SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES.

CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

ENGINEERING METROLOGY
Unit-1: Systems of Limits, Fits and Tolerances
Metrology:
Metrology is a “Science of Measurement’.
 Metrology concerned with the establishment of units of measurements and their
standards, methods of measurement,
 It deals with measuring instruments.
 the science of weights and measures;
 it is the study of units of measurement
 Metrology comes from the Greek word ―metron" and ―logos" which literally means the
study of measurement. This study covers both the experimental and theoretical aspects of
measurement and the determination of the levels of uncertainty of these aspects.
 The study of measurement is a basic requirement in any field of science and technology,
most importantly in engineering and manufacturing.
 Since metrology is the study of measurement, it is expected to enforce, validate and
verify predefined standards for traceability, accuracy, reliability, and precision. All of
these are factors that would affect the validity of measurement.
Categories of Metrology:
Scientific Metrology – Development of measurement standards.
Industrial Metrology – To ensure the adequate functioning of measurement instruments used in
industry, production & testing laboratories
Legal Metrology or Weights & Measures: – Accuracy of measurement where these have
influence on the transparency of economic transactions, health & safety
Accuracy:
The closeness of the measured value to the true value is called as accuracy. It is the ability of an
instrument to produce correct results.
Precision:
The closeness of the measured values to each other is called precision.
Precision relates to relates to the repeatability and reproducibility of a measuring system.
Repeatability:
Repeatability pertains to the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied
repeatedly over a short period of time with the same measurement conditions, same instrument
and observer, same location and same method of measurement.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reproducibility:
Reproducibility relates to the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of
use and time of measurement.
Limits:
Every manufacturing process is a combination of three elements man, materials and machine. A
change in any one or all of these will result in changes in sizes of manufactured products. In
mass production, where large number of parts are to be made by different operators on different
machines, it is impossible to make all parts exactly same and to exact dimension. The difference
in dimension does exist because of these variables. Also, perfect size is not only difficult but a
costly affair. The dimension of the manufactured part can thus only be made to lie between two
limits, maximum and minimum.
Limits Definition: The two extreme permissible sizes for any dimension (maximum and
minimum) are called the limits.
While deciding the limits for a particular dimension, the following should be considered.
 Functional requirement of the components
 Interchangeability
 Production time and cost to be minimum
Tolerance:(very important)
The permissible variation in size or dimension is called tolerance.
Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum limits of size.
Relationship between Tolerance and Cost:
If the tolerances are made closer and closer, the cost of production goes on increasing, because to
manufacture the component with closer tolerances, we need:
 Precision machines, tools, materials.
 Trained and highly skilled operators
 Tight inspection and more precise testing and inspection devices.
 It needs more concentration of the operators, frequent checking and more time which
slows down the rate of production.
 Close supervision and control is essential.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Figure: Limits of size and Tolerances

Figure: Limits of size and Tolerances

Toleranceing systems: Unilateral system and Bilateral system(very important)

Unilateral system:
In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of the basic size, i.e.
tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it.Unilateral tolerances
(also known as asymmetric tolerances) specify a deviation in only one direction, either plus or
minus, from the specified nominal dimension/basic size.

example, : 25 0.05  0.06

0.02 , 30  0.03

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bilateral system:
In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of the basic size, i.e.
the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size.Bilateral tolerancing (also known as
symmetric tolerancing) is a method of tolerancing a dimension using plus and minus deviations
from the nominal dimension.

example, : 25 0.05  0.06

0.02 , 30  0.03
DEFINITIONS:
Shaft :The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft but to any external
dimension on a component.
Hole:
The term hole refers not only to the diameter of a circular hole but to any internal dimension of a
component.
Basic size: this is the exact theoretical size of a component.
Actual Size:this is the measured size.
Allowances: (definition important)
 The term allowance refers to the difference between the basic dimensions of mating parts.
The allowance may be Positive or negative. In positive allowance the shaft size is less
than the hole size. In negative allowance, the shaft size is greater than the hole size.
 Allowance tells the type of fit. Positive allowance provides clearance fit while negative
allowance provides interference fit.
 The difference between the hole dimension and shaft dimension for any type of fit is
called the allowance.
 Maximum allowances is obtained by subtracting minimum shaft size from the largest
hole size. Minimum allowances is the difference between the largest shaft and the
smallest hole size.
Zero Line:
The term zero line refers to the straight line corresponding to the basic size, to which deviations
and tolerances are referred. According to convention, the positive and negative deviations are
shown above and below the zero line respectively.
Deviation: the algebraic difference between the size and the corresponding basic
size.(definition important)

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Upper deviation:
 It is the algebraic difference between the upper limit of size and the corresponding basic
size.
 It is positive when the maximum limit size is greater than the basic size.
 It is negative when the upper limit of size is less than the basic size.
 It is denoted by ES for hole and es for shaft.
Lower deviation:
 It is the algebraic difference between the lower limit of size and the corresponding basic
size.
 It is positive when the lower limit of size is greater than the basic size.
 It is negative when the lower limit of size is less than the basic size.
 It is denoted by EI for hole and ei for shaft.
Tolerance (IT) for shaft = es – ei ; Tolerance for hole = ES – EI.
Fundamental deviation:the deviation (either upper or lower) which is nearest to the zero line is
called fundamental deviation. (definition important)

Figure: Upper deviation, Lower deviation and fundamental deviation for shaft

Figure: Upper deviation, Lower deviation and fundamental deviation for hole

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Differences between Tolerance and Allowance:(important)

Tolerance Allowance

1 It is the permissible variation in dimension of a It is the difference between the two mating
part parts

2 It is the difference between the upper limit and It is the intentional difference between the
lower limit of a part lower limit of the hole and upper limit of
the shaft

3 The tolerance is provided on a dimension of a Allowance is to be provided on the

part as it is not possible to make a part to exact dimension of mating parts to obtain desired
dimension. type of fit

4 It has absolute value without sign Allowance may be positive ( clearance) or

negative (interference)

Types of fits (Principle classification of fits): (Very Important)

Fit is defined as the degree of freedom of tightness between the mating parts in an assembly.
There are three types of fits. They are clearance fit, Interference fit and Transition fit.
Clearance Fit:
 A fit that always provides a clearance (gap) between the hole and shaft when assembled
is known as clearance fit.

Another way of
Representing the
Clearance fit

Clearance fit

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

 The hole is larger than the shaft, enabling the two parts to slide and / or rotate when
assembled.
 In clearance fit, the lower limit of the hole is either greater than or, equal to (in extreme
case) the upperlimit of the shaft, so that the shaft can rotate or slide as per the purpose of
the assembled members.
 In clearance fit, the difference between the upper limit of the hole and lowerlimit of the
shaft is called maximum clearance, whereas the lowerlimit of the hole and upperlimit of
the shaft is known as minimum clearance.
Example: The tail stock spindle in a lathe, lathe spindle.
Interference Fit:
 In interference fit, the upperlimit of the hole is either smaller or equal to (in extreme case)
the lower limit of the shaft.

Another way of
Representing the
Interference fit

Interference fit
 The hole is smaller than the shaft and high force and / or heat is required to assemble /
disassemble.
 In this fit, the shaft and the hole members are intended to be attached permanently, so that
they can be used as a solid component, but according to the purpose and function of this
combination, this type of fit can be varied.
 In interference fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely below the tolerance zone of
the shaft.
 In interference fit, the difference between the lower limit of the hole and the upper limit
of the shaft is called maximum interference. Whereas difference between the upper limit
of the hole and the lowerlimit of the shaft is known as minimum interference.
Example : stepped pulley on the shaft, cylinder liner in block

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Transition Fit:
 A fit which may provide either a clearance or interference between the shaft and hole
when assembled, is known as Transition fit.
 It may be noted that in a transition fit, the tolerance zone of shaft and hole overlap
completely or partially.
 the hole is fractionally smaller than the shaft and mild force is required to assemble /
disassemble
Examples: change of gears

Another way of
representing the
Transition fit

Transition fit

Systems of Obtaining Different Types of Fits: (very important)

Hole Basis system:
If the system of assembly of shaft and hole is consisting of basic hole, then that type of system is
known as Hole Basis System. It means for the system of assembly of shaft and hole, the zero line
will be lying on the minimum diameter of the hole. For this system the lower limit size of hole is
equal to basic size.
In hole basis system, the hole is kept constant and shaft sizes are varied to give the various types
of fits which are shown in figure below.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Shaft Basis system:

If the system of assembly of shaft and hole consisting of basic shaft, then that type of system is
known as Shaft Basis System. It means for the assembly of shaft and hole, the zero line will be
lying on the maximum size of the shaft. For this system the Upper Limit Size of shaft is equal to
the Basic Size.
In shaft basis system, the shaft is kept constant and hole sizes are varied to give the various types
of fits which are shown in figure below.

If we prefer shaft basis system, the shaft size if fixed and we need to make a hole for the desired
fit. If you want to make a hole we need a custom made drill bit. Man, machine and time efforts
are required. Hence we prefer hole basis system.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Difference between Hole base system and shaft base system: (Important )

Hole basis system Shaft basis system

1 In this system, the lower deviation of hole is In this system, the upper deviation of shaft
assumed as zero. That means the lower limit of is assumed as zero. That means the upper
hole is assumed as its basic size. limit of shaft is assumed as its basic size.

2 Limits on the hole are kept constant and the size Limits on the shaft are kept constant and
of shaft (or size of shaft) is varied to obtain the size of hole (or size of hole) is varied
desired fit. to obtain desired fit.

3 It is much easierto vary the shaft sizes It is difficult to vary the hole sizes
according to the fit required. according to the fit required

4 It requires less amount of capital and storage It needs large amount of capital and
space for tools needed to produce shafts of storage space for large number of tools
different sizes. needed to produce holes of different sizes.

5 Gauging of shafts can be easily and Being internal measurement, gauging of

conveniently done with adjustable gap gauges. holes cannot be easily and conveniently
done.

6 This system is preferred in mass production. This is not suitable for mass production

INTERCHANGEABILITY & SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY CONCEPT: (Very Important)

Types of assemblies:
There are three ways by which the mating parts can be made to fit together in the desired
manner. These are : (i) Trail and Error (ii) Interchangeable Assembly (iii) Selective Assembly.
Trial and Error: when a small number of similar assemblies are to be made by the same
operator the necessary fit can be obtained by trial and error. This technique simply requires one
part to be made to its nominal size as accurately as possible; the other part is then machined with
a small amount at a time by trial and error until they fit in the required manner.
Interchangeable assembly: when a large number of components are to be produced then it will
not be economical to produce both the mating components by the same operator. In addition to
economy, it is also essential to produce the components within the minimum possible time. This
is only possible by mass production system. In mass production system there is a division of
labour. The components are produced in one or more batches by different operators on different
machines. Under such conditions in order to assemble the mating components with a desired fit,
a strict control is exercised and the parts are manufactured with specified tolerance limits.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Under this kind of system, randomly selected any one component will assemble correctly with
any randomly selected mating component. This system is called interchangeable assembly. The
manufacture of components under such conditions is called is called interchangeable
manufacture.
Interchangeable assembly requires precise machines or processes whose process
capability is equal to or less than the manufacturing tolerance allowed for that part. Only then
every component produced will be within desired tolerance and capable of mating with any other
mating component to give the required fit.
Interchangeability is quite related to standardization.
Advantages of interchangeability:
 Production output is increased
 Manufacturing cost is reduced
 The operator is not required to to waste his skill in fitting the mating components by trial
and error and thus assembly time is reduced considerably.
 It improves the quality and reduce the time for operation ( due to division of labour)
 It facilitates production of mating components at different places by different operators
 The replacement of worn-out or defective parts and repair becomes easy
Definition of interchangeable manufacturing: the making of the parts of machines with such
tolerances that any of the parts will properly function in any of the machines.
Interchangeable parts are parts (components) that are identical. They are made to specifications
that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they will fit into any assembly of the same type.
One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting (such as filing).
Selective assembly:
The consumer not only wants quality and precision trouble-free products but also he wants them
at economical prices.
In selective assembly, the components produced (holes and shafts) are classified into groups
according to their sizes by automatic gauging. . It sorts the holes and shafts in to various groups
according to their sizes. We need to choose hole and shaft from corresponding groups of them
in order to get desired fit,

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Types of fits with sub-classification:

Clearance fit:
The most commonly used fits of the clearance type are.
 Slide fit
 Easy Slide
 Running Fit
 Slack running Fits
 Loose Running Fits
Slide Fit:
 Slide fits have a very small clearance between two parts. In this the minimum
clearance is being zero.
 They are employed when the mating parts need to move slowly relative to each
other
Example of slide fit:
 The feed movement of the spindle quill in a drilling machine
 The tail stock spindle of lathe
Easy Slide Fit:
 It provides a small clearance between the shaft and hole.
 Easy slide is widely applied for slow and non regular motions
Example of Easy slide fit :Piston and slide valves, spindle of lathe and dividing heads.
Running Fit:
 It is have considerable clearance.
 This clearance provides a sufficient space for a lubrication film between the
mating friction surfaces
Example of Running Fit : Shaft pulleys, crank shafts in their main bearings etc.
Slack running Fits:
 It is obtained when there is a considerable clearance between the mating parts.
 This type of fit may be required as a compensation for mounting errors
Examples: arm shaft of IC Engine, shaft of centrifugal pump etc.
Loose Running Fits:
 Loose Running fits have the largest clearance and employed for rotation at high
speeds.
Example of Loose Running Fit : Idle Pulleys,Plummer block.
TRANSITION FIT:
The transition fit is obtained when the upper limit of hole is greater than the lower limit of the
shaft.
The transition fit is two types they are.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Wringing Fit
 Push fit
Wringing fit: It provide either zero interference or a clearance.Wringing fit is used where parts
can be replaced without difficulty during minor repairs.
Example of Wringing fit:gears of machine tools.
Push fit:The push fit provides small clearance. It is used for parts that must be dis-assembled for
during operations of a machine.
Example of push fit: change gears
Interference fit:
In this interference type of fit, the minimum diameter of the shaft is larger than the maximum
permissible diameter of the hole. The hole and shaft are intended to be attached permanently and
is used as a solid component.
The interference fits are classified into 3 types they are.
 Force fit
 Tight fit
 Heavy Force and shrink fit
Force fit:
 This type of fit is employed when the mating parts are not required to be
disassembled during their service life.
Example: Gears on the shafts of a concrete mixer,Forging machine.
Tight fit:
 This type of fit provides less amount of interference than force fit.
 Tight fits are employed for mating parts which are maybe replaced while
overhauling the machine.
Examples: Stepped pulleys on the drive shaft of a conveyors,cylindrical grinding
machine.
Heavy Force and shrink fit:
 In this Heavy force and shrink fit, there is a maximum negative allowance.
 For assembling the parts here more force is required.
 The fitting of the frame on the rim can also be obtained first by heating the frame
and then rapidly cooling it in its place.
INDIAN STANDARDS FOR LIMITS AND FITS: (Important )
The Indian standards are in line with the ISO (International Organization for Standards)
recommendations.
In India, we are following Indian Standard (IS 919—1993) for system of limits and fits.
Thesystem comprises suitable combinations of 20 grades of fundamental tolerances or in other
wordsgrades of standard tolerances or in other words grades of accuracy of manufacture; and 28

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

typesof standard deviations indicated by letter symbols for both holes and shafts (capital letters A
to ZCfor holes and small letters a to zc for shafts) in diameter steps upto 500 mm. The various
28designations are represented by A, B, C, CD, D, E, EF, F, FG, G, H, J, JS, K, M, N, P, R, S, T,
U,V, X, Y, Z, ZA, ZB, ZC. It may be noted that to avoid confusion, the following letters are not
used:I,L, O, Q,W.
Innumerable fits ranging from extreme interference to those of extreme clearance may
beobtained by a suitable combination of fundamental tolerances and fundamental deviations.
Each of 28 holes has a choice of 20 tolerances.
A unilateral hole basis is recommended by BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) but a full
rangeof holes suitable for use on shaft basis (unilateral or bilateral) is also included. For the
convenience,a basic size is ascribed to the part. The two maximum and minimum limits are
determined by itsdeviation from the basic size.
In I.S. specification, 20 grades of tolerances are designated: ITO, IT01, IT1 to IT18.
ITO andIT01 are not in general use. These are known as standard tolerances and their
numerical valueshave been determined in terms of the standard tolerance factor i, where i in
microns is expressed as
i  0.45 3 D  0.001D microns
Where
i = standard tolerance unit
D is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameters of a particular diameter step
inwhich the diameter lies, D is in mm.
This formula has been empirically calculated on the basis of the former National
standardsof other countries and taking account of the fact that in most usual cases the
tolerance varies moreor less parabolically in terms of diameter for the same manufacturing
conditions.
The various diameter main steps specified by I.S.-919 are: 1 – 3, 3 – 6, 6 – 10, 10 – 14,
14 – 18, 18 – 24, 24 – 30,30 – 40, 40 – 50, 50 – 65, 65 – 80, 80 – 100, 100 – 120, 120 – 140,
140 – 160,160 – 180, 180 – 200 mm etc.
The values of tolerances for tolerance grades IT5 to IT16 are given below:

Grade IT5 IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11 IT12 IT13 IT14 IT15 IT16

Values 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i

For IT01, Tolerance = 0.3 + 0.08 D

For IT0, Tolerance = 0.5 + 0.12D
IT1 = 0.8 + 0.02D

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Problem (1): Find the value of allowance and tolerance for the hole and shaft assembly for
the following dimensions of mating parts Hole: 25 00..05 0.02
00 ; Shaft : 25 0.05

Answer: Tolerance = upper limit size –lower limit size

Allowance =lower limit of hole-upper limit of shaft
Hole upper limit = 25 + 0.05 = 25.05
Hole lower limit = 25+ 0.00 = 25
Shaft upper limit = 25 – 0.02 = 24.98
Shaft lower limit =25 – 0.05 = 24.95
Tolerance = upper limit size –lower limit size
Tolerance for hole =25.05 – 25 = 0.05
Tolerance for shaft =24.98 – 24.95 = 0.03

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Allowance =lower limit of hole-upper limit of shaft

Allowance = 25 – 24.98 = 0.02 mm
Problem (2). 50mm diameter shaft is made to rotate in the bush the tolerance for both
shaft and bush are 0.05mm. Determine the dimensions of the shaft and bush
to give maximum clearance of 0.075mm with the hole based system.
Answer: In hole based system, the lower limit of hole is equal to its basic size.
Given data:
Diameter of shaft =50mm
Tolerance for both shaft and bush = 0.05mm
Maximum clearance = 0.075mm

Dimensions of bush or hole:

In hole based system, The lower limit of the hole is equal to the basic size
Lower limit of hole = 50mm
Tolerance = Upper limit – lower limit
0.05 = upper limit – 50
Upper limit = 0.05 + 50 = 50.05 mm

Dimensions of shaft:
Maximum clearance = upper limit of hole – lower limit of shaft
0.075 = 50.05 – lower limit of shaft
Lower limit of shaft = 50.05 – 0.075 = 49.975 mm
Tolerance = upper limit – lower limit
0.05 = upper limit – 49.975
Upper limit = 0.05 + 49.975 = 50.025 mm
Problem 3: Determine the limits of hole and shaft for a pair of mating parts represented by
6 H7/g6. Also find the existing fit between them.
Solution: The size 6 mm basic size lies in the diametral step of 3 – 6, therefore,
D is given by
D  3  6  4.24 mm

The value of fundamental tolerance unit , i  0.45 3 D  0.001D microns

i  0.45 3 4.28  0.001 4.28 microns

i = 0.7327 µm
Limits and toleranceof hole H7:
International Tolerance grade = IT 7
From standards table, the standard tolerance for IT7 = 16 i

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

The standard tolerance is = 16 i = 16×0.7327 = 11.72 µm

= 11.72 ×10 -6m
= 11.72 ×10 -3mm
= 0.01172 mm
The fundamental deviation for H hole is = 0
Hence the lower limit of hole = basic size = 6 mm
Tolerance = upper limit – lower limit
0.01172 = upper limit –6
Upper limit of hole = 0.01172 + 6 = 6.01172 mm
Limits of tolerance for g6 shaft:
International Tolerance grade = IT 6
From standards table, the standard tolerance for IT6 = 10 i
The standard tolerance is = 10 i = 10×0.7327 = 7.327 µm = 0.007327 mm
From standard fundamental deviation table,
upperdeviation for ― g‖ shaft = – 2.5 D0.34µm
Upper deviation = –2.5 (4.24)0.34 = – 4.085 µm = – 0.004085 mm
Upper deviation = upper limit – basic size
– 0.004085 = upper limit of shaft – 6
Upper limit of shaft = 6 – 0.004085 = 5.995915 mm
Tolerance = upper limit – lower limit
0.007327 = 5.995915 – lower limit
Lower limit of shaft = 5.995915 – 0.007327 = 5.988588 mm

Hole (mm) Shaft (mm)

Upper limit 6.01172 5.995915

Lower limit 6 5.988588

From the limits of hole and shaft, it is observed that the upper limit of shaft is lower than the
lower limit of the hole.
Hence the fit between the given hole and shaft is clearance fit.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Question Bank– Chapter -1

1. Define the following terms:
a. Tolerance
b. Allowances
c. Fit
d. Deviation (Upper deviation, lower deviation)
e. Fundamental deviation
f. Allowances
2. Explain principle classification of fits with diagrams.
3. Explain unilateral system and bilateral tolerance system.
4. Explain hole basis system and shaft basis system.
5. Explain the concept of interchangeability and selective assembly.
6. Explain Indian standards for limits and fits.
7. Problems solved

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

 SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

UNIT 3: Measurement of flatness, Optical instruments, limit gauges

Flatness measurements:
Flatness: (Definition 2 marks, May 2016)
FLATNESS: Straightness is height variance over a line. Flatness is height variance over a
plane.Flatness is just a 3D version of straightness.

Straight edges:
These are used for checking the straightness and flatness of parts in conjunction with the
surface plates and spirit levels. These may be made of steel or cast iron.
CI straight edges of two types of design.
(i) Bow shaped straight edges from 300 to 800 mm length.
(ii) I- section straight edges from 300 to 5000 mm length.

Straightedges

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

 SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Steel straight edges are available up to 2 m length and may be rectangular in section with
bevelled edge. C.I. straight edges are made up to 3 m length and widely used for testing machine
tool slide ways. They are heavily ribbed and bow-shaped (camel back construction) to prevent
distortion. These are provided withfeet for rest when they are idle to prevent distortion. Feet are
placed at points of minimum deflection.
The straight edges are classified as follows:
(i) Tool-maker‟s straight edge,
(ii) Wide-edge straight edge,
(iii) Angle straight edge,
(iv) Box straight edge.

Use of straight edge in conjunction with feeler Use of straight edge in conjunction with
gauges light box

Surface plate:
A surface plate is a solid, flat plate used as the main horizontal reference plane for precision
inspection, marking out (layout), and tooling setup. The surface plate is often used as the
baseline for all measurements to a workpiece, therefore one primary surface is finished
extremely flat with tolerances below 11.5 μm or 0.0115 mm per 2960mm for a grade 0 plate.
Material used for surface plate are Granite, Cast Iron, Glass etc.

Surface plates

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LIMIT GAUGES:
Gauges are the tools used to check whether the component or parts produced is within the
specified dimensions or not. A gauge does not reveal the actual size of dimension.
Gauges are made by High carbon and alloy steels. Some gauges are made entirely of cemented
carbides or they have cemented carbides inserted at certain wear points.
So, Gauges are the tools which are used for checking the size, shape and relative positions of
various parts. Gauges are, therefore, understood to be single-size fixed-type measuring tools.
Classifications of Gauges
(a) Based on the standard and limit
(i) Standard gauges
(ii) Limit gauges or “go” and “no go” gauges
(b) Based on the consistency in manufacturing and inspection
(i) Working gauges
(ii) Inspection gauges
(iii) Reference or master gauges
(c) Depending on the elements to be checked
(i) Gauges for checking holes (called Hole gauge)
(ii) Gauges for checking shafts (called Shaft gauge)
(iii) Gauges for checking tapers (called Taper gauge)
(iv) Gauges for checking threads ( called thread gauge)
(v) Gauges for checking forms (called form gauge)

(d) According to the shape or purpose for which each is used

(i) Plug
(ii) Ring
(iii) Snap
(iv) Taper
(v) Thread
(vi) Form
(vii) Thickness
(viii) Indicating
(ix) Air-operated

Standard Gauges
Standard gauges are made to the nominal size of the part to be tested and have the measuring
member equal in size to the mean permissible dimension of the part to be checked. A standard
gauge should mate with some snugness.
Limit Gauges (Very Important)
 These are also called “go‟ and “no go‟ gauges.
 These are made to the limit sizes of the work to be measured. One of the sides or ends of
the gauge is made to correspond to maximum and the other end to the minimum
permissible size.

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 The function of limit gauges is to determine whether the actual dimensions of the work
are within or outside the specified limits.
 A limit gauge may be either double end or progressive.
 A double end gauge has the “go‟ member at one end and “no go‟ member at the other
end. The “go‟ member must pass into or over an acceptable piece but the “no go‟
member should not. The progressive gauge has “no go‟ members next to each other and
is applied to a workpiece with one movement. Some gauges are fixed for only one set of
limits and are said to be solid gauges. Others are adjustable for various ranges.

GAUGES COMMONLY USED IN PRODUCTION WORK(Very Important,

Dec 2017, May 2016, 10 marks)
Plug Gauges :
 These gauges are used for checking internal diameter of holes.
 The plug gauge checks whether the hole diameter is within specified tolerance or not.
The „Go‟ plug gauge is the size of the low limit of the hole while the „No-Go‟ plug gauge
corresponds to the high limit of the hole.
 Plug gauges are available for checking the straight cylindrical holes, tapered holes,
threaded square and splined holes dimensions.
 Figure (a) shows a standard plug gauge used to test the nominal size of a cylindrical hole.
 Figure (d) shows a double-ended limit plug gauge used to test the limits of size. At one
end, it has a plug minimum limit size called the “go” end and; at the other end a plug of
maximum limit called the “no go” end. These ends are detachable from the handle so that
they may be renewed separately when worn in a progressive limit plug gauge. The “go”
and “no go” section of the gauge are on the same end of the handle also.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

Figure: Types of Plug gauges

Threaded Plug gauge Double ended Plug gauge

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Taper plug gauge A step on the front of a taper plug

gauge can indicate the Go and No-Go
limits

Ring gauge:
 Ring gauges are used to test external diameters.
 A ring gauge is in the form of a ring, used to check the shafts.
 The “Go‟ and „No Go‟ members may be separate or in a single ring.
 Ring gauges are expensive manufacture and, therefore, find limited use.
 Ring gauges are of three types:
(a) Plain ring gauge,
(b) Taper ring gauge, and
(c) Thread ring gauge.

Ring gauge Threaded ring gauge Full taper ring gauge

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Snap gauges:
 A snap gauge is a U-Shaped frame having jaws, are used for checking external
dimensions.
 Shafts are mainly checked by snap gauges.
 The snap gauge checks whether the shaft diameter is within specified tolerances or not.
 The „Go‟ snap gauge is the size of the high (maximum) limit of the shaft while the „No-
Go‟ snap gauge corresponds to the low (minimum) limit of the shaft.
 Snap gauges are available in different designs. Snap gauge may be single ended or double
ended.
 Snap gauge may have fixed or adjustable jaws. Generally Go and Not-Go both the
features are provided in a single jaw.
 Snap gauges are light in weight, easy to operate, sufficiently rigid, and is designed to
permit interchangeability of many parts.
 The most usual types are shown in Figure below.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

Snap gauge Snap gauge Snap gauge

Position Gauges.
Position gauges are used to check the geometrical relationshipof specific features, such as
distance between two holes, distance of a hole from a reference surface,etc. Such gauges need
not necessarily always be of solid form but can be designed with loose „Go‟ and „No Go feeler
pieces which need to be inserted between the workpiece and the gauge surfacesin contact after
the workpiece is inserted in position. In some applications dial indicators are alsoused in
conjunction with setting masters for contacting the work at the points to be gauged.
Sucharrangements result in decreased cost of gauges and the increased efficiency.

Profile Gauges.
 Profile gauges are used to check the form of the components.
 Profiles are difficult to be checked by limit gauges and it is usual practice to use fixed
gauges mated to profile for checking profiles.
Taylor’s Principle of gauge design:(very Important)
It states that (1) GO gauges should be designed to check the maximum material limit, while the
NO-GO gauge should be designed to check the minimum material limit.
Now the plug gauges are used to check holes, therefore the size of the GO plug gauge
should correspond to the low limit of hole, while that of N0-GO plug gauge corresponds to the
high limit of hole.

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Optical Instruments:
Tool maker‟s microscope: (very important)

Working:
1.Worktable is placed on the base of the base of the instrument
2. The optical head is mounted on a vertical column it can be moved up anddown.
3. Work piece is mounted on a glass plate.
4. A light source provides horizontal beam of light which is reflected from amirror by 90o
upwards towards the table.
5. Image of the outline of contour of the work piece passes through the objectiveof theoptical
head.
6. The image is projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen.
7. The measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the groundglass screen.
8. The screen can be rotated through 360°.
9. Different types of graduated screens and eyepieces are used.
Applications:
 Linear measurements.
 Measurement of pitch of the screw.
 Measurement of pitch diameter, major diameter, minor diameter
 Measurement of thread angle.
 Comparing thread forms.
 Centre to center distance measurement.
 Thread form and flank angle measurement

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OPTICAL FLATS:(Very Important, 10 marks – Dec 2017)

An optical flat is an optical-grade piece of glass lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one
or both sides. They are used with a monochromatic light to determine the flatness (surface
accuracy) of other surfaces, whether optical, metallic, ceramic, by interference
When an optical flat's polished surface is placed in contact with a surface to be tested, dark and
light bands will be formed when viewed with monochromatic light. These bands are known as
interference fringes and their shape gives a visual representation of the flatness of the surface
being tested. The surface flatness is indicated by the amount of curve and spacing between the
interference fringes.
 Straight, parallel, and evenly spaced interference fringes indicate that the work surface
flatness is equal to or higher than that of the reference surface.
HOW AN OPTICAL FLAT WORKS:

An optical flat utilizes the property of interference to exhibit the flatness on a desired surface.
When an optical flat, also known as a test plate, and a work surface are placed in contact, an air
wedge is formed. Areas between the flat and the work surface that are not in contact form this air
wedge. The change in thickness of the air wedge will dictate the shape and orientation of the
interference bands. The amount of curvature that is shown by the interference bands can be used
to determine the flatness of the surface. If the air wedge is too large, then many closely spaced
lines can appear, making it difficult to analyze the pattern formed. Simply applying pressure to
the top of the optical flat alleviates the problem.
The determination of the flatness of any particular region of a surface is done by making two
parallel imaginary lines; one between the ends of any one fringe, and the other at the top of that
same fringe. The number of fringes located between the lines can be used to determine the
flatness. Monochromatic light is used to create sharp contrast for viewing and in order to specify
the flatness as a function of a single wavelength.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

Auto collimator: (May 2016, 10 marks)

An autocollimator is an optical instrument for non-contact measurement of angles. They are
typically used to align components and measure deflections in optical or mechanical systems. An
autocollimator works by projecting an image onto a target mirror and measuring the deflection of
the returned image against a scale, either visually or by means of an electronic detector. A visual
autocollimator can measure angles as small as 0.5 arcminute (0.15 milliradian), while an
electronic autocollimator can have up to 100 times more resolution.
Figures A and B illustrate the basic principles of Autocollimation.
Light from an origin point O is collimated (made parallel) by a high quality objective lens. If the
collimated beam falls perpendicularly onto a plane reflecting surface, the light is reflected back
along its original path and is brought to a focus at a point coincident with the origin point (as
Figure A).

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

If the reflector is tilted through an angle θ, the reflected beam is deflected through an angle 2θ,
and the image I is displaced laterally from the origin 0.
The amount of displacement is given by d=2θf
where f is the focal length of the lens, and θ is in radians. Given that f is a known constant for the
Autocollimator, measurement of the displacement d enables the tilt θ to be ascertained.

A practical Autocollimator is illustrated in Figure C.

Light from an illuminated target graticule at the focus of an objective lens is directed towards the
lens by a beam splitter. After reflection by a mirror on the workpiece, the light returns through
the Autocollimator and passes through the beam splitter, forming an image of the target graticule
in the plane of an eyepiece graticule.
The eyepiece graticule and the reflected image of the target graticule are viewed simultaneously
through the eyepiece. The image of the target graticule is always seen in focus and at constant
magnification in the eyepiece, regardless of the distance between the Autocollimator and the

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reflecting surface. However, at long working distances only a portion of the reflected target
graticule may appear in the eyepiece, owing to the failure of obliquely returning rays to enter the
Autocollimator. This will result in a restricted measuring range.

Angle Dekkor:
Angle dekkor is a small variation on the autocollimator. This instrument is essentially used as
comparator and measures the change in angular position of the reflector in two planes.
It has an illuminated scale, which receives light directed through a prism. The light beam
carrying the image of the illuminated scale passes through the collimating lens as shown in
figure and falls on to the reflecting surface of the work piece.
After getting reflected from the work piece it is refocused by the lens in field view of eyepiece.
While doing so, the image of the illuminated scale would have undergone a rotation of 900 with
the optical axis.
Now, the light beam will pass through the datum scale fixed across the path of the light beam as
shown in figure.
When viewed through the eye‐piece, the reading on the illuminated scale measures angular
deviations from one axis at 90 ° to the optical axis and the reading on the fixed datum scale
measures the deviation about an axis mutually perpendicular to this.
The view through the eye‐piece, which gives the point of intersection of the two scales is shown
in figure. The scales usually measure up to accuracy of 1 minute. This reading actually indicates
changes in angular position of the reflector in two planes.
The initial reading of the angle dekkor corresponds to the reading on the two scales before
shifting of the position of the reflector.
After the reflector undergoes angular tilt, the second reading is noted down by recording the
point of intersection on both scales. The difference in readings on the two scales indicates the tilt
of the reflector in two planes at 900 to each other.

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Profile projector:
 In this method an optical comparator and profile projector are used to magnify the profile
of the gear under test and then it is compared with the master profile
 This method is quick and suitable for checking the profile of small thin instrument gears.
 Also used to find various elements of threads or gears like major diameter, minor
diameter, thread angle, flank angle etc.
Work Principle:
The projector magnifies the profile of the specimen, and displays this on the built-in projection
screen. On this screen there is typically a grid that can be rotated 360 degrees so the X-Y axis of
the screen can be aligned with a straight edge of the machined part to examine or measure. This
projection screen displays the profile of the specimen and is magnified for better ease of
calculating linear measurements.
An edge of the specimen to examine may be lined up with the grid on the screen. From there,
simple measurements may be taken for distances to other points. This is being done on a

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magnified profile of the specimen. It can be simpler as well as reduce errors by measuring on the
magnified projection screen of a profile projector.
The typical method for lighting is by diascopic illumination, which is lighting from behind. This
type of lighting is also called transmitted illumination when the specimen is translucent and light
can pass through it. If the specimen is opaque, then the light will not go through it, but will form
a profile of the specimen.

Note: NPL flatness Interferometer (National Physical Laboratory – NPL) and gauge length
interferometer. (Important)

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UNIT – 4 (PART –A):

SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT

Introduction:

It has been investigated that the surface texture greatly influences the functioning of the
machined parts.The properties such as appearance, corrosion resistance, wear resistance,
fatigue resistance, lubrication, initial tolerance, ability to hold pressure, load carrying
capacity, noise reduction in case of gears are influenced by the surface texture.

Whatever may be the manufacturing process used, it is not possible to produce perfectly smooth
surface. The imperfections and irregularities are bound to occur. The manufactured surface
always departs from the absolute perfection to some extent. The irregularities on the surface are
in the form of succession of hills and valleys varying in height and spacing. These irregularities
are usually termed as surface roughness, surface finish, surface texture or surface quality. These
irregularities are responsible to a great extent for the appearance of a surface of a component and
its suitability for an intended application.

Factors Affecting Surface Roughness:-(important)

The following factors affect the surface roughness:
(1) Vibrations

(2) Material of the workpiece

(3) Type of machining.

(4) Rigidity of the system consisting of machine tool, fixture cutting tool and work

(5) Type, form, material and sharpness of cutting tool

(6) Cutting conditions i.e., feed, speed and depth of cut

(7) Type of coolant used

Reasons for Controlling Surface Texture:-

(1) To improve the service life of the components

(2) To improve the fatigue resistance

(3) To reduce initial wear of parts

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(4) To have a close dimensional tolerance on the parts

(5) To reduce frictional wear

(6) To reduce corrosion by minimizing depth of irregularities

(7) For good appearance

Surface texture:

 Pattern on the work surface caused by the movement of cutting tools is called surface
texture.

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Surface roughness: (important definition)

 Due to natural action of production method, the abnormalities created on the surface
texture are called as surface roughness.
 Roughness consists of the finer irregularities in the surface texture generally resulting
from cutting tool shape, tool feed rate etc. .

Waviness: (important definition)

 The component of the surface texture upon which the surface roughness is super imposed
is called waviness
 It is repeated widely spaced irregularities generally resulting from machine vibrations.
Flaws:
 These are Discrete or irregular infrequent irregularities. these could be scratches, pits or
cracks..

Sampling length: It is the length of the profile necessary for the evaluation of the irregularities
to be taken into account. It is also known as cut-off length. ( Important definition, DEC 2017)

Lay:

Lay is the dominate pattern of marks left on the surfacearising frommachining processes (tool
type, feed rate, and machine type)

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Different types of lays

Evaluation of Surface Finish: ( 2 marks, Dec 2017)

A numerical assessment of surface finish can be carried out in a number of ways. These
numerical values are obtained with respect to a datum. In practice, the following three methods
of evaluating primary texture (roughness) of a surface are used:
(1) Peak to valley height method

(2) The average roughness

(3) Form factor or bearing curve.

(1) Peak to valley height method:

This method is largely used in Germany and Russia. It measures the maximum depth of the
surface irregularities over a given sample length, and largest value of the depth is accepted as a
measure of roughness. The drawback of this method is that it may read the same ℎ for two
largely different texture. The value obtained would not give a representative assessment of the
surface.

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To, overcomes this PV (Peak to Valley) height is defined as the distance between a pair of lines
running parallel `to the general ‘lay' of the trace positioned so that the length lying within the
peaks at, the top is 5% of the trace length, and that within the valleys at the bottom is 10% of the
trace length. This is represented graphically in Fig.

(2) The average roughness: For assessment off average roughness the following three statistical
criteria are used: (10 marks, Dec 2017)

(a) C.L.A Method: In this method, the surface roughness is measured as the average deviation
from the nominal surface. (DEC 2017)

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Centre Line Average or Arithmetic Average is defined as the average values of the ordinates
from the mean line, regardless of the arithmetic signs of the ordinates

h1  h2  h3  h4  ......  hn
CLA value  .....i 
n
A  A2  A3  A4  ......  An
or CLA value  1 .....ii 
L

The calculation of C.L.A value using equation (ii) is facilitated by the planimeter.

CLA value measure is preferred to RMS value measure because its value can be easily
determined by measuring the areas with planimeter or graph or can be readily determined in
electrical instruments by integrating the movement of the styles and displaying the result as an
average.

(b) R.M.S. Method (Root Mean Square) (Rq):

In this method also, the roughness is measured as the average deviation from the nominal
surface. Root mean square value measured is based on the least squares.

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R.M.S value is defined as the squre root of the arithmetic mean of the values of the squares of
the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line. It is obtained by setting many equidistant
ordinates on the mean line ( y1, y2, y3 … .yn )and then taking the root of the mean of the squared
ordinates.
Let us assume that the sample length ‘L’ is divided into ‘n' equal parts and y1, y2, y3 … .ynare the
heights of the ordinates erected at those points.then

y12  y 22  y32  .......  y n2

RMS value 
n

(c) Ten Point Height Method (Rz):

In this method, the average difference between the five highest peaks and five lowest valleys of
surface texture within the sampling length, measured from a line parallel to the mean line and not
crossing the profile is used to denote the amount of surface roughness.

R z  Average of five heighest peaks  Average of five lowest valleys

R1  R2  R3  R4  R5 R6  R7  R8  R9  R10
 
5 5
 ( R1  R2  R3  R4  R5 )  ( R6  R7  R8  R9  R10 )
1
5

This method is relatively simple method of analysis and measures the total depth of surface
irregularities within the sampling length. But it does not give sufficient information about the
surface, as no account is taken of frequency of the irregularities and the profile shape. It is used
when it is desired to control the cost of finishing for checking the rough machining.

Rmax: Maximum distance between the peak and valley in sampling length.(DEC 2017)

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 It is the distance between the two lines parallel to mean line, oneline is touching the
profile at highest point and other at lowest point.
 Rmax is the maximum peakto valley height within the sampling length L.
 This parameter fails to give a true picture of the surface as surfaces which are entirely
different can have the same value of Rmax.

Fig: Rmax

Rt:Peak to valley height with in the assessment length:

Rt is the max peak to valley height within the assessment length. The disadvantage of Rmax and
Rt is that there can be a single predominant peak or valley which influences the value and will
not give a true picture of the actual profile of the surface.

Rtm: Average Peak to Valley Height:

Both Rmax and Rt are greatly affected by spurious scratch or particle of dust on the surface.
Because of this, it is more usual to use the average of the maximum peak to valley heights of five
consecutive sampling lengths.

Rmax 1  Rmax 2  Rmax 3  Rmax 4  Rmax 5

Rtm 
5

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Form factor:

There are certain characteristic which may be used to evaluate surface texture.

Form Factor: The load carrying area of every surface is often much less than might be thought.
This is shown by reference to form factor. The form factor is obtained by measuring the area of
material above the arbitrarily chosen base line in the section and the area of the enveloping
rectangle.

Representation of Surface Roughness Value:( Dec 2017, 2 marks)

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b = Production Method
c = Sampling Length
(f)= Other Roughness Values
d = Direction of Lay using Lay Symbols
a = Roughness Grade Number or Roughness Average
e = Machining Allowance

lay symbols:

Measurement of surface finish (surfaces texture):

The methods used for ensuring the surface finish can be classified broadly into two groups.
1. Inspection by comparison.
2. Direct instrument measurement

1. Inspection by comparison methods.

In these methods, the surface texture is assessed by observation of the surface. These are the
methods of qualitative analysis of the surface texture. The texture, e of the surface W be tested is
compared with that of a specimen of known roughness ~value and `finished by similar
machining processes. Though these methods are rapid, the results are not reliable because they
can be misleading if comparison is not made with\the surface produced by similar techniques.
The various methods available for comparison are:
(i) Visual Inspection

(ii) Touch Inspection

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(iii) Scratch Inspection

(iv) Microscopicc Inspection

(v) Surface photographs

(vi) Micro-Interferometer

(i) Visual Inspection: In this method the surface is inspected by naked eye. This method is
always likely to be misleading particularly when surfaces with high degree of finish are
inspected. It is therefore limited to rougher surfaces.

(ii) Touch Inspection: This method can simply assess which surface is more rough, it cannot give
the degree of surface roughness. Secondly, the minute flaws can't be detected. In this method, the
finger tip is moved along the surface at a speed of about 25 mm per second and the irregularities
as small as 0.0125 mm can be detected. In modified method a tennis ball is rubbed over the
surface and surface roughness is judged thereby.

(iii) Scratch Inspection: In this method a softer material like lead, babbit, or plastic is rubbed
over the surface to be inspected. The impression of the scratches on the surface produced is then
visualised.

(iv) Microscopic Inspection: This is probably the best method for examining the surface texture
by comparison. But since, only a small surface can be inspected at a time several readings are
required to get an average value. In this method, a master finished surface is placed under the
microscope and compared with the surface under inspection. Alternatively, a straight edge is
placed on the surface to be inspected and a beam of light projected at about 600 to the work.
Thus the shadow is cast into the surface, the scratches are magnified and the surface irregularities
can be studied.

(v) Surface photographs: In this method magnified photographs of the surface are taken with
different types of illumination to reveal the irregularities.

If the vertical illumination is used then defects like irregularities and scratches appear as dark
spots and flat portion of the surface appears as bright area. In case of 'oblique illumination,
reverse is the case. Photographs with different illumination are compared and the result is
assessed.
(vi) Micro Interferometer: In this method, an optical flat is placed on the surface to be inspected
and illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. Interference bands are studied through a
microscope. The scratches in the surface appear as interference lines extending from the dark
bands into the bright bands. The depth of the defect is measured in terms of the fraction of the
interference bands.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2. Direct Instrument Measurement:

These are the methods of quantitative analysis. These methods enable to determine the numerical
value of the surface finish of any surface by using instruments of stylus probe type operating on
electrical principles. In these instruments the output has to be amplified and the amplified output
is used to operate recording or indicating instrument.

Principle, constructive and operation of stylus Probe type surface texture measuring instruments:

If a finely pointed Probe or stylus be moved over the surface of a workpiece, the vertical
movement of the stylus caused due to the irregularities in the surface texture can be used to
assess the surface finish of the workpiece.

Stylus which is a fine point made of diamond or any such hard material is drawn over the surface
to be tested. The movements of the stylus are used to modulate a high frequency carrier current
or to generate a voltage signal. The output is then amplified by suitable means and used to
operate a recording or indicating instrument.

Stylus type instruments generally consist of the following units:

(i) Skid or shoe

(ii) Finely pointed stylus or probe

(iii) An amplifying device for magnifying the stylus movement and indicator

(iv) Recording device to produce a trace and ~

(v) Means for analyzing the trace.

Advantages:

The main advantage of such instruments is that the electrical signal available can be processed to
obtain any desired roughness parameter or can be recorded for display or subsequent analysis.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Therefore, the stylus type instruments are widely used for surface texture measurements inspite
of the following disadvantages.

Disadvantages:

(i) These instruments are bulky and complex.

(ii) They are relatively fragile.

(iii) Initial cost is high.

(iv) Measurements are limited to a section of a surface.

(v) Needs skilled operators for measurements.

(vi) Distance between stylus and skid and the shape of the skid introduce errors in measurement
for wavy surfaces.

The stylus probe instruments currently in use for surface finish measurement are:

(a) Profilometer

(b) The Tomlinson surface meter.(Important)

(c) The Taylor Hobson Talysurf (Important)

(d) the sigma microtect

(e) The Rubert Mecrin Roughness Indicator.

Profilometer:

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SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
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Department of Mechanical Engineering

Profilometer is an indicating and recording instrument used to measure roughness in microns.

The principle of the instrument is similar to gramophone pick up. It consists of two principal
units: a tracer and an amplifier. Tracer is a finely pointed stylus. It is mounted in the pick up unit
which consists of an induction coil located in the field of a permanent magnet. When the tracer is
moved across the surface to be tested, it is displaced vertically up and down due to the surface
irregularities. This causes the induction coil to move in the field of the permanent magnet and
induces a voltage. The induced voltage is amplified and recorded.

This instrument is best suited for measuring surface finish of deep bores.

The Tomlinson surface meter:(Important)

The Tomlinson surface meter is a comparatively cheap and reliable instrument. It was originally
designed by Dr. Tomlinson.

It consists of a diamond probe (stylus) held by spring pressure against the surface of a lapped
steel cylinder and is attached to the body of the instrument by a leaf spring. The lapped cylinder
is supported on one side by the probe and on the either side by fixed rollers. Alight spring steel
arm is attached to the lapped cylinder. It carries at its tip a diamond scriber which rests against a
smoked glass. The motions of the stylus in all the directions except the vertical one are prevented
by the forces exerted by the two springs.

For measuring surface finish the body of the instrument is moved across the surface by screw
rotated by asynchronous motor. The vertical movement of the probe caused by surface
irregularities makes the horizontal lapped cylinder to roll. This causes the movement of the arm
attached to the lapped cylinder. A magnified vertical movement of the diamond scriber on
smoked glass is obtained by the movement of the arm. This vertical movement of the scriber
together with horizontal movement produces a trace on the smoked glass plate. This trace is
further magnified at X 50 or X 100 by an optical projector for examination.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
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Department of Mechanical Engineering

(c) The Taylor Hobson Talysurf: (10 marks, May 2016)

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Taylor-Hobson Talysurf is a stylus and skid type of instrument working on carrier modulating
principle. Its response is more rapid and accurate as comparred to Temlinson Surface Meter. The
measuring head of this instrument consists of a sharply pointed diamond stylus of about 0.002
mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a motorised
driving unit. In this instrument the stylus is made to trace the profile of the surface irregularities,
and the oscillatory movement of the stylus is converted into changes in electric current by the
arrangement as shown in Fig. The arm carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots about
the centre piece of E-shaped stamping. On two legs of (outer pole pieces)'the E-shaped stamping
there are coils carrying an a.c. current. These two coils with other two resistances form an
oscillator. As the armature is pivoted about the central leg, any movement of the stylus causes
the air gap to vary and thus the amplitude of the original a.c. current flowing in the coils is
modulated. The output of the bridge thus consists of modulation only as shown inFig. This is
further demodulated so that the current now is directly proportional to the vertical displacement
of the stylus only.

Problems:(10 marks, Dec 2017)

The heights of peaks and valleys of 20 successive points on a surface are 80, 60,88,66, 78,
62, 80, 62, 81, 63, 83, 62, 80, 60, 80, 60, 81, 59, 82, 62 microns respectively, measured over a
length of 20 mm. determine CLA and RMS values of surface roughness.

CLA value = Centre Line Average Value = Arithematic Average (AA) value =Ra

h1  h2  h3  h4  ...... hn
CLA value 
n

80  60  88  66  78  62  80  62  81  63  83  62  80  60  80  60  81  59  82  62
CLA value 
20
 28.1microns

h12  h22  h32  h42  ...... hn2

RMS value 
n

RMS value
80 2  60 2  882  66 2  782  62 2  80 2  62 2  812  632  832  62 2  80 2  60 2  80 2  60 2  812  59 2  82 2  62 2

20

=72.16 microns

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Unit – 4 (PART- B)
SCREW THREAD MEASUREMENT
Screw thread:It is a continuous helical groove of specified cross-section produced on the
external orinternalsurface.
 A screw thread is formed on a cylinder is known as straight or parallel screw thread.
 If it is formed on a cone, then it is called as tapered screw thread.
The screw threads are mainly classified into 1) External thread 2) Internal thread.
There is a large variety of screw threads varying in their form, by thread angle,helix angle etc.
 Metric threads are usually defined by their pitch, that is, how much distance per thread,
 Inch-based threads are defined in terms of threads per inch (TPI). Pitch and TPI describe
the same underlying physical property. For example, a thread has 20 TPI means that its
pitch is 1⁄20 inch (0.050 in or 1.27 mm).
Applications/uses:
 Screw threads are used to transmit the power and motion.
 Used to fasten two components with the help of nuts, bolts and. studs.
 It converts the rotary motion to linear motion
Screw Thread Terminology:

Figure: Screw Thread Terminology

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Crest:It is top surface joining the two sides of thread.
Flank:the inclined Surface which joins the crest and root.
Root:The bottom of the groove between the two flanks of the thread
Helix angle:The helix is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with the axis.
Flank angle:Angle made by the flank of a thread with the perpendicular to the thread axis.
Depth of thread:The perpendicular distance between the crest and root of the thread.
Thread angle:Angle included between the flanks of a thread measured in an axial plane.
Major diameter or Nominal diameter:Diameter of an imaginary co-axial cylinder which
would touch the crests of external orinternal thread.
Minor diameter or Root diameter or Core diameter:Diameter of an imaginary co-axial
cylinder which would touch the roots of an externalthread.
Addendum:
 It is the radial distance between the major and pitch cylinders for external thread.
 It is the radial distance between the minor and pitch cylinder for internal thread.
Dedendum:
 Radial distance between the pitch diameter and minor diameter for external thread.
 Radial distance between the major diameter and pitch diameter for internal thread.
Lead: (Definition Dec 2017, 2 marks)
 Lead is the axial advance of a helix or screw during one complete turn (360°).
 The lead for a screw thread is the axial travel for a single revolution.
 Lead angle is the angle between the helix and a plane of rotation.
 Lead = number starts × pitch

Pitch:( Definition May 2016, 2 Marks)

 Pitch is defined as the axial distance between corresponding points on adjacent threads on
the same side of the axis.
 This is the distance from a point on the screw thread to a corresponding point on the next
thread measured parallel to axis of the thread. It is represented by the letter ‘p’.
Single Start:
 Single-start means that there is only one "ridge" wrapped around the cylinder of the
screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced
axially by the width of one ridge.
Double start:
 "Double-start" means that there are two "ridges" wrapped around the cylinder of the
screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced

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SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
axially by the width of two ridges. In general, lead is equal to pitch times the number of
starts.
Leadscrew:
A leadscrew (or lead screw), also known as a power screw or translation screw, is a screw used
as a linkage in a machine, to translate turning motion into linear motion.
Effective diameter:
It is the diameter of the imaginary co-axial cylinder which intersects the flanks of the threads
such that the width of the threads and the width of the space between the threads is equal. It is
half of the pitch for a perfect thread. It is more important dimension as it decides the quality of
the fit between the screw and the nut.

ERRORS IN SCREW THREADS:

The errors in screw thread may arise during the manufacturing or storage of threads. Theerrors
either may cause in following six main elements in the thread.1) Major diameter error2) Minor
diameter error3) Effectivediameter error4) Pitch error5) Flank angles error and 6) Profile at Crest
and root.
Major diameter error: Error in major diameter may cause reduction in the flank contact and
interference with the matching threads.
Minor diameter error: Errors in minor diameter may cause interference, reduction of flank
contact or weakness by reduction of the cross-section of the root.
Effective diameter error:If the effective diameter is small the threads will be thin on the
external screw and thick on an internal screw. The reverse conditions prevail if the effective
diameter is above its basic value. These errors would produce more noise in the assembly while
running.
Errors on pitch and thread angle results in progressive tightening and interference on
assembly.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pitch errors in screw threads:( May 2016, 10 marks)

If a screw thread is generated or produced by a single point cutting tool, it`s pitch depends on the
ratio ofthe linear velocity of the tool and angular velocity of the work. This ratio must be correct
and constant. If these conditions are not satisfied then pitch errors will occur. Different types of
pitch errors are: (1) Progressive error of pitch (2) Periodic error of pitch (3) Drunken error (4)
Erratic or irregular errors.
Progressive error of pitch:
The pitch of the thread is uniform but is longer or shorter than its nominal value and this is
calledprogressive error of pitch.
Causes of progressive error: 1. Due to incorrect constant tool work velocity ratio 2. Use of
incorrect gear on gear train between work and lead screw.3. Fault in Saddle guide ways.4. Pitch
error in the lead screw of the lathe.
Periodic error of pitch
These are repeats itself at regular intervals along the thread. These errors are cyclic and pitch
increases to a maximum then reducing through nominal value to a minimum and so on. In this
case successive portions of the thread length are either shorter or longer than the mean or
nominal value.
Causes of periodic error: 1. Un uniform tool work velocity ratio.2. Teeth error in gears.3. Lead
screw error.4. Eccentric mounting of the gears.
Thread drunkenness:
In this error, the pitch measured parallel to the thread axis will always be correct and but the
thread is not cut to a true helix. A development of the thread helixwill be a curve and not a
straight line. Such errors are extremely difficult to determine.

Erratic or irregular errors:

It is vary irregular manner along the length of the thread.
Irregular error causes: 1.Machine fault.2. Irregular cutting action due to non-uniformity in the
material.3. Disturbances in machining setups etc.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Effect of pitch error:
The cumulative pitch error virtually increases the effective diameter of a bolt or screw and
decreases the effective diameter of a nut.
Effect of flank angle:
Errors in flank angle also virtually increase the effective diameter of a bolt or screw and decrease
the effective diameter of a nut.
Measurement of effective diameter of screw threads:
The effective diameter or the pitch diameter can be measured by any one of the following
methods:
(i) screw thread Micrometer method
(ii) One wire, two wire, or three wire method.
Two Wire Method.
The effective diameter of a screw thread is measured by placing two wires orrods of identical
diameter between the flanks of the thread, as shown in Fig 2 (a), andmeasuring the distance over
the outside of these wires. The effective diameter (E) is thencalculated as
E=T+P
Where T= Diameter under the wires =M—2d
M=diameter over the wires, d= diameter of each wire
P is a constant calculated for different threads, it depends upon the diameter of wire and
pitch of the thread. If p is pitch then
P = 0.9605p – 1.657d ( for Whitworth threads)
P = 0.866p – d ( for metric threads)

Figure 2(a) Figure 2(b)

Figure 2. Two wire method

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
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Actually P is a constant Value which has to be added to the diameter under the wiresto give the
effective diameter. The expression for the value of P in terms of p (pitch), d(diameter of wire)
and x (thread angle) can be derived as follows :
In Fig.2(b), since BC lies on the effective diameter line
1 1
BC  pitch  p
2 2
OP
fromPEO ; Co sec( x / 2) 
OE
d
OP  OE  Co sec( x / 2)  Co sec( x / 2)
2
OP  OA  AP

Co sec( x / 2)   Co sec( x / 2)  1

d d d
AP  OP  OA 
2 2 2
PQ
From PQC ; Cot ( x / 2) 
QC
BC p
PQ  QC Cot ( x / 2)  Cot ( x / 2)  Cot ( x / 2)
2 4
AQ  PQ  AP  Cot ( x / 2)  Co sec( x / 2)  1
p d
4 2
AQ  ; P  2 AQ  Cot ( x / 2)  d Co sec( x / 2)  1
P p
2 2
E  T  P  T  Cot ( x / 2)  d Co sec( x / 2)  1
p
2
T  E  Cot ( x / 2)  d Co sec( x / 2)  1
p
2
T  M  2d

Cot ( x / 2)  d Co sec( x / 2)  1  2d

p
M  T  2d  E 
2
p
M E Cot ( x / 2)  dCo sec( x / 2)  d  2d
2
p p
M  E  Cot ( x / 2)  dCo sec( x / 2)  d  E  Cot ( x / 2)  d [Co sec( x / 2)  1]
2 2

Three wire method:

This method of measuring the effective diameter is an accurate method. In this three wires of
known diameter are used; one is placed on one side and other two on the other side as shown in
Fig. 3 (a). After placing the wires, distance over the wires ‘M’ is measured using micrometer.
This method ensures the alignment of micrometer anvil faces parallel to the thread axis. The

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SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
wires may be either held in hand or hung from a stand so as to ensure freedom to the wires to
adjust themselves under micrometer pressure.
Let M=distance over wires; E=effective diameter
r=radius of the wires d=diameter of wires ; x = angle of thread
h =height of the centre or the wire or rod from the effective.

Fig 3(a) Fig 3(b)

Figure 3. Three wire method

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AD
Fig 3(b), From ADB, Co sec( x / 2) 
AB
AD  AB  Co sec( x / 2)  r Co sec( x / 2)
DE
Cot ( x / 2) 
H
p
H  DE  Cot ( x / 2)  Cot ( x / 2)
2
H p
CD   Cot ( x / 2)
2 4
h  AD  CD
p
h  r Co sec( x / 2)  Cot ( x / 2)
4
Distance over wires , M
M  E  2h  2r
p
M  E  2[r Co sec (x/ 2 )  Cot (x/ 2 )]  2r
4
p
 E  2r Co sec (x/ 2 )  Cot (x/ 2 )]  2r
2
p
 E  2r [1  Co sec (x/ 2 )]  Cot (x/ 2 )
2
p
 E  d [1  Co sec (x/ 2 )]  Cot (x/ 2 )
2
Case (i ) : for Whitworth Thread
x  angle of thread  55 o and depth of thread , H  0.64 p
So, E  D  0.64 p
where, D  outside diameter of thread
By substituti ng above values in equation M
p p
M  E  d [1  Co sec (x/ 2 )]  Cot (x/ 2 )  D  0.64 p  d (1  2.1657)   1.921
2 2
M  D  3.1657 d  1.6005 p
Case(ii ) : for Metric Threads
Depth of the thread , H  0.6495 p and x  Thread angle  60 o
So, E  D  0.6495 p
By substituti ng above values in equation M
p p
M  E  d [1  Co sec (x/ 2 )]  Cot (x/ 2 )  D  0.6495 p  d (1  2)   1.732
2 2
M  D  3d  1.5155 p

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SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
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Department of Mechanical Engineering
Screw thread Micrometer method:
The thread micrometer resembles the ordinary micrometer, but it has special contacts to suit the
end screw thread form that is to be checked. In this micrometer, the end of the spindle is pointed
to the Vee-thread form with acorresponding Vee-recess in the fixed anvil. When measuring
threads only, the angle of the point and the sides of Vee-anvil, i.e. the flanks of the threads
should come into contact with the screw thread (Fig. 4).Jf correctly adjusted, this micrometer
gives the pitch diameter.This value should agree with that obtained by measurement by outside
diameter and pitch from the following relation:

Pitch diameter = D – 0.6403p (in case of Whitworth thread)

where 0.6403p = depth of thread, D = outside diameter,p = pitch.

Fig. 4. Thread micrometer for effective diameter.

Best size wire:(Important for GATE and other competitive exams)

Best size of a wire is a wire diameter, when it is placed in the groves of a thread it exactly
touches or contacts at the pitch line or effective diameter.
When the wire makes contact with the flanks of the thread on the pitch line or effective diameter
the conditions is as shown in figure 5.

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SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
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Department of Mechanical Engineering

Figure 5: Best wire Size

Let us assume that the angle of thread is Ɵ, from

In figure 5, From AOB, sine (90   ) 

AB
2 OB
Cos ( ) 
AB
2 r
p
 Sec ( )
AB 4 p
r 
Cos ( ) Cos ( ) 4 2
2 2
diamere of the best wire size  d b  2r

Sec ( )  Sec ( )
p p
db  2 
4 2 2 2
ProfileThread gauges:
These are used to inspect or check the profile of a thread. Straight profile gauge and taper
profiles gauges are used for checking straight and taper threads respectively.

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Tool makers microscope:

Working:
1.Worktable is placed on the base of the base of the instrument
2. The optical head is mounted on a vertical column it can be moved up anddown.
3. Work piece is mounted on a glass plate.
4. A light source provides horizontal beam of light which is reflected from amirror by 90o
upwards towards the table.
5. Image of the outline of contour of the work piece passes through the objectiveof theoptical
head.
6. The image is projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen.
7. The measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the groundglass screen.
8. The screen can be rotated through 360°.

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9. Different types of graduated screens and eyepieces are used.
Applications:
Linear measurements.
Measurement of pitch of the screw.
Measurement of pitch diameter, major diameter, minor diameter
Measurement of thread angle.
Comparing thread forms.
Centre to center distance measurement.
Thread form and flank angle measurement

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UNIT -5 (PART –A): GEAR MEASUREMENT

Gears are used to transmit the power, torque, change the direction of speed etc.
Gear terminology:(Spur gear)

Pitch circle:
The locus of all pitch points is called pitch circle. Pitch point is a point of contact of the two
pitch circles of two mating parts or gears.
Pitch Circle Diameter:Diameter of the pitch circle is called pitch circle diameter.
Commercially, the gear size is specified by its Pitch circle diameter.
Addendum: Radial distance from top of the tooth and pitch circle is called addendum. Radial
height of the tooth above the pitch circle
Dedendum:Radial distance between root of tooth and pitch circle is called dedendum. Radial
depth of the tooth below the pitch circle.
Dedendum circle is the circle passing through the roots of all teeth.
Addendum circle is the circle bounding the top of the teeth.
Clearance:Radial distance between the two meeting teeths of different gears.Or the distance
between the addendum circle and dedendum circle of two gears is called clearance.
Pitch or Circular Pitch (p): the distance measured along the circumference of the pitch circle
from a point on one tooth to a corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.

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p = Πd/T ; d = pitch circle diameter, T = Number of teeth.

Diametrical pitch = number of teeth per unit pitch circle diameter.
dp= T/d
Module (m) = length of the pitch circle diameter per unit number of teeth.
m = d/T
Backlash = difference between the engaging tooth thicknessand tooth space.
Base Circle is the circle from which the gear teeth profiles are generated.
Line of Action and Pressure Angle:the teeth of a pair of gears in mesh, contact each other
along the common tangent to their base circle.

Methods or Instruments used for measuring various gear elements:

Pitch measurement:(May 2016)
There are two ways for measuring the pitch variation.
1. Tooth to tooth measurement. 2. Direct angular measurement:
Tooth to tooth measurement:
The instrument has three tips. One is fixed measuring tip and the second is sensitive tip,whose
position can be adjusted by a screw and the third tip is adjustable or guide stop. Thedistance
between the fixed and sensitive tip is equivalent to base pitch of the gear. All thethree tips are
contact the tooth by setting the instrument and the reading on the dialindicator is the error in the
base pitch.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Two dial gauge method:

It is the simplest method for pitch measurements. In this method two lever-type dial gauges are
used on two adjacent teeth of a gear mounted in centers as shown in figure. The gear under test is
indexed through successive pitches to give constant reading on the first indicator and any change
in the reading on the second dial indicates pitch error.

Direct Angular Measurement:

It is the simplest method for measuring the error by using set dial gauge against a tooth. Inthis
method the position of a suitable point on a tooth is measured after the gear has beenindexed by a
suitable angle. If the gear is not indexed through the angular pitch the readingdiffers from the
original reading. The difference between these is the cumulative pitch error.
Profile measurement:

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

The involute profile of a spur gear is measured by several ways and they are listed below:
 Optical projection method
 Involute measuring machine
 Tooth displacement method
 Computer controlled probe scanning method
Optical projection method(May 2016)
 In this method an optical comparator and profile projector are used to magnify the profile
of the gear under test and then it is compared with the master profile as shown in fig.
 This method is quick and suitable for checking the profile of small thin instrument gears.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Involute measuring machine:

 In this method the gear is held on a mandrel and circular disc of same diameter as the
base circle of gear for the measurement is fixed on the mandrel.
 After fixing the gear in the mandrel, the straight edge of the instrument is brought in
contact with the base circle of the disc. Now, the gear and disc are rotated and the edge
moves over the disc without slip.
 The stylus moves over the tooth profile and the error is indicated on thedail gauge.

Tooth displacement method:

Here, the vertical measuring machine (usually height gauge) is used for checking the profile of
the large-sized gear. Even though it is a time-consuming method, it is the best method for
calibration of master involute and for very high-precision components. The gear under test is
rotated through small angular increments and the reading on the height gauge is noted. These
reading are compared with the theoretically calculated values at about five to ten places along the
tooth flank. Theoretical values are calculated with respect to angular position.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Computer control probe scanning method:

In this method, the measurements are taken with a computer-controlled probe scanning from the
root of the tooth to its tip at a constant rate with a constant force. After the data is collected for
all the teeth, it mathematically determines profile form error, actual tooth thickness etc.
Gear Tooth thickness measurement:(Dec 2017)
Tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle and also in most cases the chordal thickness
measurement is carried out i.e. the chord joining the intersection of the tooth profile with the
pitch circle. The methods which are used for measuring the gear tooth thickness is
1) Gear tooth vernier caliper method (Chordal thickness method)
2) Base tangent method.
3) Constant chord method.
4) Measurement over pins or balls.
Gear tooth Vernier caliper method: (Important)
 In gear tooth Vernier method the thickness is measured at the pitch line.
 Gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, and the instrument
is capable of measuring the thickness at a specified position on the tooth.
 The gear tooth Vernier caliper consists of Vernier scale and two perpendicular arms.
 In the two perpendicular arms one arm is used to measure the thickness and other arm is
used to measure the depth. Horizontal Vernier scale reading gives chordal thickness and
vertical Vernier scale gives the chordal addendum.
 Finally the two values compared with the theoretical values calculated using formulae.
 The theoretical values of ‘W’ and‘d’ can be found out by considering one tooth in the
gear and it can be verified.
 In fig noted that W is a chord ADB and tooth thickness is specified by AEB.
 The distance d is noted and adjusted on instrument and it is slightly greater than
addendum CE.
 Vernier method like the chordal thickness and chordal addendum are dependent upon the
number of teeth.
 Due to this for measuring large number of gears different calculations are to be made for
each gear.
 So these difficulties are avoided by the constant chord method.

Outside diameter = Pitch Circle Diameter + 2m

Module, m = Pitch Circle diameter(PCD)/Number of teeth (N)
PCD = mN
Outside Diameter =mN+2m = m(2+N)
m=Outside diameter/(2+N)

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Constant Chord Method:

In the gear tooth Vernier method, both the chordal thickness (W) and chordal addendum (d) are
depends upon the number of teeth. If a large number of gears (each having different no. of teeth)
are to be measured, the calculations would become laborious and time consuming.
The above difficulties are eliminated or overcome in this constant chord method. In this method
the chord is constant and its calculations are same for all gears having the same pitch and
pressure angle irrespective of number of teeth.
Constant chord is defined as the chord joiningpoints on opposite faces of tooth which make
contact with the mating teeth at the line of action.
In the following figure, AB is constant chord. The value of AB and its depth from the tip can be
calculated mathematically and then verified by instrument.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

pitch 1 1 D m
In figure , PD  PF  Arc PF   p  
4 4 4 T 4
where D  Pitch circle diameter ; p  pitch ; m  module; x  pressureangle
from APD
AP
Cos( x)   AP  PD Cos ( x)
PD
from PAC
AC
Cos( x)   AC  AP Cos ( x)
AP
m
 PD Cos 2 ( x)  Cos 2 ( x)
4
m
c  constant chord  2AC  Cos 2 ( x)
2
d  addendum  PC
m
PC  AP Sin ( x)  PD Cos ( x) Sin ( x)  Cos ( x) Sin ( x)
4
m   
d  m Cos ( x) Sin ( x)  m 1  Cos ( x) Sin ( x)
4  4 

Base Tangent Method:

 It is the most commonly used method for checking the tooth thickness of gear.
 In this method, the span of a convenient number of teeth is measured with the help of the
tangent comparator. This uses a single Vernier caliper. and has, therefore, the following
advantages over gear tooth Vernier which used two Vernier scales :
o The advantage of this method is that, it depends only on one Vernier reading
unlike gear tooth Vernier Caliper where we require two Vernier readings.
o the measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw with the face.
Consider a straight generator (edge) ABC being rolled back and forth along a base circle (shown
in Fig. below). Its ends thus sweep out opposed involutes A2 AA1 and C2 CC1 respectively. Thus
the measurements made across these opposed involutes by span gauging will be constant (i.e. AC
= A1C1 = A2C2 = A0C0) and equal to the arc length of the base circle between the origins of
involutes.
Further the position of the measuring faces is unimportant as long as they are parallel \ and on an
opposed pair of the true involutes. As the tooth form is most likely to conform to a true involute
at the pitch point of the gear, it is always preferable to choose a number of teeth such that the
measurement is made approximately at the pitch circle of the gear

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

The value of the distance between two opposed involutes, or the dimension over parallel faces is
equal to the distance round the base circle between the points where the corresponding tooth
flanks cut i.e., ABC in Fig. below. It can be derived mathematically also.

Parkinson Gear Tester

Working principle:
The master gear is fixed on vertical spindle and the gear to be tested is fixed onsimilar spindle
which is mounted on a carriage. The carriage which can slide eitherside of these gears are
maintained in mesh by spring pressure. When the gears arerotated, the movement of sliding
carriage is indicated by a dial indicator and thesevariations arc is measure of any irregularities.
The variation is recorded in a recorderwhich is fitted in the form of a waxed circular chart. In the
gears are fitted on themandrels and are free to rotate without clearance and the left mandrel move
alongthe table and the right mandrel move along the spring-loaded carriage. The twospindles can
be adjusted so that the axial distance is equal and a scale is attached toone side and vernier to the
other, this enables center distance to be measured towithin 0.025mm.If any errors in the tooth
form when gears are in close mesh, pitch concentricity ofpitch line will cause a variation in
center distance from this movement of carriage asindicated to the dial gauge will show the errors
in the gear test. The recorder alsofitted in the form of circular or rectangular chart and the errors
are recorded.

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES. CHITTOOR
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Limitations of Parkinson gear tester:

1. Accuracy ±0.001mm
2. Maximum gear diameter is 300mm
3. Errors are not clearly identified.
4. Measurement dependent upon the master gear.
5. Low friction in the movement of the floating carriage.

TYPES OF ERRORS IN GEARS (MAY 2016):

Variation in manufacturing conditions may lead to many types of errors in gears. Some of the
possible types of errors on Spur, Helical, Bevel and Worm gears are as follows;
1. Profile error: The maximum distance of any point on the tooth profile form to the design
profile.
2. Pitch error: Difference between actual and design pitch. pitch error is a source of gear noise
and character of noise will depend upon how pitch errors are produced and how they are
distributed.
3. Cyclic error: Error occurs in each revolution of gear
4. Run out: Total range of reading of a fixed indicator with the contact points applied to a
surface rotated, without axial movement, about a fixed axis.
5. Eccentricity: Half the radial run out
6. Wobble: Run out measured parallel to. the axis of rotation at a specified distance from the axis
7. Radial run out: Run out measured along a perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
8. Undulation: Periodical departure of the actual tooth surface from the design surface.
9. Axial run out: Run out measured parallel to the axis of rotation at a speed.
10.Periodic error: Error occurring at regular intervals.

References:
1. https://www.scribd.com/doc/14091184/Unit-3-Metrology
2. http://www.brainkart.com/article/Gear-Measurement_5848/
3. A text book of metrology by Mahajan
4. Engineering Metrology by R.K. Jain

Dr. T. Chinna Pamulety, Associate Professor

 Unit – 5 (Part-B)

ALIGNMENT TESTS ON MACHINE TOOLS

Acceptance tests = alignment tests (geometric tests) (static tests) + Performance test
(Practical tests) (dynamic tests)

MACHINE TOOL TESTS: (Dec 2017; 10 marks)

The various tests applied to any machine tool could be grouped as below:

(a) Tests for the level of installation of machine in horizontal and vertical planes.
(b) Tests for flatness of machine bed and for straightness and parallelism of bed ways or bearing
surfaces.
(c) Tests for perpendicularly of guideways to other guideways or bearing surfaces.
(d) Tests for the true running of the main spindle and its axial movements.
(e) Tests for parallelism of spindle axis to guideways or bearing surfaces.
(f) Tests for the line of movement of various members e.g., saddle and table cross-slides etc.,
along their ways.
(g) Practical tests in which some test pieces are machined and their accuracy and finish is
checked.
Following instruments are required for conducting these tests : dial gauges, tests mandrels,
straight edges and squares, spirit levels, autocollimators, etc.

Alignment tests on lathe:

1. Leveling of machine:-

It is very essential that machine tool should be installed in truly horizontal and vertical planes. In
horizontal plane, both longitudinal and transverse directions are equally important. If any long
lathe bed is not installed truly horizontal the bed will undergo a deflection, thereby producing a
simple bend and undesirable stresses will be introduced. If the bed is not installed truly
horizontal in transverse direction, twist will be introduced. Thus the movement of the saddle
can’t be in a straight line and true geometric cylinder can’t be generated.

The level of the machine bed in longitudinal and transverse directions is generally tested by a
sensitive spirit level.

The spirit level is then placed at a-a (Fig. 1), then ensure the level in the longitudinal direction. It
is then traversed along the length of bed and readings at various places noted down. For test in
transverse direction the level is placed on a bridge piece to span the front and rear guideways and
then reading is noted. It is preferable to take two readings in longitudinal and transverse
directions simultaneously so that the effect of adjustments in one direction may also be observed
in the other. The readings in transverse direction reveal any twist in the bed.

It may be noted that the two guideways may be perfectly levelled in longitudinal direction, but
might not be parallel to each other. This is revealed by the test in transverse direction.

2. True Running of Locating Cylinder of Main Spindle: (May 2016)

The true mandrel is placed in the main spindle and test is conducted on the surface of Material.
Locating cylinder is provided to locate the chuck or face plate. Thus locating surface is
cylindrical and this must run truly; for only then the face plate etc., can run truly. The dial
indicator is fixed to the carriage (or any other fixed member) and the feeler of the indicator
touches the locating surface. The surface is then rotated on its axis and indictor should not show
any movement of needle.

3. Parallelism of main spindle to saddle movement:-

If the axis of the spindle is not parallel to the saddle movement then it is not possible to get
required dimension of work piece while doing the operation on lathe. This has to be checked in
both vertical and horizontal planes. If axis of the spindle is not parallel to bed in horizontal
direction, a tapered surface is produced. Any deviation from parallelism of spindle axis from bed
in vertical axis will produce a hyperboloid surface.
For this test, a mandrel is fitted in the taper socket of the spindle. Mandrel has a concentric taper
shank which is close fit to the spindle nose taper. The feeler of the dial indicator is pressed on the
mandrel and the carriage is moved, and the deviation in the reading of dial gauge are noted. The
indication in horizontal plane is given by dial (b) and in vertical plane by dial (a) (see Fig.
below)

4. Axial Slip of Main Spindle and True Running of Shoulder Face of Spindle Nose:

To test this the feeler of the dial gauge rests on the face of the locating spindle shoulder and the
dial gauge holder is clamped to the bed (Fig. 16.3). The locating cylinder is then rotated and the
change in reading noted down. The readings are taken at two diametrically opposite points. The
total error indicated by the movement of the pointer includes three main sources of errors.

(i) Axial slip due to error in bearings supporting the locating shoulder, i.e., the bearings are not
perpendicular to the axis of rotation and due to it a point on the shoulder will move axially in and
out at diametrically opposite points.

(ii) Face of the locating shoulder not in a plane perpendicular to axis of rotation.

(iii) Irregularities of front face.

Due to axial slip, in screw cutting, the pitch will not be uniform due to periodic movement of the
spindle.
5. True Running of Headstock Centre:

Headstock centre is live centre and the workpiece has to rotate with this centre. If it is not true
with the axis of movement of the spindle, eccentricity will be caused while turning a work, as the
job axis would not coincide with the axis of rotation of main spindle.

For testing this error, the feeler of the dial indicator is pressed perpendicular to the taper surface
of the centre (Fig. below), and the spindle is rotated. The deviation indicated by the dial gauge
gives the trueness of the centre.

6. Alignment of both the centres in vertical plane. (May 2016)

Besides testing the parallelism of the axes individually (main spindle axis and tailstock axis) it
is-necessary to check the relative position of the axes also. Both the axes may be parallel to
carriage movement but they may not be coinciding. So when a job is fitted between the centres,
the axis of the job will not be parallel to the carriage movement. This test is to be carried out in
vertical plane only. A mandrel is fitted between the two centres and dial gauge on the carriage.
The feeler of the dial gauge is pressed against the mandrel in vertical plane as shown in Fig. and
the carriage is moved and the error noted down.
7. True running of taper socket in main spindle.

If the axis of tapered hole of the socket is not concentric with the main spindle axis, eccentric
and tapered jobs will be produced. To test it, a mandrel is fitted into the tapered hole and
readings at two extremes of the mandrel are taken by means of a dial indicator as shown in Fig.

Parallelism of Tailstock sleeve to saddle movement:-

If the tailstock sleeve is not parallel to the saddle movement, the height of dead centre would
vary as varying lengths of sleeve are taken out. For the jobs held between two centres, it is
necessary that the central axis of the dead centre be coaxial with the job axis in both the planes.
If it is not so, the job may be tilted up or down or in sideways due to the support of the dead
centre.

The test is carried out by fixing the dial indicator on the tool post and pressing the plunger
against the sleeves first in vertical and then in horizontal plane. The carriage is moved along the
full length of the sleeve and deviations as indicated by dial indicator are noted down. Tailstock
sleeve should be rising towards the free end in vertical plane and should be inclined towards the
tool pressure in horizontal plane.
Parallelism of Tailstock sleeve taper socket with to saddle movement:-

A mandrel is put in the sleeve socket. The dial gauge is fixed on the tool post and the plunger is
pressed against the mandrel and the saddle is moved from one side to the other. This test is
carried out on both vertical and horizontal plane.

Parallelism of tail stock guide ways to carriage movement:-

Sometime the job is held between head-stock and tailstock centre for turning. In that case the job
axis mist coincide with the tail stock centre. If the tailstock guide ways are not parallel with the
carriage movement there will be some offset of the tailstock centre and this results in taper
turning.

To check the parallelism of tailstock guide ways both in vertical and horizontal planes, A block
is placed on the guide ways of tail stock as shown in figure and the feeler of the indicator is
touched on the horizontal and vertical surfaces of the block. The dial indicator is held on the
carriage and carriage is moved. any deviation in reading of dial gauge is noted.
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