Applications in GIS

(Interpolation)
Interpolating a Surface From
Sampled Point Data
Interpolating a Surface From
Sampled Point Data
Assumes a continuous surface that is sampled
Interpolation
■ Estimating the attribute values of locations that are within the
range of available data using known data values
Extrapolation
■ Estimating the attribute values of locations outside the range of
available data using known data values
Interpolating a Surface From
Sampled Point Data

Estimating a point here:

Interpolation interpolation

Sample
data
 Interpolating a Surface From Sampled
Point Data

Extrapolation
Sample
data

Estimating a point
here: extrapolation
Interpolating a Surface From
Sampled Point Data

■Sampling Strategies for Interpolation

Regular Sampling Random Sampling

Interpolating a Surface From Sampled
Point Data

Linear Interpolation
If
Sample
elevation data A = 8 feet and
B = 4 feet
A
then

C C = (8 + 4) / 2 = 6 feet

Elevation profile
 Interpolating a Surface From Sampled
Point Data

Non-Linear Interpolation

Sample Often results in a

elevation data more realistic
interpolation but
A
estimating missing
data values is more
C complex
B

Elevation profile
Interpolating a Surface From Sampled
Point Data

Global Interpolation
Uses all known sample points to estimate a value at an unsampled
location

Sample
data
Interpolating a Surface From Sampled
Point Data

Local Interpolation
Uses a neighborhood of sample points to estimate a value at
an unsampled location

Sample
data

Uses a local neighborhood to

estimate value, i.e. closest n
number of points, or within a
given search radius
Trend Surface
 Trend Surface

■ Global method
■ Inexact
■ Can be linear or non-linear
■ predicting a z elevation value [dependent variable]
with x and y location values [independent variables]
 Trend Surface
1st Order Trend Surface

In one dimension: z varies as a linear function of x

z = b0 + b1x + e z

x
 Trend Surface
1st Order Trend Surface
In two dimensions: z varies as a linear function of x and y

z
y

z = b0 + b1x + b2y + e

x
Trend Surface
Inverse Distance Weighted
(IDW)
 Inverse Distance Weighted

■ Local method
■ Exact
■ Can be linear or non-linear

The weight (influence) of a sampled data value is

inversely proportional to its distance from the
estimated value
 Inverse Distance Weighted
(Example)

100
IDW:
4 Closest 3
3 160 neighbors,
r=2
2
200
 Inverse Distance Weighted
(Example)

A = 100

Weights
A 1 / (42) = .0625 4
B 1 / (32) = .1111 B = 160
C 1 / (22) = .2500 3

C = 200
 Inverse Distance Weighted
(Example)
Weights Weights * Value
A 1 / (42) = .0625 .0625 * 100 = 6.25
B 1 / (32) = .1111 .1111 * 160 = 17.76
C 1 / (22) = .2500 .2500 * 200 = 50.00
Total = .4236 A = 100

6.25 +17.76 + 50.00 = 74.01 4

74.01 / .4236 = 175 3

B = 160

C = 200
Geostatistics
 Geostatistics
■ Geostatistics:The original purpose of geostatistics
centered on estimating changes in ore grade within a
mine.
■ The principles have been applied to a variety of areas in
geology and other scientific disciplines.

■ A unique aspect of geostatistics is the use of

regionalized variables which are variables that fall
between random variables and completely deterministic
variables.
 Geostatistics
■ Regionalized variables describe phenomena
with geographical distribution (e.g.
elevation of ground surface).

■ The phenomenon exhibit spatial continuity.

 Geostatistics
■ It is notalways possible to sample every location.
■ Therefore, unknown values must be estimated
from data taken at specific locations that can be
sampled.

■ The size, shape, orientation, and spatial

arrangement of the sample locations are termed
the support and influence the capability to predict
the unknown samples.
Semivariance
 Semivariance
■ Regionalized variable theory uses a related
property called the semivariance to express
the degree of relationship between points on a
surface.

■ The semivariance is simply half the

variance of the differences between all
possible points spaced a constant distance apart.

Semivariance is a measure of the degree of spatial

dependence between samples (elevation)
 Semivariance
■ semivariance :The magnitude of the semivariance
between points depends on the distance between the
points. A smaller distance yields a smaller semivariance
and a larger distance results in a larger semivariance.
 Calculating the Semivariance
(Regularly Spaced PointsRegularly Spaced Points)

■ Consider regularly spaced points distance (d) apart, the

semivariance can be estimated for distances that are
multiple of (d) (Simple form):
 Semivariance

■ Zi is the measurement of a regionalized variable taken

at location i ,
■ Zi+h is another measurement taken h intervals away d
■ Nh is number of separating distance = number of points
–Lag (if the points are located in a single profile)
 Semivariance
■ Sill: The distance at which the semivariance
approaches a flat region. sill, is referred as the range
or span of the regionalized variable.

■ Range: The range or span defines a neighborhood

within which all data points are related to one
another.
 Calculating the Semivariance
(Irregularly Spaced PointsRegularly Spaced Points)
■ Here we are going to explore directional variograms.
■ Directional variograms is defines the spatial variation among points
separated by space lag h.
■ The difference from the omnidirectional variograms is that h is a vector
rather than a scalar. For example, if d={d1,d2}, then each pair of compared
samples should be separated in E-W direction and in S-N direction.
 Calculating the Semivariance
(Irregularly Spaced PointsRegularly Spaced Points)

■ In practice, it is difficult to find enough sample points which are

separated by exactly the same lag vector [d].
■ The set of all possible lag vectors is usually partitioned into classes
Variogram
 Variogram
■ The plot of the semivariances as a function of
distance from a point is referred to as a
semivariogram or variogram.
 Variogram
■ The semivariance at a distance d = 0 should be zero,
because there are no differences between points that are
compared to themselves.
■ However, as points are compared to increasingly distant
points, the semivariance increases.
 Variogram
■ The range is the greatest distance over which the value at a point
on the surface is related to the value at another point.
■ The range defines the maximum neighborhood over which control
points should be selected to estimate a grid node.
 Variogram (Models)
■ It is a ‘model’ semi-variogram and is usually called the
spherical model.
■ a is called the range of influence of a sample.
■ C is called the sill of the semi-variogram.
 Exponential Model

Variogram (Models)

spherical and exponential with the same

spherical and exponential with the same sill and the same initial slope
range and sill
 Kriging
Interpolation
 Kriging Interpolation
■ Kriging is named after the South African engineer, D.
G. Krige, who first developed the method.

■ Kriging uses the semivariogram, in calculating

estimates of the surface at the grid nodes.
 Kriging Interpolation
■ The procedures involved in kriging incorporate measures of
error and uncertainty when determining estimations.
■ In the kriging method, every known data value and every
missing data value has an associated variance. If ‘C’ is
constant (i.e. known value exactly), its variance is zero.

■ Based on the semivariogram used, optimal weights

are assigned to known values in order to calculate
unknown ones. Since the variogram changes with
distance, the weights depend on the known sample
distribution.
Ordinary Kriging
 Ordinary Kriging
■ Ordinary kriging is the simplest form of kriging.
■ It uses dimensionless points to estimate other
dimensionless points, e.g. elevation contour plots.
■ In Ordinary kriging, the regionalized variable is
assumed to be stationary.
 Punctual (Ordinary) Kriging

■ In our case Z, at point p, Ze (p) to be calculated using a

weighted average of the known values or control points:

■ This estimated value will most likely differ from the actual
value at point p, Za(p), and this difference is called the
estimation error:
 Punctual (Ordinary) Kriging
■ If no drift exists and the weights used in the
estimation sum to one, then the estimated value
is said to be unbiased. The scatter of the
estimates about the true value is termed the
error or estimation variance,
 Punctual (Ordinary) Kriging
■ kriging tries to choose the optimal weights that produce the
minimum estimation error .
■ Optimal weights, those that produce unbiased estimates and
have a minimum estimation variance, are obtained by solving a
set of simultaneous equations .
 Punctual (Ordinary) Kriging
■ A fourth variable is introduced called the Lagrange multiplier
 Punctual (Ordinary) Kriging
■ Once the individual weights are known, an estimation
can be made by

■ And an estimation variance can be calculated by