Dev Paul, Senior Member, IEEE

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Siti Siti
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 37, NO.

1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2001 223

Low-Voltage Power System Surge


Overvoltage Protection
Dev Paul, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—The unpredictable threat of transient overvoltages is switching frequencies and switched-mode power supplies, used
ever increasing in today’s low-voltage power supplies for every as- for their greater efficiencies contribute to noise. The ever in-
pect of industry. To calculate the magnitude, duration, and energy creasing application of silicon-controlled-rectifier (SCR)-based
of such transient overvoltages is not an easy task. Some loads are
becoming very sensitive to such overvoltages, thereby creating a power circuits and capacitors do contribute to the noise problem
challenge for the application engineer to design a reliable power for their own control systems.
supply system. To apply surge overvoltage mitigation devices re- Transient overvoltages are harmful to sensitive control
quires technical knowledge to understand their application limita- circuits and should be suppressed by application of transient
tions and configuration within a power system. Technical overview voltage surge suppressors (TVSSs). However, the problem is
of fundamentals of transients and associated noise is presented.
The importance of understanding applicable UL, IEEE, and IEC to quantify the magnitude, duration, and energy parameters of
Standards, and thorough review of manufacturers’ data on tran- the surge for proper evaluation to select TVSS devices. This
sient voltage surge suppressors (TVSSs) is included. TVSS testing paper provides a fundamental overview of transient surge and
requirements per the second edition of UL 1449 is presented. An associated noise in low-voltage power distribution systems.
overview of how to design a low-voltage power supply system to The TVSS application approach is included to help design
suppress transient overvoltages is included.
engineers in the selection of proper transient surge-suppression
Index Terms—Electromagnetic compatibility, electromagnetic devices.
interference, metal-oxide varistor, noise, spikes, surges, transient
voltage surge suppressor.
II. ELECTRICAL SURGES AND NOISE
I. INTRODUCTION Electrical noise generated within the facility by transient
surges corrupts low-voltage power supplies. In discussing the
V OLTAGE transients are brief and unpredictable. These
two characteristics make it difficult to detect and measure
them. Considerable work is in progress and much data is now
characteristics of transient surges and associated noise, it is
helpful to understand other related terms.
available from the power quality group to better understand
these transients [1]. Low-voltage power supply systems are A. Definitions—Noise and Noise-Related Terms
getting more disturbed in terms of power quality issues.
1) Noise can be defined as any form of electromagnetic en-
The switch-mode power supplies used for equipment such
ergy other than the desired signal and its harmonic com-
as fax machines, printers, variable-frequency drives (VFDs)
ponents.
for energy-efficient heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
2) Transients are the momentary amplitude changes in
(HVAC) systems, elevators, escalators, electronic ballasts, etc.,
voltage or current or both;
and a great percentage of other loads are becoming nonlinear.
3) Surge is a term for either high-voltage noise or long-du-
Such loads generate current harmonics, leading to distorted
ration transients.
voltage. In addition to this distorted voltage, the switching and
4) Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is the impairment of
lightning surges propagating through the distribution system
a desired electromagnetic signal by an electromagnetic
lead to transient overvoltages.
disturbance such as noise. Since noise-related EMI often
Both analog and digital circuits use complex solid-state com-
occurs in the radio frequency range of 10 kHz to 30 MHZ,
ponents in today’s control systems and are inherently suscep-
the term radio frequency interference (RFI) is often used
tible to damage or malfunction from the electrical surges. The
instead of the general term EMI;
current trend toward more performance in smaller size has it-
5) Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is a device’s capa-
self contributed to the noise problem. Digital circuits with high
bility to perform its intended function within a given elec-
tromagnetic environment without adversely affecting or
Paper ICPSD 00–03, presented at the 2000 IEEE/IAS Industrial and being adversely affected by other devices sharing that en-
Commercial Power Systems Technical Conference, Clearwater Beach, FL, vironment;
May 7–11, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Power Systems Protection Committee of the 6) Electromagnetic environment is a set of conditions char-
IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted for review May 12, acterized by: 1) the presence of one or more kinds of dis-
2000 and released for publication July 26, 2000. turbance, energy, rise time, frequency, duration, and am-
The author is with EARTH TECH, Oakland, CA 94612-3060 USA (e-mail:
[email protected]). plitude of disturbance and 2) the effect that these distur-
Publisher Item Identifier S 0093-9994(01)00283-3. bances have on equipment within the environment.
0093–9994/01$10.00 © 2001 IEEE
224 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 37, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2001

Fig. 4. Voltage spikes.


Fig. 1. Common-node (CM) noise.

Fig. 5. Oscillatory decaying disturbances.


Fig. 2. Normal-mode (NM) noise.
5) Voltage or Current Spikes (Impulses): They are called
fast transients due to their fast rise times in the order of 1
ns–10 s. They occupy a broad frequency spectrum from
4 kHz to 5 MHz, occasionally reaching 30 MHz. A typ-
ical duration is within 100 ns–150 s. Voltage reaches
150% or more of the peak nominal line voltage. They
may occur in bursts lasting for as long as one cycle of
line voltage (see Fig. 4).
6) Oscillatory Decaying Disturbances: These disturbances
have a frequency range of 400 Hz–5 kHz or more (see
Fig. 5).
7) High-Voltage Surges: These range upwards from 2000
V. A typical amplitude of surges at a 120-V receptacle
is between 100–500 V. In very rare circumstances, the
magnitude reaches 4000–6000 V. The upper limit results
because sparkover (arcing between the conductors) will
occur at about 6000 V, at the distance between the ter-
Fig. 3. Normal-mode (NM) noise on primary winding transformed into
common-mode (CM) through distribution transformer. minal blocks of the indoor power system supply rated at
240 V.
8) Broad-Band Noise: The spectral characteristics of
B. Modes of Noise
a noise waveform dictate the frequency attenuation
Various modes of noise and their characteristics are defined requirements of a noise protection device. The shorter
as follows. the rise time of a noise pulse, the broader is the band of
1) Common-Mode Noise: The term “common” indicates energies that must be attenuated. Voltage spikes contain
that the noise signals on each of the current-carrying a power spectrum of broad frequency range and are
conductors are in phase and equal in magnitude. Thus, considered broad-band noise.
a voltage signal is not generated between these conduc- 9) Narrow-Band Noise: Such noise has much lower fre-
tors. The common mode is also known as the longitu- quency content than broad-band noise, in the less than
dinal mode (see Fig. 1). 1-MHz frequency range.
2) Normal-Mode Noise: This is defined as the noise 10) Attenuation of Common-Mode Noise: Power trans-
appearing between the current-carrying conductors. It formers do not transform high-frequency signals in
is also known as transverse-mode, differential-mode, the same way as they do 60-Hz power. To high-fre-
metallic-mode, or symmetrical RFI (see Fig. 2). quency transients, the transformer is nothing more
3) Normal-to-Common-Mode Transformation: than a network of capacitance and iron-core reactance.
Common-mode noise is more troublesome than The iron core of the transformer cannot respond to
normal-mode noise. Noise is always transmitted the high frequency and, thus, becomes a negligible
through a distribution transformer as common-mode factor. In some applications, the use of an isolation
noise, regardless of the mode in which it was generated transformer or a shielded transformer is effective to
(see Fig. 3). attenuate the common-mode noise, which otherwise
4) Low-Voltage Noise: Noise with peak voltage less than could disturb the performance of sensitive equipment.
2000 V is considered low voltage. In the case of an isolation transformer, the degree
PAUL: LOW-VOLTAGE POWER SYSTEM SURGE OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION 225

Fig. 6. Attenuation of common-mode noise through isolation transformer.

Fig. 7. Attenuation of common-mode noise through shielded transformer. *In some locations, sparkover of clearances may limit
the overvoltages.

of attenuation depends upon the relative magnitudes Fig. 8. Rate of surge occurrences versus voltage level at unprotected locations
for different exposures.
of transformer inter-winding capacitance and
winding-to— ground capacitance (see Fig. 6).
In the case of a shielded transformer, the introduction III. CAUSE OF SURGES AND NOISE
of a grounded shield between the windings results in
much better attenuation to common-mode transients. The various causes of surge overvoltage and associated noise
The electrostatic charge around the primary winding is are well documented.
conducted to ground by the shield before it can induce 1) Lightning: Lightning can produce various modes of noise
voltage into the secondary winding. The small amount and transient disturbances as follows:
of coupling of the electrostatic field around the shield • lightning and common-mode noise;
is generally called “effective capacitance” and is • lightning-induced electrostatic coupling;
much smaller than the inter-winding capacitance • lightning-induced magnetic coupling;
of an unshielded transformer (see Fig. 7). • lightning-induced conductive coupling;
11) One or more of the following parameters can charac- • lightning and normal-mode noise.
terize noise distortion: 2) Power-Factor-Correction Capacitors: Oscillation fre-
• single impulses or oscillatory signals; quencies are in the range of 1–20 kHz.
• rise and/or fall times; 3) Power System Switching: Included are fault-clearing de-
• duration; vices and load switching and electronic switching de-
• rate of repetition; vices.
• amplitude; 4) Lighting Exposure and Surge Intensity: The probability of
• frequency. surge voltage exceeding specific peak values is related to
The attenuation is generally described in decibel (dB) units. the levels of lightning exposure, as shown in Fig. 8 [12].
The logarithmic relationship of dB to attenuation in volts or am-
peres is shown by IV. WAVE SHAPE OF SURGES
Working groups of IEEE and IEC Standards have developed
dB or dB (1) different standard surge waves for testing TVSS devices meant
for outdoor and indoor application locations to the low-voltage
Thus, 60 dB could be stated as power distribution system [16].
1) Outdoor: Combo Wave—1.2/50 s voltage wave and
8/20 s current wave are predominant at the service
resulting in:
entrance outdoor location. However, lightning discharges
226 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 37, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2001

TABLE I
LOCATION CATEGORIES

Fig. 9. Test waveforms as described by ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1991 [16].

induce oscillations, reflections that ultimately appear as


decaying oscillations in a low-voltage power system.
2) Indoor: Ring Wave—A surge impinging on the system
excites the natural resonant frequencies of the conductor
system. As a result, not only are the surges typically
oscillatory, but also may have different amplitudes and
wave shapes at different places in the low-voltage power
system. These oscillatory frequencies of surges range
from 5 to more than 500 kHz. Based upon such conclu-
sions, a Ring Wave, 0.5 s with 100 kHz which rises in
0.5 s, then decays while oscillating at 100 kHz, each
peak being 60% of the preceding peak. Such waves are
depicted in Fig. 9.

V. SURGE ENERGY AND SOURCE IMPEDANCE


Fig. 10. Power quality pyramid-relative cost.
There is a lack of definite data on the duration, waveform, and
source impedance of transient overvoltages in ac power circuits.
These three parameters are important for estimating the energy
VI. SURGE SUPPRESSOR DEVICES
that a transient can deliver to a suppressor. The impedance pre-
sented by a source of energy to the input terminals of a device The majority of the power quality problems in the
or network is defined as the source impedance. Because of the low-voltage distribution system are being solved by the
wide range of possible source impedance and the difficulty of application of TVSSs and their combinations with other
selecting a specific value, three broad categories of building noise-filtering devices. TVSSs go by a variety of names
locations as defined in Table I [17] have been considered for provided by individual manufacturers, creating a challenge for
the application of surge suppressors in the low-voltage power the power system designer for proper selection and application.
system. The degree to which the source impedance is impor- In the low-voltage power distribution system, series-connected
tant depends largely on the type of surge suppressors that are TVSSs are available, however, such devices carry normal
used. The surge suppressors must be able to withstand the cur- current continuously and need to have short-circuit withstand
rent passed through them by the surge source. capability without creating a dangerous situation. Increased
Source impedance should not be confused with the surge application demand of TVSSs to solve power quality problems
impedance. Surge impedance is the concept relating to the in general is dedicated by the relative cost of such devices as
parameters of a line to the propagation of the traveling wave, compared to other devices shown in the power quality pyramid
for the low voltage wiring system it may be in the range of (see Fig. 10).
150–300 . Broad categories of TVSS devices are defined as follows.
Clamping surge protective devices work only if there is a fi- 1) Clamps: A metal-oxide varistor (MOV) has high-energy
nite source impedance [15]. absorption capability and response time of nanoseconds
Demarcation between location Categories B and C is arbi- 2) Crowbar: Gas tubes do not response quickly; transient
trary, taken to be at the main meter or at the main disconnect may occur faster than the device can respond.
or at the secondary of the service transformer if the service is 3) Hybrid: These devices may be considered as a combina-
provided to the user at a higher voltage. tion of an MOV and a Crowbar.
PAUL: LOW-VOLTAGE POWER SYSTEM SURGE OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION 227

4) Sine-Wave Tracking: New technology tracks the ac sine tablish the roadmap for analysis and solution to the problem of
wave; this enables response to minor spikes and transients voltage transients and associated high-frequency noise.
that may pass through other categories of protection de-
1) Develop a complete one-line diagram of the low-voltage
vices.
power distribution system showing main transformer,
5) Others: These include data/signal/telephone TVSSs and
main switchboard, subpanels, feeders distribution trans-
noise-filtering devices [15].
formers, type of loads, and metering devices at each
panel. Show control, data communication, and other sen-
VII. SURGE SUPPRESSOR TEST REQUIREMENTS
sitive loads at appropriate locations throughout the fa-
The second edition of UL Std. 1449 [9] has important changes cility in one— line representation (see Fig. 11).
affecting the test requirements for safety and performance of 2) Review the utility company incoming primary power
permanently connected TVSS products. This edition includes source grounding method and configuration in order to
the "end of life" mode testing, which could result in damage to select proper primary surge arrester to be located at the
products from a large surge event, a sustained overvoltage such primary side of the main power transformer.
as a loss of neutral, or installation error such as improper bonding 3) Establish an equipment layout sketch indicating
or misoperation. MOV element of TVSS can cause a short circuit raceway and wiring types, configuration, and approxi-
condition when its goes into a thermal runaway condition. If not mate lengths.
properly contained, equipment damage may result. 4) Review grounding, bonding, and shielding provisions of
The TVSS must pass the following tests without the evidence the distribution system as needed for equipment protec-
of risk of fire or electric shock [9]. tion, personnel safety, and high-frequency shielding of
1) Overvoltage: The TVSS must withstand 110% of rated data and control systems [6], [7].
voltage for seven hours. 5) Establish maximum continuous operating voltage at
2) Abnormal Overvoltage, Full Phase Voltage—High Cur- each main power distribution panel based upon the
rent: The TVSS must withstand 25 kA at full phase utility voltage regulation and the effect of the trans-
voltage of 208 V for 120 V and 480 V for 277 V. The former taps, if any.
overvoltage is applied for seven hours. 6) Perform three-phase and single-phase short-circuit anal-
3) Abnormal Overvoltage, Full Phase Voltage—Limited Cur- ysis to establish maximum expected short-circuit cur-
rent: The TVSS must withstand5 A (also 2.5, 0.5, and0.125 rent at all critical locations within the power distribution
A) at full phase voltage of208 V for 120 V and 480 Vfor277 system where TVSSs are to be applied.
V. The overvoltage is applied for seven hours. 7) Review facility site in association with configuration of
4) Voltage-Limiting Test and Duty Cycle (Pulse Life) Test: power distribution system and loads to determine the de-
The test is performed for L-L, L-N, L-G, and N-G con- gree of outside transient surge exposure as well as the
nections of TVSS subjecting an impulse surge of 6 kV internal switching surge propagation [3], [12].
and 0.5 kA, limiting voltage is measured and recorded. 8) Analyze power distribution system design for possible
The device is then subjected to ten consecutive 6-kV and ferroresonance condition which could lead to failure of
3-kA positive impulses at 60-s intervals, and ten consec- surge arresters [13].
utive 6-kV and 3-kA negative impulses at 60-s intervals. 9) For each location, establish the TVSS category type, pro-
Following the duty cycle test, the TVSS is subjected to an- tection modes, high-frequency noise-filtering require-
other 6 kV and 0.5-kA impulse and the limiting voltage ments, and the means of connection to the equipment
is measured and recorded. The average of the limiting that needs surge protection.
voltage test is to fall within the minimum suppressed 10) Establish TVSS local or remote monitoring require-
voltage ratings and is not to exceed the suppressed voltage ments.
rating by greater than 10%. 11) At Category A locations, make analysis of the choice
5) Surge Current Test: This test is designed to qualify each between the series-connected or the parallel-con-
device to withstand a standard Category C3 transient. The nected TVSS devices. This may require reviewing the
device must withstand two consecutive (one positive and problem with the equipment vendor to assure proper
one negative) 6-kV and 10-kA surge impulses (C3). After application.
testing, the device must stay connected to the service at 12) Review design of grounding, bonding, and shielding, a
rated voltage for seven hours or until thermal equilibrium. key element to the success of TVSS application [1].
13) Carefully review the TVSS vendor literature for each
VIII. TVSS APPLICATION APPROACH category for specific requirements and safety test re-
quirements [9]. If possible, contact the vendor to address
It is important that the application engineer has the basic un-
questions and concerns to obtain clarification of TVSS
derstanding of the published literature on transient surge over-
characteristics and performance specifications. TVSS
voltage environment and the surge wave shapes used in testing
performance criteria and specifications shall include at
the TVSS [17], [18].
least the following:
To avoid guesswork and misapplication of the TVSS, the ap-
plication engineer, perhaps, should develop his/her own list of a) surge current capability: performance, safety;
evaluation factors. These evaluation factors, in general, will es- b) fail-safe design;
228 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 37, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2001

Fig. 11. Category classification defined by IEEE Std. C62.41 and IEC Std 664 for TVSS application.

c) UL listing, testing, and suppression voltage; merely by their surge-chopping and energy-absorption capa-
d) modes of protection; bility without proper application guidance and criteria. A new
e) EMI/RFI filtering capability; UL standard [9] requires their test withstand capability and
f) life-cycle testing; not all TVSSs could meet such requirements. With a thorough
g) monitoring features; understanding of the applicable standards, and knowledge of
h) short-circuit withstand capability and fusing surge propagation through the power distribution system, the
rating; design engineer should be able to make a proper selection of
i) response time. TVSS for the application.
Proper application of TVSS devices in a low-voltage power
distribution system may require all or a combination of the fol-
IX. CONCLUSION lowing.
To avoid guesswork and misapplication of TVSSs, an 1) Apply both primary and secondary surge-suppressor de-
engineering analysis of transient surge overvoltages and vices at the main transformer [13].
high-frequency noise is required. Application engineers must 2) Implement integrated surge-suppressor device at the
learn to evaluate the transient environment and should have main panel [11].
technical knowledge to fully understand the limitations of 3) Apply “cascaded network” approach [1], [13].
commercially available TVSSs for each specific location in 4) Apply power quality pyramid for design of distribution
the power system. Some manufacturers promote their TVSSs system [11].
PAUL: LOW-VOLTAGE POWER SYSTEM SURGE OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION 229

5) Use integrated surge protection devices approach, espe- [8] , “Application of the national electrical code to the installation of
cially for a new facility, as it provides better margin of senitive electronic equipment,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. IA-22,
no. 3, pp. 400–415, May/June 1986.
protection. In retrofit projects, use as short as possible [9] UL Standard for Safety for Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors, 2nd
the specially designed low-impedance coaxial cable to ed., UL 1449, 1998.
install a surge-suppression device outside the panel. [10] D. O. Koval, “Rural power quality,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 28,
pp. 761–766, July/Aug. 1992.
6) Use twisted shielded pair wires and ground shield at ei- [11] T. Muller and D. Graff, “The use of surge protection devices in the petro-
ther both ends or at one end, depending upon the overall leum/petrochemical industry,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 34, pp.
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[12] P. G. Slade, “Vacuum interrupters: The new technology for switching
7) Provide reference ground grid for sensitive electronic and protecting distribution circuits,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 33,
equipment [7], [8]. pp. 1298–1304, Nov./Dec. 1997.
8) Use of ferro-resonant line conditioners can provide [13] M. B. Marz and S. R. Mendis, “Protecting load devices from the effects
of low-side surges,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 29, pp. 1196–1203,
better attenuation than isolating power transformers for Nov./Dec. 1993.
fast line-to-line transients [5]. [14] L. J. Bohmann, J. McDaniel, and E. K. Stanek, “Lightning arrester
9) Fuses applied to the TVSS shall have surge current with- failure and ferroresonance on a distribution system,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Applicat., vol. 29, pp. 1189–1195, Nov./Dec. 1993.
stand capability and shall isolate the device in case of its [15] Transient Voltage Suppression Devices Ddata Book, Harris Semicon-
failure by surge current higher than its let through capa- ductor Corp., 1992.
bility. However, in the case of thermal runaway of the [16] IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal Oxide Surge Arresters for AC
Systems, Draft ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.22, 1991.
TVSS device, the current is still too low to operate the [17] IEEE Recommended Practice on Surge Voltages in Low-Voltage AC
fuse; only a thermal cut-out in close proximity to the Power Circuits, ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.41, 1991.
surge device can clear this fault. Development of such [18] IEEE Guide on Surge Testing for Equipment Connected to Low-Voltage
AC Power Circuits, ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.45, 1987.
proper disconnectors is a challenge to the manufacturers [19] IEEE Guide for the Application of Gas Tube Arrester Low-Voltage Surge
of surge devices. Protective Devices, ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.42, 1987.
10) Install series-hybrid-type filters as close to the critical [20] IEEE Standard Test Methods for Surge Protectors Used in Low-Voltage
Data, Communications, and Signaling Circuits, ANSI/IEEE Std.
loads as possible, such as in front of fire alarm systems, C62.36, 1991.
control devices, programmable logic controllers, cash [21] IEEE Standard Test Specifications for Low-Voltage Air Gap Surge-Pro-
registers, etc. tective Devices (Excluding Valve and Expulsion Type Devices),
ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.32, 1981.
11) Install surge protection equipment on all data and com- [22] IEEE Standard Test Specifications for Avalanche Junction Semicon-
munication lines, especially noise-suppression devices. ductor Surge Protective Devices, ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.35, 1987.
12) At noncritical loads which generate disturbance such as [23] IEEE Standard Test Specifications for Gas Tube Surge Protective De-
vices, ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.31, 1987.
harmonics and noise, installation of less expensive surge [24] IEEE Standard for Metal Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits,
strips may be adequate. ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.11, 1987.
13) If possible, the grounding system of the surge arrester [25] Insulation Coordination Within Low-Voltage Systems Including Clear-
ances and Creepage Distances for Equipment, IEC 664, 1980.
shall have minimum resistance to ground in order to min- [26] IEEE Standard Test Specifications for Varistor Surge-Protective
imize ground potential rise above remote earth which Devices, ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.33, 1982.
acts as reference ground to other sensitive equipment in
the facility.
Dev Paul (M’73–SM’90) received the B.Sc. degree
REFERENCES with honors in mathematics and the B.E. (Honors)
and M.S.E.E. degrees in electrical engineering from
[1] Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive Elec- Punjab University, Chandigarh, India, in 1965, 1969,
tronic Equipment, (Emerald Book), 1992. and 1971, respectively. He completed further studies
[2] The New IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms, in power systems at the University of Santa Clara,
5th ed., IEEE Std. 100, 1992. Santa Clara, CA, in 1975.
[3] F. D. Martzloff, “Matching surge protective devices to their environ- In 1972, he joined EARTH TECH (formerly
ment,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 21, pp. 99–106, Jan./Feb. 1985. Kaiser Engineers), Oakland, CA, as a Design
[4] , “Transient control levels, a proposal for insulation coordination in Engineer and has worked on a variety of heavy
low-voltage systems,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-95, pp. industrial, cogeneration, commercial, DOD and
120–129, Jan./Feb. 1976. DOE facilities, and rapid transit rail projects. In his present position as a
[5] , “Coordination of surge protectors in low-voltage ac power Principal Electrical Engineer, he is responsible for the overall design, analysis,
circuits,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-99, pp. 129–133, studies, specification, installation, project engineering, startup work, and
Jan./Feb. 1980. system integration. He has authored papers published in IEEE Industry
[6] , “The propagation and attenuation of surge voltages and surge cur- Applications Society (IAS) and APTA conference proceedings. His main fields
rents in low voltage ac circuits,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. of interests are power system analysis, protection, grounding, and harmonics.
PAS-102, pp. 1163–1170, May/June. 1983. Mr. Paul is an active member of several IAS Committees. He received the
[7] W. H. Lewis, “Recommended power and signal grounding for control Award of Distinction for his M.S.E.E. thesis work on power system stability.
and computer rooms,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. IA-21, pp. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the States of California, Nevada,
1503–1516, Nov./Dec. 1985. and Oregon.

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