INTERNSHIP REPORT

ON
FREQUENCY CONTROL

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION CORPORATION LIMITED

(A Government of India Enterprise)

Report Submitted by:-

MOHD ATIF
VOCATIONAL TRAINEE
SYSTEM OPERATION DEPT.
NLDC
POSOCO, NEW DELHI

1|P ag e
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I hereby take this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude to all those who
provided me the possibility to complete this report. A special thanks to Mr. N
Nallarasan(DGM-Electrical)whose contributed inguiding made my training
period a great learning experience.
Furthermore, I would like to acknowledge with much appreciation the
critical role of Mr. Anuj Kumar who gave valuable suggestions regarding our
topic.
I am also thankful to all electrical engineering staffs for their ever
willingness to extend all necessary support throughout this period.

MOHD ATIF
VOCATIONAL TRAINEE
SYSTEM OPERATION DEPT.

2|P ag e
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. MOHD ATIF presently deputed at NLDC as
Vocational trainee has completed his summer’s training successfully.
I am confident that the valuable work will facilitate the fulfilment of the
prerequisite for meeting the mandatory requirements in academics.

ANUJ KUMAR

3|P ag e
 ABSTRACT
Frequency control is an essential requirement of reliable electric power system
operations. Determination of frequency control depends on frequency
measurement and the practices based on these measurements that dictate
acceptable frequency management. This report chronicles the evolution of these
measurements and practices. As technology progresses from analog to digital
for calculation, communication, and control, the technical basis for frequency
control measurement and practices to determine acceptable performance
continues to improve. Before the introduction of digital computing, practices
were determined largely by prior experience. In anticipation of mandatory
reliability rules, practices evolved from a focus primarily on commercial and
equity issues to an increased focus on reliability. This evolution is expected to
continue and place increased requirements for more precise measurements and a
stronger scientific basis for future frequency management practices in support
of reliability.

4|P ag e
 CONTENTS
……………………………………………………………… Page no.
 POSOCO Overview…………………………………. 6-9
 Overview of the Indian Power Sector…………….. 10-12
 Frequency Control…………………………………. 13-30
1. Introduction…………………………………………….
2. Frequency control system…………………………….
2.1 Primary Control…………………………………..
2.2 Secondary Control………………………………..
2.2.1 Implementation of Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) in India
a) Frequency Control (Load/Generation Balance)
In Real Time
b) AGC-an Automated Form Of Secondary Control
c) Frequency Control Action
2.2.2 Implementation Of “Regulation” Ancillary
Service
In India through AGC
2.3 Tertiary Control…………………………………

3. Demand Side Frequency Response……………………

3.1 Demand Side Integration.........................................
3.2 Control Methods of Demand for Frequency Response
3.3 Electric Vehicles.......................................................
3.4 Load shedding for stability support.........................
 Tasmania Frequency Control…….....……………… 31-35
 Frequency Control in Power System of Russia….. 36-38
 Frequency Control in Power System of Australia….. 39-41
 Balancing and Frequency Control In North America. 42-47
 Indian experience in implementation of SCADA/EMS
System………………………………………… 48-53
 References………………………………………….. 54

5|P ag e
 POSOCO OVERVIEW [3]
Power System Operation Corporation (POSOCO) Ltd. is a public sector
enterprise .It was formed in March 2010 to handle the power management
functions of PGCIL. It is responsible to ensure the integrated operation of the
Grid in a reliable, efficient and secure manner.
It consists of a National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) and 5 Regional Load
Despatch Centres (RLDCs):

 Northern Regional Load Despatch Centre (NRLDC)

 Western Regional Load Despatch Centre (WRLDC)
 Eastern Regional Load Despatch Centre (ERLDC)
 Southern Regional Load Despatch Centre (SRLDC)
 North-Eastern Regional Load Despatch Centre (NERLDC)

Mission:
Ensure integrated operation of Regional and National Power Systems to
facilitate transfer of electric power within and across the regions and trans-
national exchange of power with Reliability, Security and Economy.

Objectives:
The Corporation has set the following objectives –

 To supervise and control all aspect concerning operations and manpower

requirement of RLDCs and NLDC. All the employees and executives
working with RLDCs and NLDC will be from the cadre of POSOCO.
POSOCO is A Government of India enterprise. All the employees will be
from the cadre of POWERGRID.
 To act as the apex organisation for human resources requirement of
NLDC and RLDCs.
 To ensure planning and implementation of infrastructure required for
smooth operation and development of NLDC and RLDCs.
 To coordinate the functioning of NLDC and all the RLDCs.
 To advise and assist state level Load DespatchCentres, including
specialised training etc.
 To perform any other function entrusted to it by the Ministry

6|P ag e
Functions of National Load Despatch Centre:

The National Load Despatch Centre shall be the apex body to ensure
integrated operation of the national power system and shall discharge the
following functions, namely:-

 Supervision over the Regional Load DespatchCentres.

 Scheduling and despatch of electricity over inter-regional links in
accordance with grid standards specified by the Authority and grid
code specified by Central Commission in coordination with
Regional Load DespatchCentres.
 Coordination with Regional Load DespatchCentres for achieving
maximum economy and efficiency in the operation of National Grid.
 Monitoring of operations and grid security of the National Grid.
 Supervision and control over the inter-regional links as may be
required for ensuring stability of the power system under its control.
 Coordination with Regional Power Committees for regional outage
schedule in the national perspective to ensure optimal utilization of
power resources.
 Coordination with Regional Load Despatch Centres for the energy
accounting of inter-regional exchange of power.
 Coordination for restoration of synchronous operation of national
grid with Regional Load Despatch Centres.
 Coordination for trans-national exchange of power.
 Providing operational feedback for national grid planning to the
Authority and the Central Transmission Utility.
 Levy and collection of such fee and charges from the generating
companies or licensees involved in the power system, as may be
specified by the Central Commission.
 Dissemination of information relating to operations of transmission
system in accordance with directions or regulations issued by
Central Electricity Regulatory Commission and the Central
Government from time to time.

7|P ag e
Functions of Regional Load Despatch Centre:

 Be responsible for optimum scheduling and despatch of electricity

within the region, in accordance with the contracts entered into with
the licensees or the generating companies operating in the region.
 Monitor grid operations.
 Keep accounts of quantity of electricity transmitted through the
regional grid.
 Exercise supervision and control over the inter-State transmission
system.
 Be responsible for carrying out real time operations for grid control
and despatch of electricity within the region through secure and
economic operation of the regional grid in accordance with the Grid
Standards and the Grid Code.
 To levy and collect such fees & charges from the generating
companies or licensees engaged in inter-state transmission of
electricity as may be specified by the Central Commission.

THE ORGANIZATION:

POSOCO (Power System Operation Corporation Limited) is a

Government of India enterprise.
Some of the functions of POSOCO :-
Regulatory Affairs
 IEGC
 Electricity Act 2003
 Transmission Notification
 Grid Standards
 Metering Standards
 ABT order
 Open Access Regulations
 UI Regulations etc.

8|P ag e
Market Operations:
 Transmission Pricing
 Scheduling Procedures
 Bilateral STOA
 Collective STOA
 Functions & Activities of Power Exchange
 Daily Collective Transactions Procedure
Real-Time Grid operations:
 Overview of National Grid
 Various Grid Profile
 Grid Operation & Management
 Preparation of Daily Reports
Power System Studies:
 Base Case formation
 Power System Case Studies in
 Steady State
 Transient State
 Dynamic State
SCADA/IT & Establishment
 Basic SCADA/EMS setup
 Energy Mnagment Sstem(EMS) applications
 Modeling of New Sub-stations, SLDs & Transmission Lines
 Handling Problems regarding Link Outages

9|P ag e
 OVERVIEW OF THE INDIAN POWER
SECTOR[2]
The power sector in India is mainly governed by the Ministry of Power. There
are three major pillars of power sector these are Generation, Transmission, and
Distribution. As far as generation is concerned it is mainly divided into three
sectors these are Central Sector, State Sector, and Private Sector.

Central Sector or Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs), constitute 29.78%

(62826.63MW) of total installed capacity i.e, 210951.72 MW (as on
31/12/2012) in India. Major PSUs involved in the generation of electricity
include NHPC Ltd., NTPC Ltd.,, and Nuclear Power Corporation of India
(NPCIL).

Besides PSUs, several state-level corporations are there which accounts for
about 41.10% of overall generation , such as Jharkhand State Electricity Board
(JSEB), Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB), Kerala State Electricity
Board (KSEB), in Gujarat (MGVCL, PGVCL, DGVCL, UGVCL four
distribution Companies and one controlling body GUVNL, and one generation
company GSEC), are also involved in the generation and intra-state distribution
of electricity.

Other than PSUs and state level corporations, private sector enterprises also
play a major role in generation, transmission and distribution, about
29.11%(61409.24MW) of total installed capacity is generated by private sector.

The Power Grid Corporation of India is responsible for the inter-state

transmission of electricity and the development of national grid.

The Ministry of Power is the apex body responsible for the development of
electrical energy in India. This ministry started functioning independently from
2 July 1992; earlier, it was known as the Ministry of Energy. The current Union
Minister of State (Independent charge) is Raj Kumar Singh. The ministry is
charged with overseeing electricity production and infrastructure development,
including generation, transmission, and delivery, as well as maintenance
projects.

India is world’s 3rd largest energy consumer, accounting for 3.4% of global
energy consumption, with Maharashtra as the leading electricity generator
among Indian states. Due to India’s economic rise, the demand for energy has
grown at an average of 3.6% per annum over the past 30 years. At the end of
December 2012, the installed power generation capacity of India stood at

10 | P a g e
210951.72MW, while the per capita energy consumption stood at 733.54
KWh(2008-09). The Indian government has set an ambitious target to add
approximately 78,000 MW of installed generation capacity by 2012. The total
demand for electricity in India is expected to cross 950,000 MW by 2030.

Electricity Generation in India:

(Data Source CEA, as on 31/12/2012)

Grand Total Installed Capacity is 210951.72 MW.

The data below are in MW

NUCLE
COAL GAS DIESEL AR HYDRO RES TOTAL PER(%)
STATE SECTOR 49933 5215.3 602.61 0 27395 3569.9 86715 41.10%
CENTRAL SECTOR 41995 6702.2 0 4780 9349.4 0 62826 29.78%
PRIVATE SECTOR 28945.3 6985.5 597.14 0 2595 22286 61409 29.11%
21095
TOTAL 120873 18903 1199.7 4780 39339.4 25856 1
12.26
PERCENTAGE(%) 57.29% 8.96% 0.57% 2.27% 18.65% % 100.00%

Objectives:
 Sufficient power to achieve GDP growth rate of 8%
 Reliable power
 Quality power
 Optimum power cost
 Commercial viability of power industry
 Power for all
Strategies:
 Power Generation Strategy with focus on low cost generation,
optimization of capacity utilization, controlling the input cost,
optimization of fuel mix, Technology upgradation and utilization of
Non Conventional energy sources
 Transmission Strategy with focus on development of National Grid
including Interstate connections, Technology upgradation &
optimization of transmission cost.
 Distribution strategy to achieve Distribution Reforms with focus on
System upgradation, loss reduction, theft control, consumer service

11 | P a g e
 orientation, quality power supply commercialization, Decentralized
distributed generation and supply for rural areas.
 Regulation Strategy aimed at protecting Consumer interests and
making the sector commercially viable.
 Financing Strategy to generate resources for required growth of the
power sector.
 Conservation Strategy to optimise the utilization of electricity with
focus on Demand Side management, Load management and
Technology upgradation to provide energy efficient equipment /
gadgets.
 Communication Strategy for political consensus with media support to
enhance the general public awareness.

12 | P a g e
 FREQUNCY CONTROL [4]

1. Introduction:
Due to the integration of renewable energy resources (RESs), performing the
frequency control from only the conventional generation becomes more
expensive. The aggregation of the demand side controllable devices to regulate
the frequency is a new method to alleviate the expanding need in the
conventional power generators. The distributed energy resources (DERs) are
becoming more attractive to supply local loads alongside with the conventional
generators. The DERs have different power dynamics compared with the
classical power generators. Some DERs had no rotational inertia and are
connected to the grid via power electronics interface. The whole power system
stability with the integration of DERs is an important issue in the modern
systems. DERs and their interactions have to be well coordinated. The DERs
with a well-coordinated control can significantly improve the stability of the
power system frequency. The uses of the emergency power amount from the
load side for the frequency reserve services presents a new challenge. The
challenge is associated with the control of large distributed loads [4].
Especially, with the electric vehicles (EVs), Residential battery energy storage
systems (BESSs), water heaters, and cloth dryers. Therefore, the DER allocation
is also important to enhance the integration of these power sources and
improving the power system frequency.

2. Frequency Control Systems:

An adaptive controller is presented for load-frequency control of power
systems. It uses a PI (proportional-integral) adaptation to satisfy the
hyperstability condition for taking care of the parameter changes of the system.
Only the available information on the states and output are required for the
control. No explicit parameter identification is needed. The controller can be
designed by using a reduced plant model to simplify the design without
degrading the performance much, so it is very easy to implement practically.
The simulation results indicate that good control performance can be obtained
and that the performance is sensitive to the plant parameter changes. The control
remains effective in the presence of generation rate constraints. There are three
types of control –

13 | P a g e
2.1 Primary control
- Response time: seconds
- Automatic control system
2.2 Secondary control
- Response time: minutes
- Automatic control system
2.3 Tertiary control
- Response time: 10–15 minutes
- Manually activated

2.1 Primary Control:

The objective of the primary control is to maintain the balance between
generation and load .Primary control consists of changing a generating unit’s
power versus the frequency, according to its static generation characteristic as
determined by the speed governor settings.
The objective of primary control is to re-establish a balance between generation
and demand within the synchronous area at a frequency different from the
nominal value. This is done at the expense of the kinetic energy of rotating
masses of generating sets and connected motors.
The primary control action time is 0 to 30 s after disturbance of the balance
between generation and demand.
Under normal conditions the system operates at nominal frequency, maintaining
the condition of equality of generated power and demand. Each disturbance of
this balance, due to, for example, disconnection of a large generating unit or
connection of a large load, causes a change in frequency. At first, the frequency
varies rapidly, practically linearly, and attains the maximum deviation from the
nominal value, referred to as the dynamic frequency deviation (Figure 1).

14 | P a g e
 Figure 1 Definition of the dynamic (Δfdyn) and quasi-steady-state frequency (Δf) deviation.

This deviation in the system frequency will cause the primary controllers of all
generators subject to primary control to respond within a few seconds. The
controllers alter the power delivered by the generators until a balance between
the power output and consumption is re-established. At the moment when the
balance is restablished, the system frequency stabilizes and remains at a quasi-
steady-state value, but differs from the frequency set point because of the
generators’ droop.
The magnitude of the dynamic frequency deviation depends on: the amplitude
and development over time of the disturbance affecting the balance between
power output and consumption; the kinetic energy of rotating machines in the
system; the number of generators subject to primary control; the dynamic
characteristics of the machines (including controllers); and the dynamic
characteristics of loads. The quasi-steady-state frequency deviation is governed
by the amplitude of the disturbance and the system stiffness.
The contribution of a generator to primary control depends upon the drop of the
generator and the primary control reserve of the generator concerned. Figure 2
shows the characteristics of two generators a and b and of different droops
under equilibrium conditions, but with identical primary control reserves. In the
case of a minor disturbance, for which the frequency offset is smaller than Δfa,
the contribution of generator a (with the smaller droop) will be greater than that
of generator b (the one with the greater droop).

15 | P a g e
 Figure 2 The contribution of two generators, with different droops, to primary control.

The primary control reserve of generator a is exhausted (i.e. where the power
generating output reaches its maximum value) earlier (at the frequency offset
Δfa) than that of generator b (which will be exhausted at the frequency offset
Δfb), even when both generators have identical primary control reserves.
For an adequate operation of frequency control it is crucial that the system has a
proper level of primary control reserve at any instant of time allocated in a
possibly large number of generating units and activated within a few seconds of
detecting the frequency deviating from its nominal value.

2.2 Secondary Control:

Secondary control makes use of a central regulator, modifying the active power
set points of generating sets subject to secondary control, in order to restore
power interchanges with adjacent control areas to their programmed values and
to restore the system frequency to its set-point value at the same time. By
altering the operating points of individual generating units, secondary control
ensures that the full reserve of primary control power activated will be made
available again.
Secondary control operates slower than primary control, in a timeframe of
minutes. Its action becomes evident about 30 s after a disturbance/event, and
ends within 15 min.
Since under normal operating conditions of a power system the power demand
varies continuously, secondary control takes place continually in such way as
not to impair the action of primary control. Secondary control requires: a central
regulator; a system measuring the interchanged power in tie-lines;
measurements of the system frequency; and a system for transmission of
regulator signals to the relevant generating units.

16 | P a g e
The central regulator minimizes in real time the system control error G,
expressed as
G = P measure –P program+ K (fmeasure−f0)
where P measure is the sum of the instantaneous measured active power transfers
on the tie-lines; P program is the resulting programmed exchange with all the
neighbouring control areas; K, the system factor, is a constant in MW/Hz set on
the secondary controller; f measure is the measured instantaneous value of system
frequency; and f0 is the set-point (nominal) frequency.
The desired behaviour of secondary control over time will be obtained by
assigning a proportional-integral (PI) characteristic of the central regulator,
according to the following equation:
ΔP d=−B.G−1T∫Gdt
Where Pd is the correction signal of the central regulator governing the
generating units subject to secondary control; B is the gain (proportional term)
of the central regulator; T is the integral time constant of the central regulator;
and G is the system control error.
A disturbance of the balance between power generation and demand in
synchronous systems gives rise to variations in the system frequency observed
over the entire system despite the location of the disturbance. In such cases a
joint reaction of primary control of all interconnected systems is foreseen in
order to re-establish the balance between generation and demand. The result
will be achieved at a frequency differing from its set-point value by Δf , and the
power interchanges on tie-lines will be different from the scheduled values.
Whereas during primary control all systems provide mutual support, only the
system in which the unbalance occurred is required to undertake secondary
control action. The controller of this system activates appropriate secondary
control power restoring the nominal frequency and scheduled power exchanges.
In order to provide effective secondary control, the generating units that
contribute to this control process must have sufficient power reserve to be able
to respond to the regulator signal with both the required change in generated
power and the required rate of change. The rate of change in the power output at
the generator terminals significantly depends on the generation technique.
Typically, for oil or gas-fired power stations this rate is about 8% per min, for
lignite-fired and hard-coal-fired power stations it is up to 2% and 5% per min,
respectively, and for nuclear power stations this rate is up to 5% per min. Even

17 | P a g e
in the case of reservoir power stations the rate is 2.5% of the rated plant output
per second.

2.2.1 Implementation of Automatic Generation Control

(AGC) in India [1] :
Importance of Automatic Generation Control (AGC) utilising the spinning
reserves in the Power system operation was reiterated in different fora and
finally accepted by the Commission. Its essentiality has been deliberated in
several documents and orders of the CERC, including the last order dated 13th
October 2015 on Roadmap to Operationalise Spinning Reserves and the Report
of the Committee on Spinning Reserves. However, the latest order on
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) dated 7th Dec 2017, Commission kept
the most difficult point of the petition unaddressed for the obvious reason of
fixed cost liability issue (i.e allocation of 100 MW spinning reserve from Dadri-
II for AGC) and directed NLDC to utilize Un-Requisitioned Surplus (URS) for
the AGC.
Secondary control is the control area wise automatic control which delivers
reserve power in order to bring back the frequency and the area interchange
programs to their target values. In doing so, the delivered primary control
reserves are restored on those machines which have contributed to primary
response.
a) Frequency Control (Load / Generation Balance) in Real Time:
Loads in any power system are essentially random in nature and are
uncontrollable due to the random behaviour of consumers, some events of
generation deviating from schedules, natural events etc. which results in
load/generation balance occurring at all frequency different from the target. The
only option available is, to match the generation to the load, in real time, and
that can be done through AGC which is also called regulation service.
There are two distinct types of load / generation mismatch events which occur
in any Power System. The slow changes in frequency are best addressed by
modulating a few generating units (for obvious reasons, these will have to be
the high marginal cost ones) carrying the reserve capacity (Spinning Reserve)
for this purpose. Few Generators can be assigned this load following duty and
can be controlled by the LDC tele-command2 issued by the LDC ‘frequency
control desk’ operator or automated as “Automatic Generation Control (AGC)”.
Every Generating Unit has the provision for accepting “raise”/“lower” remote
commands for this purpose.

18 | P a g e
The constant frequency control band (corresponding to the Governor Dead
band), acceptable quasi steady state frequency band (to limit frequency
deviation in steady state) and the maximum permissible instantaneous deviation
(nadir) frequency deviation (to prevent under frequency load disconnection) as
defined in UCTE, are depicted in the diagram
Permissible Frequency Deviation Limits*

Maximum “Δf“ deviation limit, under disturbed condition

+0.8Hz

+0.2Hz Quasisteadystate“Δf“deviationlimit

fN=50Hz +0.020Hz Constant frequency “Δf “band, normal conditions

-0.020Hz Time

-0.2Hz Quasi steady state “Δ f“ deviation limit

Frequency

-0.8Hz
Maximum “Δf “deviation limit, under disturbed condition

Fig 3* Values indicated are as applicable in UCTE

b) AGC – an automated form of Secondary Control:

The perpetual small changes in the frequency of the power system can be
conveniently corrected, by delivering (or withdrawing) generation from a few
machines designated to carry this control reserve (Secondary Control Reserve).
This control can be exercised manually by the Frequency Control Desk
Operator at the LDC or can be automated by a control system variously referred
to as Automatic Generation Control (AGC) or Automatic Load Frequency
Control (ALFC). While single Control Area systems can be easily controlled by
the former method, this method becomes complex and difficult in multi area
power pools, due to the additional control need of “net exchange”. Thus, multi
utility power pool necessarily use AGC . Secondary Control is essentially an
integral control which continues to act, till the frequency error becomes zero.

In addition to the perpetual control action described above, the Secondary

Control also acts after each event of Primary Control delivery, to return the
frequency to the target value, thereby returning all the machines which had
delivered Primary Control reserve to their original load point at the target
frequency, to be ready for the next “call up”.

19 | P a g e
c) Frequency Control Action:
Thus, under normal conditions were load / generation is continuously changing
slowly, which will be the case for near 100% time, only secondary control will
be acting, to keep frequency within the narrow band of 0.030Hz (0.06%).
Primary Control remains active but is not called upon to act. In the rare
disturbance events of fast and large frequency change events (caused by events
like a large generating unit tripping or a load bus being switched out), Primary
Control acts quickly to restrict the frequency change to within the maximum
permissible deviation and to restore frequency quickly to within the quasi
steady state limit. Following this, Secondary Control takes over to restore
frequency to the normal operating band and the Primary Control reserves,
whichwere delivered during the event, gets restored, returning the system to the
readiness for the next event. The typical frequency plot for such a disturbance
event is shown in the diagram below:

A B

Frequency Restoration
Following a Disturbance:
Typical*

In the said diagram, “A” represents Primary Control action and “B” represents
Secondary Control action. While “A” represents about a minute, “B” represents
anything up to 30 minutes. Prior to the event and after the event it will be
noted that frequency is held within the constancy band and Secondary Control
alone is acting.

20 | P a g e
Regulation and load following or fast energy markets are
the two services required to continuously balance generation and load
under normal conditions.

Frequency control is accomplished centrally under normal conditions.

2.2.2Implementation of “Regulation” Ancillary Service in

India through Automatic Generation Control (AGC):
In order to achieve constant frequency in Indian Grid and for large scale RE
integration, operationalization of spinning reserves is essential and to be
implemented at the earliest. As off now, there is no control system which can
regulate the power generation to match minute to minutes balancing of Net
Load. Manual Tertiary control through scheduling, forecasting and recently
introduced Reserve Regulation Ancillary Services (RRAS) can reduce the band

21 | P a g e
of frequency fluctuation but cannot achieve Target frequency of 50 Hz.
Moreover, break even frequencies of different plants as per frequency linked
Deviation Settlement Mechanism (DSM) will always try to deviate from the
ultimate target frequency of 50 Hz.

Pilot Project Taken up at Dadri Stage-II:

Reason for Pilot at NTPC DadriStg-II

–Dadri Stage II power plant is located near Delhi.

–It is easy to visit and monitor the field level implementation process.

–The variable cost of the power plant is fairly high (of the order of 300-350
paise/kWh) than other thermal plants in Northern Region

–Load center plant

–Easy and economical to keep Spinning Reserves

Implementation Philosophy for AGC Pilot

The AGC system has been installed at NLDC control center. The purpose of
this AGC system is to communicate the setpoints calculated for the Generating
Units those are modeled in the mentioned AGC system. The Generating Units
which are considered for the pilot implementation are from Dadri Power Plant
Stage-2 Unit 5 & 6. The main purpose of the supplied AGC system is to
calculate the Area Control Error for the considered control area of Northern
Region and to distribute this ACE ( based on pre-decided methodology ) to the
respective generating units i.e. Unit 5 & 6. The AGC system will use its Load
Frequency Control (LFC) module to calculate the ACE and to distribute its unit
specific control error to respective unit. The ACE calculated by LFC is on the
basis of Area Interchange and Frequency signal received from NLDC SCADA
system.

The calculated setpoints at the NLDC AGC system is transferred to Control

Logic Unit at the Dadri Generation Plant over IEC104 protocol and further it is
transferred to Unit DCS systems.

The scope of the work included communicating the setpoints to Dadri

Generation Plant. In order to enable LFC to calculate ACE following real-time
data are required:

From the SCADA/EMS system at NLDC Control Center:

22 | P a g e
 • Real-time Analog Data for the Tie-Lines which are modeled in AGC

• Real-Time CB status for the Tie-Lines which are modeled in AGC

• Total Area Generation in considered Control Area

• Total Load Calculated for considered Control Area

How do data flow from NLDC to Dadri-II?

DataFlowinAGCProject

AGC console at NTPC

Factor

via HVDC Dadri

AGC RTU

IEC 104 Protocol

AGC Set point
at NTPC
NR-IR Schedule NR-IR
Actual Frequency

DeltaP

U-5 & 6 DCS

Signals interfaced per unit:

.

23 | P a g e
 Output limit checks:
• 50 MW Sr.No Type Service utilization of
1 Digital output GCB OFF
Spinning Reserve
2 Digital output GCB ON
• Plant 3 Digital output AGC OFF Ramp rate (~ 10
MW/min) 4 Digital output AGC ON honoured while
giving DeltaP 5 Analog output ACTUAL LOAD signals
UNIT LOAD
• Difference 6 Analog output SETPOINT between two
successive values 7 Analog output UNIT CAPABILITY of Delta P
SETPOINT FROM
– Max(Delta 8 Analog input RTU (Delta P)) =
1MW
– After tuning of controllers
– Taken care of by the Ramp application at NLDC
• Unit Capabilities checked at Plant end
– Maximum MW limit
– Mill availability and Spinning Reserve in real time as declared on paper
• If (Unit Capability – 50 – ULSP) < 0, then start an extra mill, indication
at NTPC.
 Scaling the ACE value:
• NTPC Dadristg-II alone cannot compensate the whole Northern Region
ACE
• Interchange scaled using a factor of 30, changeable
• Nearly 15 stations available for AGC in NR
• 50 MW will be the maximum Spinning Reserve utilization
• Beyond 50 MW NR Scaled ACE
• Entire (restricted to) 50 MW spinning Reserve will be utilized from
NTPC Dadristg-II
 Implementation of Pilot Project at Dadri-II
29th day of June 2017 ushered in a new era by the introduction of Secondary
control in the history of Indian Power System when both 500MW
units of Dadri were operating under AGC. Commercial operation
24 | P a g e
under AGC regime started from 4th January 2018 following CERC order and
establishment of commercial mechanism.
NR considered as an Area for secondary control

NORTHERN REGION

NORTH- EAS TERN

REGION

Eastern
WESTERN REGION REGION

SOUTHERN REGION

Area Control Error : ACE = (Ia - Is) + 10 * Bf * (Fa - 50) Ia = Actual net
interchange, negative for NR meaning import by NR
Is= Scheduled net interchange, negative for NR meaning import by NR
Bf = Frequency Bias Coefficient in MW/0.1 Hz, positive value
Fa = Actual System Frequency
ACE positive means NR is surplus and NR internal generation has to back
down
ACE negative means NR is deficit and NR internal generation has to increase

25 | P a g e
 Fig: 4

fig:5

2.3 Tertiary Control:

Tertiary control is any automatic or manual change in the working points of
the generating units participating, in order to restore an adequate secondary

26 | P a g e
control reserve or to provide desired (in terms of economic considerations)
allocation of this reserve within the set of generating units in service.
Tertiary control may be achieved by means of: changing the set operating points
of thermal power plant generation sets, around which the primary and secondary
control acts; connection/disconnection of pump storage hydro power stations
operated the an intervention mode; altering the power interchange program; and
load control (centralized tele-command system or controlled load shedding).
The timing of the primary, secondary and tertiary control ranges is shown in
Figure 3. Frequency control system, comprising primary, secondary and tertiary
control, ensures the frequency control under normal operating conditions of a
power system. In such cases frequency remains within the range of permissible
variation.
Where the frequency variation exceeds the permissible range, due to a
significant loss of generation or consumed power, the system conditions are
deemed impaired (emergency) conditions. In such circumstances supplementary
actions are needed in order to re-establish the active power balance. These
include:
• Emergency load tripping (system load shedding) in case of a major frequency
drop;
• Emergency disconnection of generators in case of a large frequency increase.

Fig 6 The timing of the primary, secondary and tertiary control ranges in a power system

3. Demand side frequency response:

Demand side frequency response presents a novel way to mitigate the increasing
need in the conventional power generators. The uses of the emergency power
amount from the load side for the frequency reserve services presents a new
challenge. The challenge is associated with the control of large distributed
loads. Especially, with the EVs, residential BESSs, water heaters, and cloth
dryers.

27 | P a g e
3.1 Demand-side integration:
Demand-side integration (DSI) measures how to use the loads and local
generations to support system management and to improve power supply. The
term ‘demand-side integration’ refers to the relationship between the power
systems, energy supply and end users. This relationship includes demand-side
management (DSM) and demand-side response (DSR). The potential of DSI
relies upon customer’s, such as the duration and the timing of their demand
response, the availability and the timing of the information provided to them,
the automation of end-use equipment, metering, pricing/contracts, and the
performance of the communications infrastructure.
There are two types of programs for the application of DSI: price-based
programs and incentive-based programs. In price-based programs, consumers
adjust their energy consumption about the changes in electricity market price. In
contrast, the latter is provided through curtailment or interruptible contracts
where consumers are paid to shift or reduce their energy consumption.
However, it is important to address the challenges associated with the demand
side integration, such as changing the natural diversity of loads, which can
create more unpredictable and undesirable effects. For example, the amount of
recovered energy through the DSR may be larger than the required load
reduction.

3.2 Control methods of demand for frequency response:

A flexible demand in industrial and public buildings, such as water supply
companies, steelworks, the wastewater treatment industry, hospitals, factories,
food markets and universities, can be controlled to provide frequency response
in the power system.
Two control methods were used in the literature to control flexible demand
units: centralised and decentralised control methods. The loads with a thermal
storage showed suitable characteristics to provide a provision of demand-side
frequency response than other types of loads .Centralised control of the demand
units relies on the infrastructure of information and communication technology
(ICT) to provide communications between the unit and the centralised control
of the aggregator. For instance, a centralised frequency controller presented in
sends a signal to turn ON/OFF domestic air conditioning units and water heaters
after a pre-set value of frequency rise/dip. The centralised controller reduces the
uncertainty in the response of controllable units. However, the establishment of

28 | P a g e
communications in the centralised method presents challenges, such as cost and
latency.
To overcome these challenges, decentralised frequency controllers were
developed. A decentralised controller, presented in, regulated the set-points of
the temperature of refrigerators according to the variation in frequency
deviation and its power consumption was controlled. A dynamic decentralised
controller was developed in to change the aggregated power consumption of
refrigerators in a linear relationship with a frequency change. The controller
planned to abstain from influencing the primary cold supply function of
refrigerators. Similar controllers were developed to provide a frequency
response from industrial bitumen tanks and melting pots.
The required availability of refrigerators to provide frequency response was
estimated by work presented in. It was estimated that approximately 1.5 million
refrigerators are required to provide 20 MW of response. The total cost of
frequency controllers added to each refrigerator was calculated in 2007 at a
price of approximately £3 million (£2 million of an estimated cost for each
controller).

3.3 Electric vehicles:

Recently, an increasingly ambitious target for a high level of EV integration
was announced around the world. AnInternationally high priority target was
placed on deploying and developing the technology for EVs. It is assumed that
the annual production of EVs would be over 100 million by 2050.
EVs’ load can be controlled to provide frequency response service in a power
system. However, providing a primary frequency response from EVs in certain
cases can introduce a negative impact on power system stability. This impact is
due to insufficient load estimation of aggregated EVs. The common approach to
provide a demand-side frequency response from EVs is to control the
charging/discharging rates of vehicle-to-grid (V2G). There are many types of
control and management of loads (including EVs), such as reducing users’ bills,
charging coordination of EVs and charging scheduling.

3.4 Load shedding for stability support:

The last defence line to achieve a stable and safe operation of a power system is
under frequency load shedding (UFLS) and under voltage load shedding
(UVLS). These two techniques are also useful and necessary to avoid any
collapse in frequency or voltage.

29 | P a g e
The developments in large power systems, such as integrating more RESs, as
well as the complex network refurbishments, the safety of the system operation
is facing more challenges. Therefore, current traditional UFLS/UVLS methods
can lead to inadequate load shedding, thus leading to more economic losses. As
a result, the traditional methods for load shedding are unable to meet the
growing needs of modern power systems. In this situation, smart devices such
as such as wide-area measurement systems and synchrophasor concept can be
used effectively to support the frequency and voltage.
The wide-area monitoring system (WAMS) is rapidly increasing due to its
importance in modern power systems operators. Wide-area monitoring,
protection and control (WAMPAC) has already been used by many systems
operator especially with UFLS.

30 | P a g e
 TASMANIA FREQUENCY CONTROL [5]

1. Frequency Control Mechanisms:

Power system frequency varies when there is an imbalance between generation
and load. Control of frequency is predominantly provided by generators varying
their power output to correct the imbalance.
Traditionally there are two key frequency control mechanisms: primary control
provided by the generator governor systems and secondary control provided by
a central regulating system known as Automatic Generation Control (AGC).
The governor systems typically operate on a ‘droop characteristic’ whereby a
percentage change in frequency will cause a percentage change in power output
away from their dispatched operating point. On their own they cannot both
correct an imbalance and restore frequency to 50 Hz. Some frequency change
away from 50 Hz is required to be maintained for their power output to remain
away from their dispatched operating point, correcting the imbalance.
The AGC system is used to vary the operating points of one or more
‘regulating’ generators to restore both the frequency back to 50 Hz and the
generators providing primary frequency control back to their dispatched
operating point. The intention is that an imbalance is first taken up by
generators providing primary frequency control then shifted to the regulating
generators in the long term.
In the NEM real-time markets are used to obtain eight Frequency Control
Ancillary Service (FCAS) services. Market generators provide the majority of
these services and they are co-optimised with the energy market. Six of the
markets are for the provision of frequency control services following a
contingency event such as the loss of a generator or load. These are fast raise,
fast lower, slow raise, slow lower, delayed raise and delayed lower. They are
named after the direction the service provider should vary its output and the
timeframe the variation must cover. The remaining two services are regulation
raise and regulation lower and are controlled via AGC to more slowly correct
imbalance during the normal operation of the system, in the absence of a
contingency.
The frequency operating standards specify that, in the absence of a contingency
event, system frequency should remain within the normal frequency operating
band (50 0.15 Hz) at least 99 % of the time.

31 | P a g e
 Fig 7: NEM mainland frequency histogram Jan 2007 to June 2018

2. Frequency Droop and Deadband:

Traditionally, the majority of governor systems operated with a droop
characteristic whereby a percentage change in frequency will cause a percentage
change in power output away from their load setpoint. Although, many modern
governor systems have multiple operating modes, some of which do not provide
droop response, or which will defeat or limit any short term response delivered
via droop characteristics.
Frequency deadband is a governor function that operates by removing the
governor’s droop response while frequency is within the deadband region, as
illustrated below

Fig 7 Frequency deadband illustration

32 | P a g e
While frequency is within the deadband region, the governor will remain at its
setpoint and not assist with correcting a frequency deviation. Historical
deadband settings were commonly 0.05 Hz or less, resulting in tight
frequency control. Frequency deadband settings are now commonly set as high
as 0.15 Hz, at the limit of the normal frequency operating band.
Another way of reducing a governor’s response to frequency deviations is to
monitor the generator’s power output and adjust its setpoint to counter
movements away from its dispatch instruction. This is commonly used on older
governors which don’t have a frequency deadband function. Such arrangements
to ensure dispatch compliance prevent the delivery of sustained frequency
response.

3. Tasmanian Frequency Control Test:

The Basslink inter-connector between Tasmania and Victoria was out of service
during the first half of 2018. This was used as an opportunity for performing
tests related to frequency control performance improvement. With Basslink out
of service, the NEM mainland has no influence over Tasmanian frequency.
Tasmania is a significantly smaller system than the NEM mainland and
currently has a single market generator; Hydro Tasmania. This enabled the tests
to be organised quickly and minimised coordination efforts.
The specific aims of the tests were to assess:
1. The impact of AEMO’s AGC system on Tasmanian frequency control
performance
2. The performance improvement that could be achieved by removing the
frequency deadband on selected generators
3. The change in governor activity caused by these modifications
The tests were conducted on selected days during May 2018. The four hour
period between 11:00 and 15:00 was targeted for testing as it is characterised by
flat Tasmanian demand and enabled close monitoring of some tests. A number
of test periods were monitored with no changes from normal operation to gather
baseline information. Several key tests were repeated.
During the testing Hydro Tasmania made changes to the governor deadband
settings and operated governor data loggers. Changes to the AGC system
settings were made by AEMO. All settings were reverted to their pre-test values
at the conclusion of testing.

33 | P a g e
 Fig 8: Baseline vs narrow deadband frequency distributions

Fig 9: Frequency histograms for narrow deadbands with variable and still wind
generation

34 | P a g e
 Fig 10: Comparison between NEM mainland and Tasmanian frequency with
narrow Tasmanian deadbands

35 | P a g e
 FREQUENCY CONTROL IN POWER
SYSTEMS OF RUSSIA [8]
For the first time the Russian power industry encountered the concepts of
primary frequency control and secondary control of the operating conditions;
the very process of control was decentralized.
For the first time the primary frequency control per- formed by all electric
stations was declared to be a part of the frequency control process and its
realization became the responsibility of the personnel of the stations.
The parameters of the leading regulator of the system of primary frequency
control of electric power plants, i.e., the automatic turbine speed regulator
(ASR), became the responsibility of the consolidated dispatching offices and the
Central Dispatching Office of the United Power System. For the first time the
secondary control of the regime of power systems, i.e., the control of the power
flow balance with frequency correction was declared to be a part of the process
of frequency control provided by the power system.
In the recent period of formation of generating compa- nies, it has been very
important to realize the responsibility of these companies for the quality of the
electric power pro-duced, the frequency included, and for the reliability of the
power supply to be provided by the companies that sign an agreement on
parallel operation with the United Power System.The earlier methods of
centralized frequency control combined with local regulation of the specified
power were based on the right of the state to interfere with the mode of
operation of the systems it owned. Today the power supply companies
(transmission networks and power plants) are in- dependent enterprises that
have responsibilities before the consumers and are tied with the UPS only by a
common power regime and planned power exchanges within a single
dispatching service, planning and practical realization of the production process,
i.e., within the on-line control of the operating conditions and a single federal
market of electric energy and power. The same refers to the state nuclear power
plants.
This makes them responsible both for the quality of the supplied electric power
(voltage and frequency) and for successful parallel operation, including damage
to consumers and other participants in the parallel operation, i.e., for reliability.
In this connection, the generating and transmitting companies and nuclear
power plants should participate in the frequency control performed by the
United Power System (UPS) in the following forms:

36 | P a g e
power stations should participate in providing stable frequency and reliable
parallel operation with the UPS by taking part in primary frequency control with
normalized efficiency;
 the inherent conditions of parallel operation of companies with the UPS
should be subjected to secondary control by on-line or automatic
regulation of the specified balance of external power flows (specified
power) with frequency correction; disturbances of the inherent power
balance should be eliminated by the companies themselves; secondary
control of frequency variation should not interfere with primary control
directed at limitation of this variation
 tertiary control should be provided for periodic restoration of the
efficiency of primary and secondary control and participation in the on-
line correction of the operating conditions of the UPS for rendering
mutual assistance or optimizing the operating conditions of the UPS.
The teamwork of the participants in parallel operation (except for NPP) for
controlling the operating conditions with respect to the frequency and power
flow balance is regulated by the Operating Rules.
The problem of frequency control in a pool is subdivided into three interrelated
problems, namely,
primary frequency control by joint effort of all the electric stations for
providing stability of the frequency, i.e., maintenance of frequency deviations
within the permissible range upon disturbance of the total power balance in any
part of the pool and for any reason, including emergency changes in the power;
the high-speed nature of the control allows it to be the first to react to any
change in the frequency;
secondary frequency control providing restoration of the normal level of
frequency and planned power exchanges between power systems (regions);
tertiary frequency control understood (within frequency control) as
redistribution of the reserves of primary and secondary control or restoration of
the used reserve of secondary control, i.e., maintenance of constant efficiency of
the primary and secondary controls.
Figure 1 presents the process of frequency control in the UPS after the
emergence of a sudden deficit of active power in a power pool.

37 | P a g e
 Fig. 11. Process of frequency control: I, II, III — primary, secondary, and tertiary control,
respectively; Äf max is the dynamic deviation of the frequency; Äfst is the steady (quasi-
steady) deviation of the fre- quency in the stage of primary control.

38 | P a g e
FREQUENCY CONTROL IN POWER SYSTEMS OF
AUSTRALIA [6]
The standard approach to power system frequency control is based on the
complementary roles of primary and secondary control. The primary system
responds on a short time-scale. Generator governors measure (local) frequency
and drive the generator output to a corresponding value given by the droop
characteristic (see Report Figure F.4 p. 203). Importantly, governors do not try
to regulate frequency to the reference 50Hz, but rather to the frequency dictated
by the droop characteristic.
Following a disturbance, the frequency will stabilise to a value that is not
necessarily the reference frequency. Automatic Generator Control (AGC), as a
secondary system with a longer time-scale, measures this frequency offset and
determines appropriate raise/lower set-point adjustments for all participating
generators. These adjustments effectively move the droop characteristic of each
generator up/down. The time-scale decoupling between governor action
(regulating power output) and AGC (regulating frequency) ensures power
system stability.

Concerns on frequency performance in the National

Electricity Market (NEM):
A current fundamental problem is that governor deadbands are allowed to be
wider than accepted international best practice. Tightening these deadbands will
immediately tighten frequency control. However, this may cause more wear and
tear on generators, and this is where a market can provide a mechanism to
compensate generators3. Providing a fast raise/lower regulation signal service
would effectively cause the same amount of wear and tear on generators as the
current Frequency Control Ancillary Service (FCAS), therefore the best
technical solution may be to tighten deadbands on generators in conjunction
with creating a new signal service market for non-generator participants.
Thorough analysis should be undertaken to ensure the technical viability of such
a scheme.
Without first verifying that contracted/dispatched FCAS is being delivered
appropriately there is difficulty in determining whether frequency control needs
to be (i) tightened, (ii) relaxed even further, or (iii) kept the same as today.
Furthermore, determining the baseline against which the FCAS is measured

39 | P a g e
provides a nontrivial challenge, but is fundamentally important for verification
of any future DER-based FCAS.
The magnitude of power and frequency movements presently occurring (see
Figure B) provides evidence that suggests premature wear and tear on
generating plant may also be occurring.

Figure 12A – The probability density function for frequency, measured at 4-second intervals
as reported by NECA for 8 May 2001 and calculated from AEMO data for 8 May 2016
matching the 2001 distribution calculation.

40 | P a g e
 Figure 12B – 10 February 2017: Measurement of the NEM’s total synchronous generation
active power and frequency under the current frequency control framework. Note, wind
generation is almost certainly not contributing to the frequency dynamics with wind
generation providing a fairly flat (and 2 orders of magnitude less) delivered active power

41 | P a g e
 BALANCING AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
IN NORTH AMERICA [7]

Balancing and Frequency Control Basics:

The power system of North America is divided into four major
Interconnections. These Interconnections can be thought of as (frequency-)
independent islands. The Interconnections are:
• Western – Generally everything west of the Rockies.
• Texas – Also known as Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT).
• Eastern –Generally everything east of the Rockies except Texas and
Quebec.
• Quebec
Each Interconnection is actually a large machine, as every generator within the
island is pulling in tandem with the others to supply electricity to all customers.
This occurs as the rotation of electric generating units, nearly all in (steady-
state) synchronism. The “speed” (of rotation) of the Interconnection is
frequency, measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). If the total
Interconnection generation exceeds customer demand, frequency increases
beyond the target value, typically 60 Hz, until energy balance is achieved.
Conversely, if there is a temporary generation deficiency, frequency declines
until balance is again restored at a point below the scheduled frequency.
Balance is initially restored in each case due to load that varies with frequency
and generator governors that change generator output in response to frequency
changes. Some electric devices, such as electric motors, use more energy if
driven at a higher frequency and less at a lower frequency.

42 | P a g e
 Fig 13: North American Interconnections

Balancing of generation and load within the Interconnections is handled by

entities called Balancing Authorities. The Balancing Authorities dispatch
generators in order to meet their individual needs. Some Balancing Authorities
also control load to maintain the load
– generation balance.

Fig 14: North American Balancing Authorities and Regions

There are over 100 Balancing Authorities of varying size in North America.
Each Balancing Authority in an Interconnection is connected via high voltage
transmission lines (called tie-lines) to neighboring Balancing Authorities.

43 | P a g e
Overseeing the Balancing Authorities are wide-area operators called Reliability
Coordinators. The relationship between Reliability Coordinators and Balancing
Authorities is similar to that between air traffic controllers and pilots.
Frequency does not change in an Interconnection as long as there is a balance
between resources and customer demand (including various electrical losses).
This balance is depicted in Fig.

Inter-Regional Purchases
Sales
Interchange

Power
Load Generated
Losses

Frequency
DEMAN Decrease Increase SUPPL
D Y
60
- +

Fig:15 Generation / Demand Balance

Control Continuum:
Balancing and frequency control occur over a continuum of time using different
resources, represented in Fig.

44 | P a g e
Primary Control:
Primary Control is more commonly known as Frequency Response. Frequency
Response occurs within the first few seconds following a change in system
frequency (disturbance) to stabilize the Interconnection. Frequency Response is
provided by:
1. Governor Action. Governors on generators are similar to cruise control on
your car. They sense a change in speed and adjust the energy input into the
generators’ prime mover.
2. Load. The speed of motors in an Interconnection change in direct
proportion to frequency. As frequency drops, motors will turn slower and draw
less energy. Rapid reduction of system load may also be effected by automatic
operation of under-frequency relays which interrupt pre-defined loads within
fractions of seconds or within seconds of frequency reaching a predetermined
value.

Secondary Control:
Secondary Control typically includes the balancing services deployed in the
“minutes” time frame. Some resources however, such as hydroelectric
generation, can respond faster in many cases. This control is accomplished
45 | P a g e
using the Balancing Authority’s control computer4 and the manual actions
taken by the dispatcher to provide additional adjustments. Secondary Control
also includes initial reserve deployment for disturbances.
In short, Secondary Control maintains the minute-to-minute balance throughout
the day and is used to restore frequency to its scheduled value, usually 60 Hz,
following a disturbance. Secondary Control is provided by both Spinning and
Non-Spinning Reserves.
The most common means of exercising secondary control is through Automatic
Generation Control (AGC). AGC operates in conjunction with Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. SCADA gathers information
about an electric system, in particular system frequency, generator outputs, and
actual interchange between the system and adjacent systems. Using system
frequency and net actual interchange, plus knowledge of net scheduled
interchange, it is possible to determine the system’s energy balance with its
interconnection in near-real-time. Most SCADA systems poll sequentially for
electric system data, with a typical periodicity of four seconds. Because of this,
data is naturally slightly out of perfect time sync, but is of sufficient quality to
permit balancing and good frequency control.

Tertiary Control:
Tertiary Control encompasses actions taken to get resources in place to handle
current and future contingencies. Reserve deployment and Reserve restoration
following a disturbance are common types of Tertiary Control.
Control Continuum:
Summary Table summarizes the discussion on the control continuum and
identifies the service5 that provides the control and the NERC standard that
addresses the adequacy of the service.
Control Ancillary Service/IOS Timeframe NERC Standard
Primary Control Frequency Response 10-60 Seconds FRS-CPS1
Secondary Control Regulation 1-10 Minutes CPS1– CPS2 –
DCS - BAAL
Tertiary Control Imbalance/Reserves 10 Minutes - Hours BAAL - DCS
Time Control Time Error Correction Hours TEC

Table : Control Continuum Summary

46 | P a g e
 3500

3400

3300

3200

3100

3000

2900

2800

2700

2600

2500
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Mean Median

Fig:16 Recent Eastern Interconnection Frequency Response

47 | P a g e
 INDIAN EXPERIENCE IN IMPLEMENTATION OF
SCADA/EMS SYSTEMS [8]
There is a tremendous growth in Indian power system since independence in
1947. An indicator of the growth is the Installed generating capacity which has
increased from 1362 MW in December’1947 to ~ 183 GW by end of 2018.
Indian power system has a hierarchical system. It consists of distribution
Utilities i.e. State Electricity Boards (SEB)/Private companies, Central
transmission utilities, Central Generation utility and Independent Power
Producers; all combined together form the Regional Power System. Seeing the
vast geographical stretch of India, there are five such regions. They are namely
Northern Region, Southern Region, Eastern, Western Region and North Eastern
Region. These Regional Grids have problems primarily due to insufficient
installed generating and transmission capacity and is further aggravated because
of inadequate reactive power compensation resulting in prolonged low/high
voltage operations. High complexity of power system under resource deficit
condition makes the interconnected Grid Operation a great challenge.
POWERGRID, in the capacity of Central Transmission Utility (CTU) is
entrusted the responsibility of Regional Grid Operation and has taken up this
challenging task of maintaining the quality of bulk supply in the Region with
inadequate margins in generation and transmission. POWERGRID has
implemented the concept of Unified Load Despatch and Communication
(ULDC) Schemes for reliable and integrated operation of regional grids. This
scheme has already been implemented in Northern, Southern and North-Eastern
Regional grids while it is under implementation in other Regions.

1) Hierarchical control centre design:

The hierarchical design must ensure the availability of the computing,
communication and related resources for the operating staff at each level. The
functional capability required at the nodes in the operating hierarchy becomes
the most crucial issue influencing conceptual design considerations.
The first step in formulating design at various levels of hierarchy was to finalize
the operating philosophy and procedures. This also determines the level of
hierarchy required to achieve the end result. The operating philosophy and
procedures also dictate the functional requirements relating to SCADA/EMS

48 | P a g e
facilities at various levels, which in turn determine the information and data
flow requirement at each level.
These parameters have to be then translated into computer system hardware and
software requirements. The data flow (volume and frequency) and information
requirements determine the communication system requirements, which in turn
have a bearing on communication system configuration.
The communication network which has to support the hierarchical control
system has also to be hierarchical in nature with different capabilities, media
and configurations. For example, at the lowest level the communication
between RTUs and first control centre is based on PLCC Systems as the data
volume requirements and data transmission speeds are limited. Further, the
redundancy aspects may not be as critical. However, the requirements for
communication networks connecting Sub-LDCs to SLDCs and further to RLDC
and NLDC (National Load Despatch Centre) may be different as they would
have to carry high volume of data at higher transmission speeds. This calls for
high capacity, wide band, and multi channel digital communication technology
employing micro wave and optical fiber systems with redundancy.

2) Adaptation Work and Integration of Existing Equipment:

An important consideration in SCADA/EMS projects is the integration of the
existing equipment. Questions such as which equipment to be preserved, which
should be given a new life by being redeployed in some other manner and
which equipment to be scrapped need to be answered. These can be properly
answered only when the requirements of the new system have been established.
Existing equipment must not, because of the decision to retain it, degrade the
functional capability and performance of the new system below a level required
to satisfy the requirements of the new system.
It is generally preferred to address the disposition question at the sub-system
level such as RTUs, communication media, power supplies, computer resources
and even control and equipment rooms. If existing equipment does not support
the full functional requirement, defined for the new system, then the decision to
retain could be made if there is sufficient net saving and the loss of functionality
is tolerable. Otherwise following are certain criteria for deciding to retain or
replace existing systems:
a) The remaining useful life of the existing system and how it fits in the
expected life span of the new system.

49 | P a g e
b) Complexity in inter facing with new system and its cost compared to
replacement with new system.
c) Support available regarding details of existing equipment, its access and
interfacing.
d) Availability of spare parts.

3) Hardware Architecture:
The distributed hardware configuration of SCADA/EMS system includes the
following subsystems as shown in Fig. 2 :
SCADA/EMS servers
• support the SCADA and EMS functions
• Operate in a primary-standby relationship for redundancy purposes.
• Consist of two high performance Digital 64-bit RISC based AXP
machines (“Alphaservers”)
A dual redundant configuration (Primary and Stand-by Communication Front-
ends that drives the serial communication lines connected to the RTUs.
ICCP (Inter-Control centers Communications Protocol) servers that support
intersite exchanges with the SLDCs.
ISR server for Information Storage and Retrieval functions (operate in a
primary-standby redundancy)
DTS (Dispatcher Training Simulator) server and its associated DTS operator
consoles that provides the dispatcher’s training capability.
Development Server and its associated development console that provide
software utilities used to develop and maintain the SCADA/EMS software,
displays and databases.

4) Software system Architecture:

To support the requirements of grid operation Supervisory control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) and Energy Management System (EMS) are deployed.
The main functionalities of SCADA system are Data Acquisition, Data
Processing, Supervisory Control and Historical Data Recording. The EMS
software covers the whole suite of applications such as Operational Planning &
Generation Scheduling, Automatic Generation Control, Real time Network
Security Analysis Functions and Dispatcher Training Simulator.

50 | P a g e
Operation Planning & Generation Scheduling function envisaged are Load
Forecasting , Inflow forecasting, Unit Commitment, Hydro Scheduling, Hydro
Thermal Co- ordination, Outage Scheduler, Interchange Scheduling,
Interchange Transaction Evaluation and Current Operating Plan. Real time
dispatch has functions such as Automatic Generation Control, Load Shed /
Restoration support
Operations Monitor, Reserve Monitor and production costing functions. The
Network Security Analysis functions are implemented both at RLDC and
SLDCs to monitor and ensure the security of the grid for continuous and
reliable power supply to consumer. Based on the data collected by SCADA
function, a base-case solution is prepared (using Network Topology, State
Estimation) which forms the base for other application functions like
Contingency Analysis and Optimum Power Flow (OPF). It also provides
facilities to Operator to create and study contingencies, in order to know the
implications in advance, in case of such contingencies occur in real-time
environment. Operator can further run Optimal Power Flow program, with these
contingencies to have an optimal solution and take the remedial actions to bring
system away from critical operating state. Further, Voltage/ Var Scheduler
function of OPF Program can run at RLDC and SLDCs for Voltage and Var
Management and accordingly, CPCC and Sub-LDC shall be instructed to take
corrective action.

5) Software system layering:

The System software design is highly layered. Three layers are identified: the
application layer, the real-time control system environment (RCSE) layer, and
the operating system layers as shown in Fig.3.
The OpenVMS operating system is used for all servers that support EMP;
Windows NT (WNT) operating system is used on all PCs. In the OpenVMS
operating system layer the language compilers, linkers, graphical user interface
support like X-Windows, and communications protocols like DECnet and
TCP/IP are included .
Real-time Control System Environment (RCSE) layer
(Middle Layer): RCSE provides services upon which a control system can be
built. Functions that are part of RCSE include:
• Database management
• Utilities that support high availability

51 | P a g e
• User interface tools
• Communications software
• Utility libraries
Application layer (Top layer). The application layer contains the functions that
implement the Energy Management System. More specifically, the major
application subsystems are SCADA, Generation and Network

Operating System

Real-T ime Control System Environment

A pplication Subsystems

Operations Training

Data Acquisitio
n
GENERATION

DISPATCHER TRAINING
S CADA SIMULATOR

Superviso Control ry

NETWORK

Fig:17 Software Layering

6) Future Needs:
Presently Eastern, North-eastern & Western grids are running in synchronous
mode. Due to the uneven distribution of natural generation resources and
demand growth, power exchange to the tune of 30,000 MW amongst the regions
has been envisaged by 2012 and accordingly various inter-regional links are
under implementation with the ultimate aim of formation of Synchronous
52 | P a g e
National Grid for uninhibited exchange of power. Thus the establishment of
load despatch facilities at regional level will need to be complemented with
facilities of monitoring the grids at National Level. The National Load Despatch
Centre shall be the apex body to ensure integrated operation of the national
power system. The hierarchical setup shall be as shown in Fig.
An era of deregulation and privatization over the past few years has been
ushered in and increasingly electric utilities will be functioning in a competitive
environment. The restructuring process of Utilities is under way for unbundling
of energy sector. The regulating bodies are being set up. All these changes are
posing new challenges for the already complex multi utility environment. In
order to survive in this environment, the hope lies with the effective use of
SCADA/ EMS tools and the flexibility provided by the Open System
Architecture to adapt to the future requirements . Inter regional exchanges in the
Country are making a steady growth. In near future the level of exchange and
involvement of more than one region will warrant continuous monitoring for
efficient use of inter regional power transfer capacity .

Fig:18 National Hierarchical Setup

53 | P a g e
 REFRENCES
1 . J. Nanda, B. L. Kaul, "Automatic generation control of an interconnected
power system", Proc. IEEE, vol. 125, no. 5, pp. 385-390, May 1978.
2. Indian Electricity Grid Code, India, May 2010 & First Amendment, April
2012.

3 . Company data retrieved from www.posoco.in

4. PrabhaKundur, “Power System Stability and Control”, Tata McGraw-

Hill,2006.
5. Tasmania Frequency Control Test Summary Report (C22-RP-001), 2018.
6. Frequency Control Framework Review, Engineers Australian Submission, 24
April 2018.
7. A Technical Document Prepared by the NERC Resources Subcommittee,
2011.

8. Data retrieved fromhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org

54 | P a g e
55 | P a g e