Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport

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Fundamental Movement Skill Proficiency and

Health Among a Cohort of Irish Primary School
Children

Linda A. Bolger, Lisa E. Bolger, Cian O’Neill, Edward Coughlan, Seán Lacey,
Wesley O’Brien & Con Burns

To cite this article: Linda A. Bolger, Lisa E. Bolger, Cian O’Neill, Edward Coughlan, Seán Lacey,
Wesley O’Brien & Con Burns (2019): Fundamental Movement Skill Proficiency and Health Among
a Cohort of Irish Primary School Children, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, DOI:
10.1080/02701367.2018.1563271

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2018.1563271

Published online: 01 Feb 2019.

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RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2018.1563271

Fundamental Movement Skill Proficiency and Health Among a Cohort of Irish

Primary School Children
a
Linda A. Bolger , Lisa E. Bolgera, Cian O’Neilla, Edward Coughlana, Seán Laceya, Wesley O’Brienb,
and Con Burnsa
a
Cork Institute of Technology; bUniversity College Cork

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between fundamental movement skills Received 11 August 2017
(FMS) and markers of health among a cohort of Irish primary school children. Methods: Accepted 12 December 2018
Participants (N = 296, mean age: 7.99 ± 2.02 years) were senior infant (n = 149, mean age: KEYWORDS
6.02 ± 0.39 years) and 4th class (n = 147, mean age: 9.97 ± 0.40 years) students from three primary Cardiovascular fitness;
schools in Cork, Ireland. FMS proficiency (TGMD-2) and markers of health (BMI percentile, waist elementary school; gross
circumference percentile, blood pressure percentiles, resting heart rate, cardiorespiratory fitness, motor skills; physical activity
objectively measured physical activity; PA) measurements were recorded. Correlation and hier-
archical stepwise multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to investigate the relation-
ship between FMS and markers of health. Results: A small, positive relationship was found
between FMS (Gross Motor Quotient; GMQ) and cardiorespiratory fitness with small negative
correlations between GMQ and 550 m time SDS among 6-year-olds (r(129) = −.286, p < .05) and
10-year-olds (r(132) = −.340, p < .05). A moderate, positive correlation was found between GMQ
and light PA (r(71) = .400, p < .05). Small positive correlations were revealed between GMQ and
moderate PA (r(71) = .259, p < .05) and between GMQ and total PA (r(71) = .355, p < .05). After
adjusting for age, sex, the interaction effect of age and sex, and school attended, FMS explained
15.9% and 24.8% of the variance in 550 m time SDS among 6- and 10-year-olds, respectively, and
6% and 6.5% of the variance in light PA and moderate PA, respectively. After adjusting for age and
sex, FMS explained 11.6% of the variance in total PA. Conclusion: A wide range of FMS is
important for children’s cardiorespiratory fitness and PA.

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are basic move- Eguia, & Abernethy, 2014; Cohen, Morgan, Plotnikoff,
ment patterns that facilitate participation in sport and Callister, & Lubans, 2014), and weight status (Lubans
physical activity (PA; Gallahue & Ozmun, 2006). They et al., 2010; Slotte, Saakslahti, Metsamuuronen, &
can be categorized according to three subgroups: loco- Rintala, 2015) have been reported, further validation
motor (LOCO), object-control (OC), and stability skills is scarce. Furthermore, few researchers have examined
(Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010). FMS the relationship between FMS and other markers of
proficiency is positively associated with many physio- health such as resting heart rate (RHR), blood pressure
logical, psychological, and behavioral benefits (Lubans (BP), and PA levels of different intensities—for exam-
et al., 2010), including fitness (Burns, Brusseau, Fu, & ple, light PA (LPA), moderate PA (MPA), vigorous PA
Hannon, 2017) and PA levels (Logan, Webster, (VPA), and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA).
Getchell, Pfeiffer, & Robinson, 2015). Burns et al. In a review article, Lubans et al. (2010) reported
(2017) reported a negative, albeit very small, relation- a positive relationship between FMS competency and
ship between LOCO skill proficiency and metabolic health. However, only three out of the 21 studies that
syndrome score among children, emphasizing that were included were carried out among European popu-
further benefits such as a reduced risk of cardiometa- lations. While Lubans et al. (2010), in the review,
bolic disease may also be associated with FMS profi- reported a positive association between FMS and CRF,
ciency. Although a positive association between FMS only one of the four studies that investigated this rela-
proficiency and physiological markers of health such as tionship was carried out among children and used
cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF; Barnett, van Beurden, a process-oriented FMS assessment tool (Marshall &
Morgan, Brooks, & Beard, 2008; Marshall & Bouffard, Bouffard, 1997). In addition to this review, Haga
1997; Okely, Booth, & Patterson, 2001), PA (Capio, Sit, (2009) found that children with low motor competence

CONTACT Linda A. Bolger [email protected] Cork Institute of Technology, Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, Co. Cork, Ireland.
© 2019 SHAPE America
2 L. A. BOLGER ET AL.

recorded lower CRF scores than children with high a better predictor of adiposity than BMI among chil-
motor competence, which provides further evidence dren (Brambilla, Bedogni, Heo, & Pietrobelli, 2013).
to suggest that motor competence is associated with It has been projected that Ireland is on track to
more favorable CRF. It should be noted however that become the most obese EU nation by 2030 (Webber
the sample size in the study was small (N = 18). Burns et al., 2014), while concerningly low PA and CRF levels
et al. (2017) also found a positive relationship (albeit among Irish youth have also been reported (Woods,
weak) between FMS and CRF among children from Tannehill, Quinlan, Moyna, & Walsh, 2010). With such
low-income elementary schools. adverse health predictions, steps to improve the health
In a review article, Logan et al. (2015) reported and well-being of the Irish population are required.
a small-to-moderate positive relationship between One such step is the development of FMS among
FMS and PA among 6- to 12-year-olds. It should be Irish children (O’Brien et al., 2016). While the relation-
noted however, that only one of the 13 studies included ship that exists between FMS and markers of health
was conducted in Europe. Additionally, self-report PA among children worldwide is not definitive, some evi-
questionnaires were used in the majority of the studies dence suggests a positive relationship (Lubans et al.,
that were carried out among 6- to 12-year-olds. Studies 2010). In addition, the relationship between FMS and
that have investigated the relationship between FMS single health markers, such as habitual PA (Cohen
and objectively-measured PA have produced mixed et al., 2014) and weight status (Cliff et al., 2009;
findings (Barnett, Ridgers, & Salmon, 2015; Cohen Lubans et al., 2010; Siahkouhian, Mahmoodi, &
et al., 2014). Among children from low-income com- Salehi, 2011; Slotte et al., 2015), has been examined.
munities, it was found that no correlation existed Researchers have yet to examine the relationship
between LOCO skill proficiency and daily MVPA between FMS proficiency, and a comprehensive battery
(Cohen et al., 2014). However, OC competency was of health markers. The aims of this study were to (a)
positively related to daily MVPA (Cohen et al., 2014). examine the relationship between FMS proficiency and
This correlation was small in size. Similar mixed con- a range of health markers (CRF, RHR, BMI, WHtR, BP,
clusions were reported by Capio et al. (2014), who and PA) among a cohort of Irish primary (elementary)
found that FMS proficiency was moderately related to school children and (b) determine the amount of var-
PA during weekend days but not weekdays, among iance in the markers of health that can be accounted for
a sample of Filipino children. In contrast to research as a result of FMS proficiency.
that reported a positive relationship between FMS and
PA (Capio et al., 2014; Cohen et al., 2014; Lubans et al.,
Methods
2010), Cliff, Okely, Smith, and McKeen (2009) found
that among girls, LOCO standard score and GMQ were Cross-sectional data for the current study were col-
negatively associated with the percentage of time spent lected as part of a larger longitudinal study evaluating
in MVPA, with moderate correlations reported. the effectiveness of a child-oriented PA and nutrition
Furthermore, Barnett et al. (2015) found that OC pro- intervention entitled Project Spraoi (Coppinger, Lacey,
ficiency was not associated with MVPA among O’Neill, & Burns, 2016). Project Spraoi is a primary
a sample of 4- to 8-year-old children. school–based health promotion intervention that aims
Many researchers have investigated the relationship to increase the PA levels and improve the nutritional
between FMS and weight status among youth (Lubans habits of primary school children. The project is coor-
et al., 2010; O’Brien, Belton, & Issartel, 2016; Slotte dinated by a team of researchers from and works in
et al., 2015; Spessato, Gabbard, Robinson, & Valentini, partnership with Project Energize, New Zealand.
2013). Slotte et al. (2015) reported that there was Baseline data from Project Spraoi were used for the
a small-to-moderate negative relationship between current study.
FMS and adiposity (BMI, waist circumference, body Baseline data were collected in October 2014 and
fat percentage and abdominal fat percentage) among 2015 by trained evaluators from the Project Spraoi
children (albeit, only five of the 12 fundamental move- Research Team who were postgraduate researchers
ment skills from the Test of Gross Motor with undergraduate degrees in the area of sport and
Development–2 were measured in the study.) Spessato exercise. Prior to data collection, consent forms were
et al. (2013), on the other hand, found no difference in distributed to 423 children from three primary schools
the motor competence of healthy weight, overweight, (1 rural mixed sex; 1 urban single-sex boys; 1 urban
and obese children. Researchers have yet to examine single-sex girls) in Cork, a region in southern Ireland.
the relationship between FMS and waist-circumference- Children (N = 296, mean age: 7.99 ± 2.02 years) from
to-height ratio (WHtR), which has been found to be the senior infant (n = 149, mean age: 6.02 ± 0.39 years)
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 3

and 4th class (n = 147, mean age: 9.97 ± 0.40 years) Intrarater and interrater reliability were established
cohorts provided written assent (via a signature, or via using (a randomly selected) 10% of the collected sample
coloring a box for “yes” or a box for “no” to indicate before FMS was scored by the two principal investigators.
their consent for participation) and written parental Intra- and interreliability scores across the 12 FMS scores
consent (70%) for the children’s involvement in the ranged from 89% to 99% agreement (mean: 93.41%).
study. As testing was carried out over a number of
days (FMS, CRF, and physical measurements were
measured on different days due to time constraints),
Physical measurements
not all children completed all measurements as some
were absent from school on some of the testing days. Physical measurements taken were height, mass, waist
Ethical approval was obtained from the Cork Institute circumference (WC), RHR, and BP. These measure-
of Technology Research Ethics Review Board. ments were collected in a small, specially designated
testing room in each school. Children arrived to the
testing room in groups of approximately 5 to 8 chil-
dren. Prior to measurements, children removed their
Fundamental movement skills
shoes and heavy clothing (e.g., school jumper).
FMS proficiency was measured using the Test of Gross Children moved from one measurement station to
Motor Development–2 (TGMD-2), which is valid and the next and were instructed to sit quietly while wait-
reliable for 3- to 10-year-olds (Ulrich, 2000). The ing to be tested for the next measure if they had
TGMD-2 consists of 12 skills; six LOCO (run, leap, finished before the next station was free. Height was
hop, gallop, slide, and horizontal jump), and six OC measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using a Leicester por-
(two-handed catch, overarm throw, underhand roll, table height scale. Mass was measured to the nearest
kick, two-handed strike, and stationary dribble) skills. 0.1 kg using a Tanita WB100MZ portable electronic
The FMS testing protocol was adopted from that of scale. WC was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using
O’Brien et al. (2016). Children were provided with a non-stretch Seca 200 measuring tape. Measurements
a silent demonstration of the skill to be tested by were taken from the right side of the child, who stood
a trained test administrator. Test administrators had with hands by the side, feet together. A child’s WC
previously received training during a three-hour prac- was measured as the circumference of the narrowest
tical workshop with a researcher with over six years’ point of the abdomen between the lower costal border
experience administering and scoring the TGMD-2. and the top of the iliac crest, perpendicular to the long
Children subsequently performed one familiarization axis of the trunk. RHR (to the nearest beats
and two test trials, with both test trials recorded. This per minute) and BP (to the nearest millimeter of
was repeated for the 12 skills. mercury [mmHg]) were measured using an Omron
The recordings of the test trials were uploaded to M2 Basic Auto Blood Pressure Monitor. Children sat
a laptop and analyzed retrospectively using the protocol quietly for approximately 5 minutes (the time it took
developed by Ulrich (2000). Each skill consisted of 3–- for the child before them to be tested) before having
5 performance criteria. A score of 1 was awarded if their RHR and BP tested. RHR and BP were measured
a criterion was performed correctly, while a score of 0 with the cuff positioned on the upper left arm of the
was awarded if the criterion was not performed cor- child, who was seated with the left arm relaxed and
rectly. This procedure was carried out for each criterion raised on a pillow. BP was measured to ±5.0 U and
across the two test trials. The two test-trial scores were ±10 mmHg.
summed to give a raw-skill score. The raw-skill scores Each measurement was taken twice, with a third neces-
of the LOCO skills were summed to give a LOCO sary if the first two differed by a specified value (> 0.1 cm for
subset score (range 0–48) and the raw-skill scores of height, > 0.1 kg for mass, > 0.1 cm for WC, > 10 bpm for
the OC skills were summed to give an OC subset score RHR, and > 10 mmHg for BP). For each measured variable,
(range 0–48). LOCO and OC subset scores were subse- the mean of the closest two measurements was calculated
quently converted to LOCO standard score (LOCO SS) for each child. This value was used in the analyses. The
and OC standard score (OC SS), respectively, using the Excel add-in LMS-growth program (version 2.77) was used
age- and sex-specific conversion tables in the TGMD-2 to calculate percentile scores from the British 1990 child-
manual. The sum of the subset standard scores were growth reference data for age- and sex-specific percentiles
then converted to a gross motor quotient (GMQ) score of BMI (Cole, Freeman, & Preece, 1995), WC (McCarthy,
(range: 46–160) using the conversion table, also in the Jarrett, & Crawley, 2001), and systolic and diastolic blood
TGMD-2 manual (Ulrich, 2000). pressure (Jackson, Thalange, & Cole, 2007).
4 L. A. BOLGER ET AL.

Cardiorespiratory fitness for analysis of the PA data. Pearson’s product moment

correlation and Spearman’s rho (when appropriate) were
Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) was measured in
used to investigate the relationship between FMS and
groups of 12 to 15 using a 550 meter walk/run test
markers of health. Correlations were classified using the
(Albon, Hamlin, & Ross, 2010). A 110-meter rope was
absolute criterion: nonexistent (r = 0–0.19), low (r
laid in an oval shape on a flat grass area. Following
= 0.20–0.39), moderate (r = 0.40–0.59), moderately high
a warm-up lap on an oval track (which consisted of
(r = 0.60–0.79), and high (≥ 0.80; Zhu, 2012). If correla-
jogging, high knees, heel flicks, skipping, and sprint-
tion analysis revealed a relationship between FMS (GMQ
ing), children were divided into groups of 3 to 4 and
score) and a marker of health, hierarchical forward-entry
each group was assigned to an evaluator. Children were
stepwise multiple linear regression was used to calculate
instructed to complete five laps as fast as they could.
the proportion of variance in that marker of health that
Run/walk times were recorded to the nearest second
could be explained by each of the individual FMS scores
using a stopwatch. Time taken to complete the 550 m
(having adjusting for age; sex; the interaction effect of age
was converted from minutes and seconds, into total
and sex, age*sex; and school attended). The regression
seconds. Age- and sex-specific 550 m run time standard
analysis was carried out as follows: The dependent vari-
deviation scores (SDS) were calculated using the run
able (e.g., 550 m time SDS) was entered as the dependent
centile curves developed by Project Energize evaluation
variable in the linear regression dialog box. Age and sex
data (Rush & Obolonkin, 2014).
were entered in the first step (Block 1), and “stepwise”
was selected from the “method” dropdown menu. The 12
Physical activity individual skills (raw scores) were entered in the second
step (Block 2) and, again, “stepwise” was selected from the
Physical activity (PA) was measured using tri-axial “method” dropdown menu. The regression model was
ActiGraph GT3X accelerometers (Fort Walton Beach, run a second time, this time with age, sex, and age*sex
FL, USA). A random sample of the children received entered in the first step. The regression model was run
accelerometers (n = 121), due to limited accelerometer a third time with age, sex, age*sex, and school (entered as
availability. Children wore the accelerometers for seven three dummy variables: school 1, school 2 and school 3)
consecutive days on their right hip for all waking hours, in Block 1. The results of the final regression model and
except while in water (e.g., swimming, shower/bath). the model that explained the largest amount of variance
ActiLife software (version 6.13.3) was used to analyze in each of the selected variables are reported.
the data. Data were collected and stored in 5 s epochs.
Of the 121 children who received accelerometers, 76
(63%) met the required wear time of at least three Results
weekdays and one weekend day, with a minimum of Participants (N = 296, mean age: 7.99 ± 2.02 years)
10 h recorded wear time per day (Riddoch et al., 2004). were primary school children from senior infants
Nonwear times were identified as 20 min of consecutive (n = 149, mean age: 6.02 ± 0.39 years) and 4th class
zeros. The first day of accelerometer wear time was (n = 147, mean age: 9.97 ± 0.40 years). Children in the
removed from the data set to allow for subject reactivity senior infants class and 4th class are subsequently
(Esliger, Copeland, Barnes, & Tremblay, 2005). Cut- referred to as 6-year-olds and 10-year-olds, respec-
points developed by Evenson, Catellier, Gill, Ondrak, tively. Table 1 presents descriptive data of the children
and McMurray (2008) were used to calculate average who participated in the study while Table 2 presents the
daily LPA, MPA, VPA, and MVPA. Average daily total PA results obtained from the subsample from whom
PA (TOTAL PA) was calculated as the sum of LPA and PA was measured (n = 76, 46% 6-year-olds).
MVPA). The relationships between the FMS variables and the
collected physical measurements are presented in Table 3
(6-year-olds) and Table 4 (10-year-olds). There were small
Statistical analysis
negative correlations found among the 6-year-old cohort
To show whether the nature and strength of these rela- between GMQ and 550 m time SDS (r(129) = −.286, p
tionships differ across childhood, correlations between < .05, small effect size), and OC SS and 550 m time SDS (r
FMS proficiency and physical measurements are pre- (129) = −.324, p < .05, small effect size). No correlation
sented with children grouped by age—that is, 6-year-old was observed between LOCO SS and 550 m time SDS
and 10-year-old groups. However, given the limited sam- among the 6-year-old group. Among the 10-year-old
ple size from which valid PA data were collected (N = 76), cohort, there was also a small negative correlation
children from both age categories were grouped together between GMQ and 550 m time SDS (r(132) = −.340, p
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 5

Table 1. Descriptive data of the children who participated in the study.

6-year-olds 10-year-olds
N Mean ± SD N Mean ± SD
Age (years) 149 6.02 ± 0.39 147 9.97 ± 0.40
Height (cm) 145 115.82 ± 5.35 146 140.67 ± 5.68
Weight (kg) 145 21.57 ± 3.00 146 35.39 ± 6.25
FMS
Locomotor standard score 144 11.05 ± 2.08 144 8.64 ± 1.97
Object-control standard score 138 8.88 ± 1.80 144 7.35 ± 1.97
Gross motor quotient 138 99.98 ± 8.54 144 87.96 ± 8.88
Markers of health
550 m time standard deviation score 141 0.72 ± 0.72 136 0.41 ± 0.94
Resting heart rate (bpm) 144 87.86 ± 11.71 145 79.67 ± 11.86
BMI percentile 145 57.48 ± 25.74 146 61.45 ± 26.52
Waist circumference percentile 144 48.66 ± 28.90 146 56.32 ± 28.29
Systolic blood pressure percentile 144 39.90 ± 29.83 145 34.70 ± 32.26
Diastolic blood pressure percentile 144 59.56 ± 29.83 145 62.63 ± 26.81

Table 2. Physical activity data. were found between LOCO SS and LPA (r(74) = .239,
Mean ± SD p < .05) and between OC SS and LPA (r(71) = .335, p
Light physical activity (min/day) 191.68 ± 31.86 < .05). A moderate positive correlation was found
Moderate physical activity (min/day) 33.48 ± 7.87
Vigorous physical activity (min/day) 26.43 ± 12.46 between GMQ and LPA (r(71) = .400, p < .05). Small
Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (min/day) 59.91 ± 18.47 positive correlations were found between LOCO SS and
Total physical activity (min/day) 251.59 ± 43.03
MPA (r(74) = .230, p < .05), OC SS and MPA (r
(71) = .202, p > .05), and GMQ and MPA
< .05, small effect size). However, in contrast to the (r(71) = .259, p < .05). Small positive correlations
6-year-old group, there was a small negative correlation were also revealed between all three FMS variables
between LOCO SS and 550 m time SDS (rs(132) = −.362, and total PA (r range: .252 to .355, p < .05).
p < .05, small effect size), with no correlation between OC As correlations were identified between (a) GMQ and
SS and 550 m time SDS among the 10-year-olds. There 550 m time SDS among 6-and 10 year olds), (b) GMQ and
was also a small negative correlation found between LPA, (c) GMQ and MPA, and (d) GMQ and total PA,
LOCO SS and RHR (sr(140) = −.204, p < .05, small effect stepwise multiple linear regression analysis was used to
size) among the 10-year-old cohort. further investigate these relationships. Regression analysis
The relationships between the FMS variables and PA revealed that after adjusting for age, sex, age*sex, and
are presented in Table 5. Small positive correlations school, fundamental movement skills scores explained

Table 3. Correlations between FMS variables (locomotor standard score, object-control standard score, and gross motor quotient
scores) and physical measurements for 6-year-olds.
Locomotor standard score Object-control standard score Gross motor quotient
(n = 136–141) (n = 131–136) (n = 131–136)
550 m time standard deviation score −.098 −.324** −.286**
Resting heart rate −.092 −.063 −.114
BMI percentile −.082 −.133 .132
Waist circumference percentile .144 −.012 .109
Systolic blood pressure percentile .107 .017 .116
Diastolic blood pressure percentile .086 .021 .101
*p < .05
**p < .01

Table 4. Correlations between FMS variables (locomotor standard score, object-control standard score, and gross motor quotient
scores) and physical measurements for 10-year-olds.
Locomotor standard score Object-control standard score Gross motor quotient
(n = 134–143) (n = 134–143) (n = 134–143)
550 m time standard deviation score −.362** −.113 −.340**
Resting heart rate −.204* .029 −.101
BMI percentile −.165* −.097 −.166*
Waist circumference percentile −.168* .025 −.096
Systolic blood pressure percentile .019 .005 −.016
Diastolic blood pressure percentile .035 .100 .058
*p < .05
**p < .01
6 L. A. BOLGER ET AL.

Table 5. Correlations between FMS variables (locomotor standard score, object-control standard score, and gross motor quotient
scores) and physical activity.
Locomotor standard score Object-control standard score Gross motor quotient
(n = 76) (n = 73) (n = 73)
Light physical activity .239* .335* .400**
Moderate physical activity .230* .202 .259*
Vigorous physical activity .115 −.003 .053
Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity .175 .084 .146
Total physical activity .252* .281* .355*
Note. Total physical activity = light physical activity + moderate-to-vigorous physical activity
*p < .05
**p < .01

Table 6. Hierarchical stepwise multiple linear regression analysis explaining variance in 550 m time SDS for 6- and 10-year-olds.
95% confidence interval
Unstandardized beta Standardized beta Lower bound Upper bound Adjusted R2
6-year-olds 0.202**
Constant 3.175* 1.354 4.996
Age −.153 −.082 −.464 .158
Kick −.080* −.207 −.140 −.019
Dribble −.081** −.241 −.137 −.025
Hop −.097** −.266 −.156 −.038
10-year-olds 0.272**
Constant 5.056** 3.607 6.504
School 1 .-.537* −.216 −.929 −.145
Hop −.108* −.167 −.207 −.008
Jump −.217** −.362 −.307 −.127
Roll −.111** −.210 −.190 −.032
Gallop −.156* −.195 −.275 −.038
Catch −.142* −.156 −.282 −.003
*p < .05
**p < .01

15.9% and 24.8% of the variance in 550 m time SDS among −0.003]). This model predicts that children who attended
6- and 10-year-olds, respectively (Table 6). The full model School 1 had a 550 m time SDS score that was 0.537 units
(including the variables that were adjusted for) for 6-year- lower than those from the other two schools, and for each
olds explained 20.2% of the variance in 550 m time SDS unit increase in hop, jump, roll, gallop and catch scores,
(adjusted R2 = 0.202, F(4, 125) = 9.140, p < .05), with the there would be 0.108, 0.217, 0.111, 0.156 and 0.142 unit
statistically significant predictors being the kick (β = −.080, decrease in 550 m time SDS, respectively.
p < .05, 95% CI [−0.140, −0.019]); dribble (β = −0.081, p Regression analysis conducted with LPA and MPA
< .05, 95% CI [−0.137, −0.025]); and hop (β = −.097, p < .05, as the outcome variables, revealed that after adjusting
95% CI [−0.156, −.0.038]). The model predicts that for each for age, sex, age*sex, and school attended, FMS
unit increase in kick score, 550 m time SDS would decrease explained 6.0% and 6.5% of the variance in LPA
by 0.080 units, each unit increase in dribble score would and MPA, respectively (Table 7). The full model for
result in a 0.081 unit decrease in 550 m time SDS, and each LPA explained 27.9% of the variance (adjusted
unit increase in hop score would result in a decrease of R2 = 0.279, F(3, 69) = 10.291, p < .05). Age
0.097 units in 550 m time SDS. Having adjusted for age, sex, (β = −7.281, p < .05, 95% CI [−10.517, −4.045])
age*sex, and school attended, the model for 10-year-olds and the roll (β = 5.036, p < .05, 95% CI [1.180,
explained 24.8% of the variance in 550 m time SDS. The full 8.891]) were identified as statistically significant pre-
model (including age, sex, age*sex, and school) for 10 year dictors in the model. The model predicts that for
olds explained 27.2% of the variance in 550 m time SDS each yearly increase in age, LPA would decrease by
(adjusted R2 = 0.272, F(6, 127) = 9.290, p < .05). Statistically 7.28 min and for each unit increase in roll score, LPA
significant predictors in the model were School 1 (β = –.537, would increase by 5.04 min. A total of 28.9% of the
p < .05, 95% CI [−0.929, −0.145]); hop (β = −0.108, p < .05, variance in MPA was explained by the regression
95% CI [−0.207, −0.008]); jump (β = −0.217, p < .05, 95% CI model presented in Table 7 (adjusted R2 = 0.289, F
[−0.307, −0.127]); roll (β = −0.111, p < .05, 95% CI [−0.190, (2, 70) = 15.658, p < .05). Age*sex (β = −0.962, p
−0.032]); gallop (β = −0.156, p < .05, 95% CI [−0.275, < .05, 95% CI [−1.335, −0.590]) and the jump
−0.038]); and catch (β = −0.142, p < .05, 95% CI [−0.282, (β = 1.207, p < .05, 95% CI [0.328, 2.087]) were
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 7

Table 7. Hierarchical stepwise multiple linear regression analysis explaining variance in light and moderate physical activity.
95% confidence interval
Unstandardized beta Standardized beta Lower bound Upper bound Adjusted R2
Outcome: Light physical activity 0.279**
Constant 233.677** 204.677 262.677
Age −7.281** −.471 −10.517 −4.045
Age*Sex (0 = boys) −1.350 −.181 −2.901 .200
Roll 5.036 .278 1.180 8.891
Outcome: Moderate physical activity 0.289**
Constant 31.175** 26.592 35.758
Age*Sex (0 = boys) −.962** −.516 −1.335 −.590
Jump 1.207** .274 .328 2.087
*p < .05
**p < .01

statistically significant predictors in the model. This Discussion

model predicts that the MPA level of a girl is lower
A small negative relationship was found between GMQ and
than that of a boy by 0.962 times her age. The model
550 m time SDS among both 6- and 10-year-old groups,
also predicts that for each increased unit in jump
suggesting that those with higher FMS proficiency may
score, MPA would increase by 1.21 min.
have higher CRF levels than those less skilled or vice
The regression analysis for total PA returned a model in versa. These findings support those from a study by Burns
which there were no FMS variables included. The model in et al. (2017) in which a small correlation (r = .28) between
which age*sex (β = −14.078, p < .05, 95% CI [−20.511, total FMS score (measured using the TGMD-3) and CRF
−7.645]) and sex (β = 92.951, p < .05, 95% CI [37.978, (when measured using the PACER) was reported among
−3.875]) were the statistically significant predictors, a cohort of primary school–aged children from low-income
explained 23.7% of the variance in total PA (adjusted communities. This study by Burns et al. (2017) was carried
R2 = 0.237, F(2, 70) = 12.209, p < .05) (Table 8(a)). After out among a sample of third- to fifth-grade children
adjusting for age and sex only, the analysis revealed a model (N = 224, mean age: 9.1 ± 1.1 year) who were of a similar
that explained 11.6% of the variance in total PA (Table 8 age to that of the 10-year-old cohort in the current study
(b)). The full model (i.e., including age and sex) explained (mean age: 9.9 ± 0.40 years). Results of the current study,
28.5% of the variance in 550 m SDS (adjusted R2 = 0.285, F similar to Burns et al. (2017), found a small positive correla-
(4, 68) = 8.183, p < .05), with the statistically significant tion between LOCO skills and CRF (r = .34) and no
predictors being age (β = −10.724, p < .05, 95% CI [−15.239, correlation between OC skills and CRF (r = −.113).
−6.209]), sex (β = −21.735, p < .05, 95% CI [−39.595, Marshall and Bouffard (1997) reported similar findings,
−3.875]), the roll (β = 7.285, p < .05, 95% CI [2.056, with a small positive correlation reported between LOCO
12.515]), and the jump (β = 6.797, p < .05, 95% CI [7.787, and CRF (r = .32) and no correlation between OC and CRF
11.807]). This model predicts that for each year increase in (r = .18) among 9- to 10-year-old children. Marshall and
age, total PA would decrease by 10.72 min and that a girl Bouffard (1997), similar to the current study, also examined
would accumulate 21.74 min less total PA than a boy. The the relationship between FMS and CRF among a younger
model also predicts that for each unit increase in the roll cohort (age 5 to 6 years). The findings reported among the
and jump scores, total PA would increase by 7.29 and 5- to 6-year-old cohort were similar to those of the current
6.80 min, respectively. study for OC and CRF (r = .25) and for total FMS score and

Table 8. Hierarchical stepwise multiple linear regression models explaining variance in total physical activity.
95% confidence interval
Unstandardized beta Standardized beta Lower bound Upper bound Adjusted R2
(a) Outcome: Total physical activity 0.239**
Constant 260.637**
Age*sex (0 = boys) −14.049** −1.387 −20.297 −7.801
Sex 92.525** 1.076 39.495 145.555
(b) Outcome: Total physical activity 0.285**
Constant 284.076** 239.458 328.694
Age −10.724** −.507 −15.239 −6.209
Sex (0 = boys) −21.735* −.249 −39.595 −3.875
Roll 7.285** .294 2.056 12.515
Jump 6.797** .282 7.787 11.807
*p < .05
**p < .01
8 L. A. BOLGER ET AL.

CRF (r = .35), with small positive correlations found. they are typically smaller and move much slower than 10-
However, in contrast to the current study, Marshall and year-olds, and thus, differentiating between the children
Bouffard (1997) also reported a small positive correlation (r based on speed or efficiency for position selection may
= .31) between LOCO and CRF among 5- to 6-year-old not have occurred. Perhaps children are assigned positions
children. based on OC proficiency at this age.
The relationship, albeit moderately weak, between The current study found that FMS explained 15.9%
FMS and 550 m time SDS is very encouraging given and 24.8% of the variance in 550 m time SDS among 6-
that CRF is an important marker of health. It is inter- and 10-year-olds, respectively (after adjusting for age,
esting to note that the relationship between FMS and sex, the interaction of age and sex, and school
CRF was largely due to the OC proficiency among attended). A larger amount of the variance in 550 m
6-year-olds and largely due to LOCO proficiency time SDS was explained among the 10-year-old group
among 10-year-olds. It is likely that the correlation (compared to the younger group), suggesting that FMS
between GMQ and CRF is due to a greater engagement proficiency may be even more important for CRF as
in PA (possibly organized sport) by those who have children get older. Okely et al. (2001) also found that
higher levels of FMS proficiency. Children who parti- FMS could predict CRF among youth, with FMS
cipate in organized sport not only have higher CRF explaining 12% to 26% of the variance among adoles-
than those who do not participate (Drenowatz et al., cents. These lower values reported by Okely et al.
2013), they also have the opportunity to receive appro- (2001) may be explained by the different CRF
priate instruction and feedback from coaches for FMS. (Multistage Fitness Test) and FMS assessment tools
The correlation between OC SS and CRF found among used in that study. While FMS development appears
6-year-olds may be an indication of the types of sports/ to be important for CRF among children (this study)
physical activities that these more active children parti- and adolescents (Okely et al., 2001), Barnett et al.
cipate in. With Gaelic games (football and hurling), (2008), in a longitudinal study, reported that childhood
soccer, and basketball being popular recreational activ- FMS proficiency accounted for 26% of adolescent fit-
ities (Woods et al., 2010), children who had higher CRF ness, highlighting the possibility that FMS proficiency
are likely to have engaged in these OC-based activities may not only be important for current CRF but also
and as a result develop a basic level of proficiency future CRF.
compared to their less active counterparts with a very The hop was identified as a predictor of 550 m SDS
limited level of OC proficiency. The lack of correlation for both the 6- and 10-year-old cohorts, suggesting that
between OC SS and CRF among 10-year-olds is sur- the development of this skill in particular is important
prising given the popularity of these OC-based sports for children’s CRF. However, this was the only skill that
among this age group also. However, given the predo- featured in both the 6- and 10-year-olds’ models, indi-
minance of soccer, basketball, and football in primary cating that a range of skills is important for chil-
school PE classes (Woods et al., 2010), perhaps the dren’s CRF.
majority of children have developed a basic level of The negative relationship between FMS and 550 m
OC proficiency by this age (irrespective of any activity time SDS may be explained by the possibility that
outside of PE that may account for differences in CRF). children with higher FMS proficiency take part in
A possible explanation for the relationship between more PA, as higher PA levels in children are associated
LOCO SS and CRF (and RHR) among 10-year-olds with improved CRF (Morrow et al., 2013). The positive
may be that children who are more efficient in their relationship found between FMS and PA in the current
movement from one place to another (i.e., demonstrate study provide support for this explanation. Given that
superior proficiency in LOCO skills) participate in regression analysis revealed that FMS explained 6% and
greater amounts of organized sport than their less effi- 6.5% of the variance in LPA and MPA, respectively
cient counterparts. (after adjusting for age, sex, age*sex, and school
Furthermore, within sporting settings, children who attended) and 11.6% of the variance in total PA (after
have greater LOCO skills often play in central positions adjusting for age and sex), the development of funda-
on sporting teams and so those with higher LOCO have the mental movement skills (FMS) may have the potential
opportunity to enhance their CRF (and reduce their RHR). to enhance PA levels among children. Although there
A possible explanation for the lack of correlation between was no correlation between FMS and MVPA, correla-
LOCO SS and CRF (and between LOCO SS and RHR) tions between LPA, MPA, and total PA were found,
among 6-year-olds may be that the difference in children’s which suggests that those more competent at FMS
movement capabilities may not be as apparent to coaches engage in more PA than those who do not. It should
when selecting teams or positions for children at 6 years as be noted however that the correlations were small to
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 9

moderate in size. Given the sedentary nature of chil- school PE is a legal requirement in 89% of countries
dren (that has come as a result of enhanced technology worldwide (Hardman, 2008). However, Ireland is not
such as the emergence of iPods, tablets, video games, one of these countries. In Ireland, the Irish
etc.), any increase in PA may bring about health ben- Department of Education and Skills merely “recom-
efits (even though it may not be MVPA. Furthermore, mend” that Irish children engage in 60 minutes of PE
children with greater FMS proficiency may be able to every week. Despite these low targets, Woods et al.
take part in PA at higher intensities than those who are (2010) reported that only 35% of primary school
less skilled (Fairclough & Stratton, 2006). Research children actually receive this recommended 60 min-
shows that the greater the exercise intensity, the greater utes of PE per week. To increase the provision of PE
the improvements in CRF (Swain & Franklin, 2002). for primary school children, mandatory PE time (of
Correlation analysis revealed that there was no rela- longer duration than the currently recommended
tionship between either FMS and WC percentile or one hour) should be introduced. With low FMS
FMS and BMI percentile. To date, mixed findings for proficiency reported among Irish primary school
the relationship between FMS and BMI have been children (Bolger et al., 2017), the quantity and quality
reported (Siahkouhian et al., 2011; Slotte et al., 2015; of PE delivered to Irish primary school children
Spessato et al., 2013). When a negative correlation warrants attention. The Irish primary school PE cur-
between FMS and BMI is found, it appears to be largely riculum, which is delivered to children by the class-
due to the negative relationship between LOCO skills room teacher, is designed to target six strands of
and BMI rather than the relationship between OC skills activities (games, athletics, outdoor adventure,
and BMI. For instance, Siahkouhian et al. (2011) found dance, aquatics, and gymnastics). Despite six
a negative relationship between BMI and three out of strands/groups of activities identified, Woods et al.
four LOCO skills tested (r range: .24 to .46) but with (2010) reported that the content of Irish primary
none of the four OC skills tested. Among an Irish school PE classes is largely dominated by team sports
cohort, albeit adolescents, O’Brien et al. (2016) found (an aspect of the games strand), with relatively large
negative correlations between LOCO and BMI among proportions of children reporting no engagement in
girls (r = −.341) and boys (r = −.367) but no relation- activities from the other five strands during PE dur-
ship between OC and BMI among either girls or boys. ing their previous year in school. The delivery of
It has been suggested that the negative relationship lessons in a narrow range of activities may be due
between LOCO and BMI may be due to to a lack of competence among classroom teachers in
overweight/obese children having larger overall body teaching PE, an issue that has been previously high-
masses, making it more difficult for them to move lighted among Australian primary school teachers
from one place to another when compared to their (Morgan & Hansen, 2008). The low FMS proficiency
leaner peers (O’Brien et al., 2016). However, as the levels that have been reported among Irish primary
TGMD-2 is a process-oriented assessment tool that school children (Bolger et al., 2017) also suggest this
evaluates qualitative aspects of movement over a short and highlight the need for intervention among pri-
period of the time, the performance scores are inde- mary schools. The development of FMS should be
pendent of physical fitness (cardiorespiratory and mus- the primary aim/focus of the Irish primary school
cular endurance) and physical characteristics (mass and curriculum so that children can competently engage
height) (Kim & Lee, 2017). Differences in FMS profi- in the activities referred to in the various strands of
ciency are likely due to other factors such as the quality the Irish primary school curriculum.
and amount of instruction, feedback, and practice It should be emphasized that fundamental move-
experience. ment skills do not develop without appropriate
Based on the TGMD-2’s GMQ classification instruction, feedback, and practice (Stodden et al.,
(<70 = very poor, 0–79 = poor, 80–89 = below aver- 2008). This highlights the need for an increase in
age, 90–110 = average, 111–120 = above average, teacher training in the area of FMS development
121–130 = superior, >130 = very superior), results and PE (so that teachers can design appropriate activ-
of the current study revealed that the 6-year-old ities and give appropriate instruction and feedback to
cohort demonstrated “average” FMS proficiency their students) as well as a greater provision of time
when compared to the normative data presented in for PE in the curriculum (to allow for practice and
the TGMD-2 manual (Ulrich, 2000). However, the opportunities to receive appropriate feedback). PE,
10-year-old cohort demonstrated “below average” which is currently “recommended” (to be carried
FMS levels. A number of factors might account for out for a minimum of 60 minutes per week), should
these below-average FMS levels. Firstly, primary also be made compulsory as it is often omitted from
10 L. A. BOLGER ET AL.

teachers’ weekly lessons due to the overcrowded cur- relationship from MVPA to LOCO proficiency among
riculum and the emphasis on producing students to adolescents, no such investigations have been carried
achieve high standardized test scores in subjects such out among children. Future research should carry out
as English and maths. investigations to determine the direction of the rela-
Researchers in future should consider using a larger tionship between FMS and a comprehensive battery of
sample than was used in the current study so that the markers of health among children.
relationship between fundamental movement skills and While the analysis of the current study was carried
markers of health can be analyzed accurately when out with children subdivided based on their age, future
subdivided based on age and sex. While the current researchers should consider investigating the relation-
research collected data from only two class cohorts, ships between FMS and markers of health with children
future researchers should consider collecting data stratified by both of these variables as had been carried
from children across the full range of primary school out by Okely et al. (2001) among an adolescent cohort.
class groups—that is, from junior infants to 6th class
(4–12 years) to gain a greater insight into the nature of
Conclusion
the relationships between FMS and the markers of
health and also whether these relationships change as FMS proficiency was negatively related to 550 m time
children age. SDS and PA among Irish primary school children,
suggesting that FMS should be developed during the
primary school years (4–13 years) to promote CRF and
Strengths and limitations
PA. There was no relationship between FMS and the
A strength of the study is the use of a comprehensive other markers of health (RHR, WC percentile, BMI
battery of health markers. Other strengths are the use of percentile, and BP percentiles) among 6- or 10-year-
an objective measure of PA, and a relatively large old children. While further investigation into these
sample size from which FMS and physical relationships among children is warranted, it is recom-
measurements were collected. A limitation is the small mended that children develop a wide range of FMS to
sample from which PA data were obtained (among the allow for participation in a variety of physical activities
group of children who received accelerometers and sport and, thus, a healthy, active lifestyle.
(n = 121), the rate of accelerometer-wear-time compli-
ance was 63%, meaning that PA data from only 26% of
What does this article add?
the total sample (76 of 298 children) were used in the
analysis). Future researchers should consider the use of Given predictions that Ireland is on track to become
wrist-worn accelerometers to collect PA data as com- the fattest of 53 nations by 2030 (Webber et al., 2014)
pliance rates have been found to be superior for these and concurrent low fitness levels (Woods et al., 2010),
than hip worn devices (Fairclough et al., 2016). steps that have the potential to curb such adverse
While accelerometers are an objective measure of trends (one of these being FMS; Stodden et al., 2008)
PA, they cannot be worn in water and are insensitive warrant further investigation. Many researchers have
to nonambulatory activities (e.g., cycling) and so may examined the relationship between children’s FMS pro-
underestimate the amount of PA undertaken. Some ficiency and markers of health (Lubans et al., 2010).
children reported removing their accelerometers before However, the majority of this research has been carried
playing sport, which may have also led to an under- out among Australian and American youth. There is
estimation of PA. To obtain a more accurate measure- a dearth of research that relates to the (a) FMS profi-
ment of PA levels, PA diaries in conjunction with ciency and (b) relationship between FMS and markers
accelerometers should be considered to capture physi- of health, among Irish children. Furthermore, research-
cal activities undertaken during “non-wear” times. ers who have investigated the relationship between
While relationships between FMS and markers of FMS and markers of health have often done so using
health were identified, the cross-sectional design of a single marker of health (e.g., habitual PA, weight
the study does not allow the direction of the relation- status) (Cohen et al., 2014; Siahkouhian et al., 2011).
ships to be inferred—that is, whether the development This article not only provides data relating to Irish
of FMS promotes enhanced health or whether better primary school children’s FMS proficiency but also
health status allows for enhanced FMS proficiency. examines the relationship between FMS and
While Barnett, Morgan, van Beurden, Ball, and a comprehensive battery of markers of health (CRF,
Lubans (2011) reported a reciprocal relationship PA of different intensities, BMI, WHtR, and BP)
between OC proficiency and MVPA and a one-way among children.
 RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 11

ORCID Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications, 3, 94–101.

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