Band Theory of Solids

Band Theory of Solids

To understand the electronic states of a solid we must consider
the presence of many N~1023 atoms
The band theory of solids describes the interaction between the
electrons and the lattice ions that comprise a solid.
Band Theory: “Bound” Electron Approach
For the total number N of atoms in a solid (1023 cm–3), N energy
levels split apart within a width E.
Leads to a band of energies for each initial atomic energy level (e.g.
1s energy band for 1s energy level).
Two atoms Six atoms Solid of N atoms
Electrons must occupy different

energies due to Pauli Exclusion
Phys 320 - Baski principle.
Consider the potential energy of a 1-dimensional solid
which is approximate by the Kronig-Penney

Model
The task is to compute the quantum states and
associated energy levels of this simplified
model
by solving the Schrödinger equation
1 2 3
For periodic potentials, Felix Bloch showed that
the solution of the Schrödinger equation must
be of the form
and the wavefunction must reflect
the periodicity of the lattice:
1 2 3
By requiring the wavefunction and its
derivative
to be continuous everywhere, one finds energy
levels that are grouped into bands separated by
energy gaps. The gaps occur at
The energy gaps
are basically
energy
1 2 3
levels that cannot
occur in the solid
Completely
free
electron
electron in a
lattice
When, the wavefunctions become standing waves.

One wave peaks at the lattice sites, and another peaks between
them. Ψ2, has lower energy
than Ψ1. Moreover, there is a jump in energy

between these states, hence the energy gap
The allowed ranges of the wave vector k are called
Brillouin zones.
zone 1: -p/a < k < p/a
The theory can explain why
some
substances are conductors, some
insulators and
others
semi
conductors
Fermi-Dirac “Filling” Function
Probability of electrons to be found at various energy levels.
• For E – EF = 0.05 eV f(E) = 0.12

For E – EF = 7.5 eV f(E) = 10 –129
• Exponential dependence has HUGE effect
• Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac function shown as follows:

Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors
Sodium (Na) has one electron in the 3s state, so
the 3s energy level is half-filled. Consequently,
the 3s band, the valence band, of solid
sodium is also half-filled.
Moreover,
the 3p band, which for Na is
the conduction band, overlaps with
the 3s band.
So valence electrons can easily be

raised to higher energy states.
Therefore, sodium is a good
conductor
NaCl is an insulator, with a band gap of 2 eV,
which is much larger than the thermal energy at
T=300K
Therefore, only a tiny fraction of electrons are in the

conduction band.
Silicon and germanium have band gaps of 1 eV and 0.7 eV, respectively. At room
temperature, a small fraction of the electrons are in the conduction band. Si and Ge
are intrinsic semiconductors.
Summary
In solids, the discrete energy levels of the individual atoms
merge to form energy bands
Energy gaps arise in solids because they contain standing wave
states
The size of the energy gap between the valence and conduction
bands determines whether a substance is a conductor, an
insulator or a semiconductor
The electrical properties of a solid material are
a consequence of its electron band structure, or
the arrangement of the outermost electron
bands and the way in which they are filled with
electrons.
Solid Materials
Four different types of band structures are possible at 0 K.
In the first, one outermost band is only partially filled with
electrons. The energy corresponding to the highest filled state at 0
K is called the Fermi energy Ef, as indicated. This energy band
structure is typified by some metals, those that have a single s
valence electron (e.g., copper). Each copper atom has one 4s
electron; however, for a solid comprised of N atoms, the 4s band
is capable of accommodating 2N electrons. Thus only half the
available electron positions within this 4s band are filled.
For the second band structure, also found in metals, there is an
overlap of an empty band and a filled band. Magnesium has
this band structure. Each isolated Mg atom has two 3s
electrons. However, when a solid is formed, the 3s and 3p
bands overlap. In this instance and at 0 K, the Fermi energy is
taken as that energy below which, for N atoms, N states are
filled, two electrons per state.
The final two band structures are similar; one band (the valence
band) that is completely filled with electrons is separated from
an empty conduction band; and an energy band gap lies
between them. For very pure materials, electrons may not have
energies within this gap. The difference between the two band
structures lies in the magnitude of the energy gap; for materials
that are insulators, the band gap is relatively wide, whereas for
semiconductors it is narrow. The Fermi energy for these two
band structures lies within the band gap— near its center.
Conduction in Terms of Band and
Atomic Bonding Models
Only electrons with energies greater than the Fermi energy may be acted
on and accelerated in the presence of an electric field.
These are the electrons that participate in the conduction process, which are
termed free electrons. Another charged electronic entity called a hole is
found in semiconductors and insulators. Holes have energies less than Ef
and also participate in electronic conduction. As the ensuing discussion
reveals, the electrical conductivity is a direct function of the numbers of free
electrons and holes. In addition, the distinction between conductors and
nonconductors (insulators and semiconductors) lies in the numbers of these
free electron and hole charge carriers.
For an electron to become free, it must be excited or promoted into one of the
empty and available energy states above Ef. For metals having either of the
band structures shown in a & b, there are vacant energy states adjacent to the
highest filled state at Ef.
Very little energy is required to promote electrons into the low-lying empty
states. Generally, the energy provided by an electric field is sufficient to
excite large numbers of electrons into these conducting states. For the
metallic bonding model, it was assumed that all the valence electrons have
freedom of motion and form an ‘‘electron gas,’’ which is uniformly
distributed throughout the lattice of ion cores. Even though these electrons
are not locally bound to any particular atom, they, nevertheless, must
experience some excitation to become conducting electrons that are truly
free. Thus, although only a fraction are excited, this still gives rise to a
relatively large number of free electrons and, consequently, a high
conductivity.
Metals
Insulators and Semiconductors
For insulators and semiconductors, empty states adjacent to the top of the filled valence band are not available. To become
free, therefore, electrons must be promoted across the energy band gap and into empty states at the bottom of the
conduction band. This is possible only by supplying to an electron the difference in energy between these two states,
which is approximately equal to the band gap energy Eg.
For many materials this band gap is several electron volts wide. Most often the excitation energy is from a nonelectrical
source such as heat or light, usually the former. The number of electrons excited thermally (by heat energy) into the
conduction band depends on the energy band gap width as well as temperature. At a given temperature, the larger the Eg,
the lower the probability that a valence electron will be promoted into an energy state within the conduction band; this
results in fewer conduction electrons. In other words, the larger the band gap, the lower the electrical conductivity at a
given temperature.
Thus, the distinction between semiconductors and insulators lies in the width of the band gap; for semiconductors it is
narrow, whereas for insulating materials it is relatively wide.
Electron Mobility
When an electric field is applied, a force is brought to bear on the free electrons; therefore, they
all experience an acceleration in a direction opposite to that of the field, by virtue of their
negative charge.
According to quantum mechanics, there is no interaction between an accelerating electron and
atoms in a perfect crystal lattice. Under such circumstances all the free electrons should
accelerate as long as the electric field is applied, which would give rise to a continuously
increasing electric current with time. However, we know that a current reaches a constant value
the instant that a field is applied, indicating that there exist what might be termed ‘‘frictional
forces,’’ which counter this acceleration from the external field. These frictional forces result
from the scattering of electrons by imperfections in the crystal lattice, including impurity
atoms, vacancies, interstitial atoms, dislocations, and even the thermal vibrations of the atoms
themselves.
Electron Mobility
Each scattering event causes an electron to lose
kinetic energy and to change its direction of
motion, as represented below. There is, however,
some net electron motion in the direction opposite
to the field, and this flow of charge is the electric
current. The scattering phenomenon is manifested
as a resistance to the passage of an electric current.
Several parameters are used to describe the extent
of this scattering, these include the drift velocity
and the mobility of an electron. The drift velocity
vd represents the average electron velocity in the
direction of the force imposed by the applied field.
It is directly proportional to the electric field as
follows:
Electron Mobility

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Band Theory of Solids

Band Theory of Solids

Two atoms Six atoms Solid of N atoms

Electrons must occupy different

which is approximate by the Kronig-Penney

When, the wavefunctions become standing waves.

than Ψ1. Moreover, there is a jump in energy

• For E – EF = 0.05 eV f(E) = 0.12

• Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac function shown as follows:

So valence electrons can easily be

Therefore, only a tiny fraction of electrons are in the

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