THE UNIVERSITY OF TOLEDO

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

ENGT 3050

LABORATORY MANUAL
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY
ENGT 3050
LABORATORY MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS

SAFETY REGULATIONS

LABORATORY GRADING POLICIES

LAB REPORT GUIDELINES

EXERCISES

1. Resistor Color Code

2. Ohm's Law
3. Power in DC Circuits
Prepared by: Frederick J. Nelson
4. R
January, 2005
esi

stors in Series
5. Resistors in Parallel
6. Mesh Analysis and Thevenin's Theorem
7. The Oscilloscope and the Function Generator
8. RL Circuits and Time Constants
9. RL Circuits with AC Sources
10. RC Circuits and Time Constants
11. Frequency Effects in Series RLC Circuits
12. The Silicon Diode and the Diode Curve
 SAFETY REGULATIONS

 No smoking, no chewing tobacco, no eating, no drinking.

 Unauthorized experiments are not permitted. Scheduled experiments must be

completed during regularly scheduled lab periods or during open lab periods when a lab
instructor or assistant is present.

 All injuries must be reported to the lab instructor immediately.

 You work area must be clean when you leave.

 All lab equipment must be turned off when you leave.

 If you are under a doctor's care or are taking any medications that might interfere
with your ability to perform the lab activities, please inform the lab instructor.

 Shoes and shirts must be worn in the lab at all times.

 Radios or other audio devices, including those with headphones, are not permitted in
the lab.

 All lab equipment must be treated with proper care and respect. Abuse of the
equipment will not be tolerated.

 Additional safety information may be communicated by your lab instructor during

regularly scheduled lab periods.
 LABORATORY GRADING POLICIES

Laboratory exercises will start in the second week of the term.

Your lab grade will be based on the average of the lab report grades for these exercises, plus a
component for attendance and participation.

 In general, the lab reports are due one week after the lab is performed. A penalty of
twenty percent per school day will be assessed for reports that are submitted late.

 Lab reports must be typed and printed using word processing equipment.

 If calculations are performed using software such as Minitab® or Excel®, then the outputs
from these programs can be used as report appendices, but it is your responsibility to
extract the appropriate values from these computer outputs and use them to address the
issues raised in this manual.

 It is expected that lab reports will be complete and will contain all of the elements listed
under the instructions for each laboratory exercise.

There will be grade penalties for work that is clearly inaccurate or sloppy.

 There will be grade penalties for lack of proper units associated with numerical data.

 Each student is responsible for writing his / her own lab report, even though data is
frequently shared. Duplicate lab reports will be given a single score that will be shared
equally among the participants.

 In general there are no make-up labs. If you are physically unable to attend your
scheduled lab session, you may be able to attend another lab section. Otherwise, obtain the
data from your lab partners and prepare your lab report on the basis of that data.

 It is acceptable to seek advice from other persons concerning laboratory data analyses, but
each student is ultimately responsible for the content of his / her own lab report.
 LAB REPORT GUIDELINES

 All reports must be written in the English language.

 All statements must be written using proper sentence structures with subjects and
verbs.

 All words must be spelled correctly.

 All sentences must utilize proper punctuation.

 Always refer to what was done using the past tense.

 Do not use pronouns or the names of persons.

 Do not use "run-on sentences". Minimize the use of words such as "and
then".

 When appropriate, all numerical information must be accompanied by proper

units.

 All tables must be numbered and labeled, e.g., Table 1, Resistance Data.

 All graphs must be numbered and labeled, e.g., Figure 2, Voltage versus
Current.

 All tables and graphs must include proper labeling to identify the meaning of
numerical information and associated units.

 In general, tables and graphs should be discussed in the body of your report.
Don't flop a page full of numbers before the reader and then say nothing about what the
numbers represent or where they came from.

 Reports must be written and assembled in a concise and logical manner. A

stranger with minimal understanding of the subject matter should be able to read your
reports and deduce the essence, and perhaps even some of the details, of what you did
and what happened.

 Imagine that your reports are for the benefit of your employer, who signs your
paychecks, but may know little or nothing about the details of your work. If you were the
employer you would want reports to be accurate, complete, neat and understandable.
You have to assume that others expect no less.
 EXERCISE NO. 1

RESISTOR COLOR CODE

Objectives: The objectives of this laboratory exercise are to become familiar with the resistor
color code and to use a digital multimeter (DMM) to measure resistance.
Procedure:

1. Determine the color codes of the resistors listed below. Locate one resistor in
your parts kit for each value.

RESISTANCE (OHMS)

10 Ω
100 Ω
220 Ω
330 Ω
1 kΩ
5.1 kΩ
10 k Ω
100 k Ω
1 MΩ

2. Based on the tolerance, create a table with the nominal resistance value in the first
column, the color code in the second column, the minimum resistance in the third
column and the maximum resistance in the fourth column. Reserve a fifth column
for the measured resistance values.

3. Use the DMM to measure the resistance of each of the resistors located in step
1, according to the lab instructor's directions. Remember not to hold the resistor
leads with your fingers when taking measurements, since this may affect the
measured values. Use the most sensitive resistance scale possible in each case to
obtain the most accurate measured values.

4. Record the measured resistance values in column five of your table, and check to
make sure that the measured values lie within the expected tolerance ranges. If a
measured resistance lies outside of the expected range, check the color code of the
resistor and check to make sure that the DMM procedure has been followed properly.
It is very rare that a commercial resistor has a resistance value outside of the
specified tolerance range.

Report: Due per Schedule

Data Analysis: None
 EXERCISE NO. 2

OHM'S LAW

Objective: The objective of this exercise is to show that the current and the voltage are linearly
proportional in a resistive DC circuit and that the constant of proportionality is the resistance
of the circuit.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1 using a 1 kΩ resistor for the resistance.
The portable multimeter can be used for the voltmeter. The DMM, used as an
ammeter, must be connected in series between the power supply and the resistor.

Figure 1

2. Beginning at 0.0 volts, increase the voltage across the resistor in 1.0 volt steps to
a maximum of 12.0 volts. Record the voltage and current in a table in your lab
notebook for each step.

3. Replace the 1 kΩ ohm resistor with an 5.1 kΩ resistor and repeat the voltage and
current measurements from zero to twelve volts. Record this data in a table in your
lab notebook.

4. Turn off all power to the circuit and remove the resistors from the circuit board.
Using the DMM as an ohmmeter, measure and record the actual resistance of each of
the two resistors.
Data Analysis:

1. Use your data to create graphs of current versus voltage for the two resistors.
Note that voltage is the independent variable and it must be plotted on the horizontal
axis. Use linear scales and label them properly.

2.Draw the single "best" straight line through the data points for each resistor. DO NOT
"CONNECT THE DOTS!" Your straight lines may not necessarily touch all, or even
any, of the plotted data points. Make sure that all scales are properly labeled and that
each line is labeled according to the nominal resistor value that was used for that data
set.

3.Choose two convenient points on each of your straight lines and use them to calculate
the slopes of your lines. It is better if you do not choose two points that are very close
together. These slopes represent the reciprocal resistance, or conductance, values for
each of your two circuits.

4.Calculate the reciprocals of each of the slopes determined in step 3, above. Create a table
that compares these resistance values with the nominal and measured resistance values.

Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

A circuit schematic.

A table for voltage and current values.

Graphs of current versus voltage.

A table for resistance values.

A brief discussion of your conclusions, including how this experiment verifies (NOT
PROVES) Ohm's Law.
 EXERCISE NO. 3

POWER IN DC CIRCUITS

Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to show how resistor power dissipation is
related to voltage, current and resistance in a DC circuit.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1 using two 1 kΩ resistors in series. The
portable multimeter can be used for the voltmeter. The DMM, used as an ammeter,
must be connected in series between the power supply and the resistors.

Fig. 1

Beginning at 0.0 volts, increase the voltage across the resistors in 1.0 volt steps to a maximum
of 10.0 volts. Record the voltage and current in a table in your lab notebook for each step.

2. Replace the 1 kΩ resistors with two 5.1KΩ resistors in parallel as shown and
repeat the voltage and current measurements from zero to ten volts. Record this
data in a table in your lab notebook.
3. Turn off all power to the circuit and remove the resistors from the circuit board.
Using the DMM as an ohmmeter, measure and record the actual resistance of each of
the two connections of resistors (RT).
Data Analysis:

1. Use your data to calculate the resistor power dissipation (in mW) for each voltage
for each RT.

2. Create a graph of power versus voltage for each of the two RT. Note that
voltage is the independent variable and it must be plotted on the horizontal axis. Use
linear scales and label them properly.

3. Create a graph of power versus current for each of the two RT. Note that
current is the independent variable and it must be plotted on the horizontal axis. Use
linear scales and label them properly.

Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

A circuit schematic.

A table for voltage, current and power values.

A table for actual resistance values.

Graphs of power versus voltage.

Graphs of power versus current.

A brief discussion of your conclusions, including:

Effect of voltage on power for fixed resistance.

Effect of current on power for fixed resistance.

Effect of resistance on power for fixed voltage.

Effect of resistance on power for fixed current.

 EXERCISE NO. 4

RESISTORS IN SERIES

Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to examine the behavior of current and voltages
for resistors connected in series in a DC circuit.

Procedure:

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 on a circuit board.

2.Use the DMM, connected as an ohmmeter, to measure the resistance of each resistor in
the circuit. Note that the power supply must be disconnected when these measurements
are made. Record these values.

3.Use the DMM, connected as an ammeter, to measure the current at points a, b, c, d and
e. Record these values.

4.Use the DMM, connected as a voltmeter, to measure the voltage across each resistor.
Record these values.

5.Use the DMM, connected as a voltmeter, to measure the voltage between points b and e
(ground). Record this value.
Data Analysis:

1. Use your measured resistance values to calculate the current. Create a table of
calculated and measured current values for points a s b, c, d and e.

2. Use your measured resistance values to calculate the voltages across each resistor.
Create a table of calculated and measured resistor voltages.

3. Use your measured resistor values to calculate the voltage between point b and
ground (e). Create a table comparing this value with your measured value.

4. Use your calculated resistor voltages to verify (not prove) Kirchhoff's Voltage
Law for this circuit.

5. Use your measured resistor voltages to verify (not prove) Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
for this circuit.

Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

A circuit schematic.

A table for actual versus nominal resistance values.

A table for calculated and measured current values.

A table for calculated and measured resistor voltages.

A table for the calculated and measured voltage at point B relative to ground.

A brief discussion of your conclusions, including:

o A comparison of current values. Does it matter where the current is

measured in a series circuit?

o A comparison of resistor voltages. Does the voltage divider equation work?

o A comparison of the voltages at point B relative to ground.

o Is KVL verified using calculated resistor voltages? Show how.

o Is KVL verified using measured resistor voltages? Show how.

EXERCISE NO. 5
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
 Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to examine the behavior of currents and total
resistance for resistors connected in parallel (and series) in a DC circuit.

Procedure:

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 on a circuit board.

2. Use the DMM, connected as an ohmmeter, to measure the resistance of each

resistor in the circuit. Note that each resistor must be disconnected from the rest
of the circuit when this measurement is made. Record these values.

3. Use the DMM, connected as an ohmmeter, to measure the total resistance of the
circuit from the point of view of the power supply. Note that the circuit must be
disconnected from the power supply when the resistance measurement is made.
Record this value.

Use the DMM, connected as an ammeter, to measure the currents at points A, B, C, D and E.
Record these values
.Data Analysis:

1. Create a table of nominal and measured resistance values.

2. Calculate the total resistance of this circuit using nominal resistor values.
Calculate the total resistance of this circuit using measured resistor values. Create
a table comparing the two calculated values and the measured value for the total
resistance of this circuit.

3. Calculate the currents at points A, B, C, D and E using nominal resistor values.

Calculate the currents at points A, B, C, D and E using measured resistor values.
Create a table comparing the two sets of calculated values and the set of
measured values for the currents at points A, B, C, D and E.

4. Use your calculated currents to verify (not prove) Kirchhoff's Current Law for
this circuit.

5. Use your measured currents to verify (not prove) Kirchhoff's Current Law for
this circuit.

Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

A circuit schematic.

A table for actual versus nominal resistor values.

A table for calculated and measured total resistance values.

A table for calculated and measured current values.

A brief discussion of your conclusions, including:

o A comparison of total resistance values.

o A comparison of current values. Does the current divider equation

work?

o Is KCL verified using calculated currents? Show how.

o Is KCL verified using measured currents? Show how.

An appendix containing total resistance calculations and current calculations.

 EXERCISE NO. 6

MESH ANALYSIS AND THEVENIN'S THEOREM

Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to compare measured voltage and current values
with values obtained from a mesh analysis, to compare measured and calculated values for a
Thevenin equivalent resistance and a Thevenin equivalent voltage, and to compare the effects
of a Thevenin equivalent circuit on a load resistor with the effects of the original circuit on
that same load resistor.

Procedure:

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 on a circuit board.

2. Use the DMM to measure the current through each resistor in the circuit. Record
these values.

3. Use the DMM to measure the voltage across each resistor in the circuit. Record
these values.

4. Remove the 1KΩ load resistor from the circuit and use the DMM to measure the
Thevenin voltage between points "a" and "b". Record this value.

5. Turn off and disconnect the power supply and replace it with a short. Use the
DMM to measure the Thevenin resistance between points "a" and "b". Record this
value.

6. Use your measured values for the Thevenin resistance and the Thevenin voltage
to construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit on the breadboard. You may need to
 obtain some resistors from the instructor to approximate the Thevenin resistance.
Replace the 1KΩ load resistor between points "a" and "b".

7. Use the DMM to measure the current through and the voltage across the 1KΩ
load resistor in the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Record these values.

Data Analysis:

1. Perform a mesh analysis for the original circuit. Use the calculated mesh
currents to determine the currents and voltages for each resistor.

2. Create a table comparing the calculated and measured currents and

voltages for each resistor in the original circuit.

3. Calculate the Thevenin voltage and the Thevenin resistance from the point
of view of terminals "a" and "b".

4. Create a table comparing calculated and measured values for the Thevenin
voltage and resistance.

5. Use the calculated Thevenin equivalent circuit to determine the current

through and the voltage across the 1KΩ load resistor.

6. Create a table comparing the four different values for the load resistor
current and voltage . . . calculated and measured for the original circuit, and
calculated and measured for the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:
The objectives of the exercise.
A brief summary of the procedures.
A circuit schematic for the original circuit.
A circuit schematic for the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
A table for resistor voltages and currents for the original circuit.
A table for Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance values,
A table for load resistor voltages and currents.
 A brief discussion of your conclusions, including:
• A comparison of mesh analysis results with measured results.
• A comparison of calculated and measured Thevenin voltage and resistance
values.
• A comparison of load resistor voltages and currents.
 An appendix containing the mesh analysis calculations.
 An appendix containing Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance calculations.
 EXERCISE NO. 7

THE OSCILLOSCOPE AND THE FUNCTION GENERATOR

Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to become familiar with the basic operation of
the oscilloscope and the function generator and to use the oscilloscope to measure voltage and
time.

Procedure:

OSCILLOSCOPE DEFAULT SETTINGS

1. Set the default settings for the oscilloscope according to the instructor's directions.
Use these default settings to familiarize yourself with the basic oscilloscope controls.

OSCILLOSCOPE VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS

1. Set the TIME/DIV control to 0.1 ms/div and the trigger mode to AUTO. Adjust
the focus and intensity controls to achieve a clear display.

2. Adjust the vertical position control for each channel to center the beam on the
screen. The input mode switch should be set on AC.

3. Connect the input probe for channel I to the PROBE ADJUST terminal on the
face of the scope. The ground clip need not be attached. A square wave should appear
on the screen. Measure and record the peak to peak voltage, Vp.p, for this square
wave using several different vertical sensitivity settings (VOLTS/DIV).

4. Repeat step 3, above, for channel 2.

5. Compare the measured values for Vp-p with the calibration value listed on the
scope. If there are significant discrepancies, check to see if the RED inner knobs on
the VOLTS/DIV controls are in the CAL position. If not, turn them to this position
and repeat your measurements.

OSCILLOSCOPE TIME MEASUREMENTS

1. Time measurements are best made along the center horizontal graticule line.
Using the signal from the PROBE ADJUST terminal, center the square wave vertically
on the screen with the VERTICAL POSITION control.

2. Use the HORIZONTAL POSITION control to line up one rising edge of the
square wave with the vertical graticule line that is second from the left side of the
screen.
 3. Count the number of major and minor divisions across the center horizontal graticule line
that span one cycle of the square wave. Multiply the number of major divisions
(including the fractional part) by the SEC/DIV setting to determine the time required for
one cycle, i.e., the period of the wave.
Calculate the inverse of this value to determine the fundamental repetition frequency for
the square wave. Compare this value with the one printed on the scope face near the
PROBE ADJUST output pin.

THE FUNCTION GENERATOR

1. Connect the oscilloscope to the function generator, making sure that the
polarity of the connection is correct. Set the function generator for a sine wave output with
any amplitude and a frequency of about 1 kHz. Adjust the oscilloscope controls to
display several cycles of this waveform on the screen.

2. Switch the input coupling of the oscilloscope to DC. The sine wave displayed
on the screen should not change. Switch the input coupling of the oscilloscope to GND.
What happens to the sine wave?

3. Switch the input coupling of the oscilloscope back to DC. Turn on the DC
OFFSET on the generator and watch what happens to the oscilloscope display as the DC
OFFSET voltage is varied in the positive direction. Switch the input coupling of the
oscilloscope back to AC. What happens to the voltage display?

4. Turn off the DC OFFSET of the generator and set the input coupling of the
oscilloscope to AC. Change the output of the function generator to a triangular
waveform and adjust the amplitude to 2 volts peak-to-peak, as measured on the
oscilloscope. Set the frequency control on the generator to the maximum possible value
with a multiplier of 1kHz.

5. Determine the period and the fundamental repetition frequency of this

triangular waveform as accurately as possible with the oscilloscope.

Data Analysis: None

Report: None
 EXERCISE NO. 8

RL CIRCUITS AND TIME CONSTANTS

Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to determine the time constant of an RL circuit and
use it to deduce the inductance value.

Procedure:

1. Measure and record the resistance values of a 10 kΩ and a 5.1 kΩ resistor.

2. Obtain an inductor from the instructor and use the DMM to measure its
resistance value, R.

3. Measure and record the inductance of the coil according to the instructor's
directions.

4. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 on a circuit board. Set the function
generator to create a square wave with a fundamental frequency of six or seven kHz
and a peak to peak voltage of 10V. The exact frequency does not matter as long as
the coil can be fully fluxed during one half of the square wave cycle. Use channel one
of the oscilloscope to display the voltage at point "a". Confirm the frequency and
amplitude of the square wave.

Figure 1

5. Connect channel one of the oscilloscope to point "b" such that the voltage across
the 10 kΩ resistor is displayed on the screen. Adjust the time scale to 10μs per division.
Adjust the oscilloscope controls such that one charging cycle is displayed, using as
much of the vertical height of the screen as is practical. Align the leading edge of the
charging cycle with the intersection of a vertical and a horizontal line on the screen such
that screen divisions can be conveniently counted.

6. Use the oscilloscope display to determine the resistor voltage for time values of : 0,
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 microseconds. Record these values.
 Data Analysis:

1. Create a table containing nominal and measured resistance values. Include the
resistance of the inductor.

2. Create a table containing time and the 10 kΩ resistor voltage values.

3. Create a scatterplot graph of resistor voltage versus time. Use the plotting option
that creates a smooth line through the data. DO NOT use the plotting option that
"connects the dots". Make sure that the scales are labeled with proper units.

4. Identify the point on your graph that represents 63% of the maximum resistor voltage.
Identify the time value, as accurately as possible, that corresponds to this voltage.
This is your time constant, x.

5. Use your time constant, together with the total series resistance, to calculate the
inductance of your inductor. Note that the 5.1 kΩ resistor does not contribute
toward this calculation in any way. It is merely a shunt across the signal generator.

6. Create a table that contains the time constant and compares the measured and
calculated values for the inductor.

Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

A circuit schematic.

A table for resistance values.

A table for the 10 kΩ voltages versus time.

A graph of the 10 kΩ voltages versus time.

A table containing the time constant and measured and calculated inductance values.

A brief discussion of your conclusions.

An appendix containing the calculations for the inductor value.

 EXERCISE NO. 9

RL CIRCUITS WITH AC SOURCES

Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to verify the voltage waveforms for RL circuits
with AC sources.
Procedure:

1. Measure and record the resistance values of a 10 KΩ and a 5.1 KΩ resistor.

2. Obtain an inductor from the instructor.

3. Measure and record the inductance of the coil according to the instructor's
directions.

4. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 on a circuit board. Set the function
generator to create a sinusoidal wave with a frequency of 5 kHz and a peak-to-peak
value of 10 volts. Verify the frequency with the frequency counter and verify the
amplitude by connecting channel one of the oscilloscope to point "a". Use the AC
setting for the oscilloscope and make sure that the ground position is centered
vertically on the screen. Adjust the time scale with the scale setting and the
"calibrate" knob such that one cycle of the sine wave occupies exactly eight
divisions on the screen. Each large division will then correspond to one eighth of a
cycle, or 45°, and each small division will correspond to one fortieth of a cycle, or
9°.

Figure 1

5. Connect channel two of the oscilloscope to point "b", displaying the voltage
across the 10 kΩ resistor; along with channel one, which is displaying the source
voltage. Trigger the oscilloscope with channel one. Determine the peak-to-peak
voltage for the resistor and record this value. Count the number of small divisions
between similar points on the two waves and convert this value into the phase
angle for the resistor. Record your measured phase angle. Pay attention to the
algebraic sign of the angle as well as the magnitude of it, i.e., whether the resistor
voltage leading or lagging the source.
 6. Reverse the polarity of the source such that the ground position is at point "a".

7. Connect channel one of the oscilloscope to point "c", representing the source
voltage, and connect channel two of the oscilloscope to point "b", representing the
inductor voltage. Make sure that one cycle occupies eight divisions on the screen.

8. Measure and record the peak-to-peak value and the phase angle for the inductor
voltage.

9. Repeat steps four through eight at a frequency of 40 kHz.

Data Analysis:
1. Create a table containing the measured resistance values and the measured inductor
value.

2. Using your measured component values, calculate the peak-to-peak voltages and
the phase angles for the resistor and the inductor for each of the two frequencies, 5
kHz and 40 kHz.
3. Create a table comparing measured and calculated values for the peak-to-peak
voltages and the phase angles.

4. Using your measured values, write the sinusoidal equations for the resistor
voltage and the inductor voltage at each frequency. Put these equations into a table.

Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

A circuit schematic for measuring the resistor voltage.

A circuit schematic for measuring the inductor voltage.

A table for the peak-to-peak voltages and phase angles.

A table for the sinusoidal equations.

A summary of your conclusions

An appendix containing the voltage calculations for a frequency of 5 kHz

An appendix containing the voltage calculations for a frequency of 40 kHz.

 EXERCISE NO. 10

RC CIRCUITS AND TIME CONSTANTS

Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to compare resistor and capacitor
voltages during the DC charging cycle of a capacitor and to deduce the time constant of
the circuit.
Procedure:

1. Measure and record the resistance value of a 5.1 KΩ resistor.

2.Obtain a 0.001 μF capacitor from the instructor.

3. Measure and record the capacitance of the capacitor according to the

instructor's directions.

4. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 on a circuit board. Set the

function generator to create a square wave with a fundamental frequency of
12 - 13 kHz and a peak to peak voltage of 10V. The exact frequency does not
matter as long as the capacitor can be fully charged during one half of the
square wave cycle. Use channel one of the oscilloscope to display the
voltage at point "a". Confirm the frequency and amplitude of the square
wave.

Figure 1

5. Connect channel one of the oscilloscope to point "b" such that the voltage
across the capacitor is displayed on the screen. Adjust the time scale to 5ps
per division. Adjust the oscilloscope controls such that one charging cycle is
displayed, using as much of the vertical height of the screen as is practical.
Align the leading edge of the charging cycle with the intersection of a vertical
 and a horizontal line on the screen such that screen divisions can be conveniently
counted.

6. Use the oscilloscope display to determine the capacitor voltage for time
values of: 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, 12.5, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40
microseconds. Record these values.

7.Reverse the polarity of the source and repeat step 6 for the resistor voltages.

Data Analysis:

1. Create a table containing the nominal and measured capacitor and resistor
values.

2. Use your measured component values to calculate the circuit time

constant.

3. Calculate the resistor voltages and the capacitor voltages for the time values
shown in step 6 of the procedure.

4. Create a table containing time, the measured and calculated capacitor

voltages, and the measured and calculated 5.1 KΩ resistor voltages.

5. Use your measured values to create a scatterplot graph of capacitor voltage

versus time. Use the plotting option that creates a smooth line through the
data. DO NOT use the plotting option that "connects the dots". Make sure that
the scales are labeled with proper units.

6. Identify the point on your graph that represents 63% of the maximum capacitor
voltage. Identify the time value, as accurately as possible, that corresponds to
this voltage. This is an estimate of the time constant, T.

7. Use your measured values to create a scatterplot graph of resistor voltage

versus time. Use the plotting option that creates a smooth line through the data.
DO NOT use the plotting option that "connects the dots". Make sure that the
scales are labeled with proper units.

8. Identify the point on your graph that represents 37% of the maximum resistor
voltage. Identify the time value, as accurately as possible, that corresponds to
this voltage. This is an estimate of the time constant, T.

9. Create a table that contains the calculated time constant and the values obtained
from the two graphs.
Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

A circuit schematic.

A table for capacitor and resistor values.

A table for capacitor and resistor voltages versus time.

A graph of the measured capacitor voltages versus time.

A graph of the measured resistor voltages versus time.

A table containing the three values for the circuit time constant.

A brief discussion of your conclusions, including:

o A comparison of measured and calculated voltages.

o A comparison of capacitor and resistor voltages.

o A comparison of the time constant values.

An appendix containing the calculations for the time constant and the
voltages.
 EXERCISE NO. 11

FREQUENCY EFFECTS IN SERIES RLC CIRCUITS

Objectives: The objectives of this exercise are to examine the effects of frequency
on the resistor voltage in a series RLC circuit and to identify the resonant frequency and
the bandwidth of the circuit.

Procedure:

1. Measure and record the resistance value of a 11d2 resistor.

2. Obtain a 0.001 μf capacitor from the instructor. Measure and record

its capacitance value.

3. Obtain a 100 mH inductor from the instructor. Measure and record

its inductance value.

4. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 on a circuit board. Set the

function generator to create a sinusoidal wave with a frequency of 10 kHz
and a peak to peak value of 10v. Use channel one of the oscilloscope to
display the voltage at point "A". Confirm the frequency and amplitude of
the source voltage.

5. Connect channel one of the oscilloscope to point "B" such that the
voltage across the resistor is displayed on the screen. Choose an appropriate
vertical scale and determine the peak to peak resistor voltage. Record this
value. There is no need to determine the phase angle of the resistor
voltage relative to the source.

6. Use the oscilloscope display to determine the peak to peak resistor

voltages at the following frequencies, all in kHz: 10, 11, 12, 13, 13.5, 14,
14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 20, 21, 22. Record these
values. The frequencies can be confirmed with the frequency counter. In
each case choose a voltage scale that uses as much of the oscilloscope
screen as possible such that the voltage can be determined accurately.
Data Analysis:

1. Create a table containing the nominal and measured capacitor, inductor and resistor
values.

2. Create a table containing frequencies and resistor voltage values.

3. Create a scatterplot graph of resistor voltage versus frequency. Use the plotting
option that puts the best smooth line through the data points.

4. The resonant frequency of the circuit is that value for which the inductor and capacitor
impedances cancel, the total circuit impedance is a minimum, and the current and
resistor voltage are both maximums. The theoretical resonant frequency can be
calculated from the equation fR = 1 / (27 LC). Calculate the theoretical resonant
frequency based on measured component values. Identify the value implied by your
graph.

5. The bandwidth of the circuit represents the frequency range defined by the resistor
voltage being about 71% of the maximum value. The upper and lower frequencies of
this range are called "critical frequencies" or "half power points". The theoretical
bandwidth can be calculated from the equation BW ® R / (2 aL). Calculate the
theoretical bandwidth, in Hz, and identify the value implied by the upper and lower
half power points on your graph.

6. Create a table summarizing the theoretical and measured values for the
resonant frequency and the bandwidth of this series RLC circuit.
Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

A circuit schematic.

A table for capacitor, inductor and resistor values.

A table for resistor voltage versus frequency.

A graph of resistor voltage versus frequency.

A table summarizing the resonant frequency and the bandwidth.

A brief discussion of your conclusions.

An appendix containing the calculations for the resonant frequency and the bandwidth
 EXERCISE NO. 12

THE SILICON DIODE AND THE DIODE CURVE

Objective: The objective of this laboratory exercise is to study the electrical properties of
the silicon diode and to determine the voltage-current characteristics of a silicon diode.
Procedure:
1. Obtain a 1N914 silicon diode from the instructor.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1 (forward bias). Adjust the voltage
of the source from 0 to 10 volts in increments of 0.1 volts between 0 and I
volt, and in increments of 0.5 volt thereafter. For each voltage setting of the
supply, record the diode voltage, the resistor voltage, and the current.

3. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2. Note that the direction of the
diode has been reversed. Adjust the DC source from zero to 10 volts in
increments of one volt. Measure the voltage across the diode, the voltage
across the 1 kΩ resistor, and the current for each source voltage setting.

0 - 10 V K

Figure 2
 Data Analysis:

1. Calculate the currents and the resistor voltages under the forward bias
condition using the voltage — only diode model. Use the same source voltage values
as in procedure step 2.

2. Calculate the currents and the resistor voltages under the reverse bias
condition using the voltage — only diode model. Use the same source voltage values
as in procedure step 3.

3. Create a table of measured and calculated diode voltages, resistor voltages and
currents versus source voltage values from minus ten volts to plus ten volts.

4. Create a scatterplot graph of measured current versus measured diode voltage

for your range of values. Use the plotting option that puts the best smooth line through
the data points.

5. Locate the forward voltage, or barrier potential, on this graph and identify the
corresponding forward current.

6. Create a scatterplot graph of calculated current versus calculated (actually,

assumed) diode voltage for the same range of source voltage values, based on
the voltage — only diode model.

Report:

Write a tech brief that summarizes this experiment. Your tech brief must include:

The objectives of the exercise.

A brief summary of the procedures.

Two circuit schematics.

A table for measured and calculated voltages and currents versus the source voltage.

A graph of measured diode current versus measured diode voltage.

A graph of calculated diode current versus assumed diode voltage.

A brief discussion of your conclusions, including your value for the diode current
when the diode voltage equals the barrier potential.

An appendix containing the calculations for the diode currents.