Chapter Contents

1.1 Principles ......................................................................................................... 7

1.2 Delay Laws, or Focal Laws ......................................................................... 11
1.3 Basic Components of a Phased Array System.......................................... 14
1.4 Basic Scanning and Imaging ....................................................................... 14

6 Chapter Contents
1. Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic
Technology

This chapter describes the principles pertaining to ultrasound, the concepts of

time delays (or focal laws) for phased arrays, and R/D Tech’s phased array
instruments.

1.1 Principles

Ultrasonic waves are mechanical vibrations induced in an elastic medium

(the test piece) by the piezocrystal probe excited by an electrical voltage.
Typical frequencies of ultrasonic waves are in the range of 0.1 MHz to
50 MHz. Most of the industrial applications require frequencies between
0.5 MHz and 15 MHz.

Most conventional ultrasonic inspections use monocrystal probes with

divergent beams. The ultrasonic field propagates along an acoustic axis with
a single refracted angle. The divergence of this beam is the only “additional”
angle, which might contribute to detection and sizing of misoriented small
cracks.

Assume the monoblock is cut in many identical elements, each with a width
much smaller than its length (elevation [ e < W ]) [for definitions, see
“Glossary” on page 305]. Each small crystal may be considered a line source
of cylindrical waves. The wavefronts of the new acoustic block will interfere,
generating an overall wavefront.

The small wavefronts can be time-delayed and synchronized for phase and
amplitude, in such a way as to create an ultrasonic focused beam with steering
capability.

The main feature of phased array ultrasonic technology is the computer-

controlled excitation (amplitude and delay) of individual elements in a
multielement probe. The excitation of piezocomposite elements can generate

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 7

 an ultrasonic focused beam with the possibility of modifying the beam
parameters such as angle, focal distance, and focal spot size through software.
The sweeping beam is focused and can detect in specular mode the
misoriented cracks. These cracks may be located randomly away from the
beam axis. A single crystal probe, with limited movement and beam angle,
has a high probability of missing misoriented cracks, or cracks located away
from the beam axis (see Figure 1-1).

F3, β3, Φ3
F1, β1, Φ1

F2, β2, Φ2

Figure 1-1 Detection of misoriented cracks by monocrystal (left) and multielement probes
(right). The beam is divergent and unidirectional for the monocrystal probe, while it is focused
and multiangled for the phased array probe. Cracks of most orientations can be detected by
the phased array probe.

To generate a beam in phase and with a constructive interference, the various

active probe elements are pulsed at slightly different times. As shown in
Figure 1-2, the echo from the desired focal point hits the various transducer
elements with a computable time shift. The echo signals received at each
transducer element are time-shifted before being summed together. The
resulting sum is an A-scan that emphasizes the response from the desired
focal point and attenuates various other echoes from other points in the
material.

• During transmission, the acquisition instrument sends a trigger signal to

the phased array instrument. The latter converts the signal into a high-
voltage pulse with a preprogrammed width and time delay defined in the
focal laws. Each element receives one pulse only. This creates a beam
with a specific angle and focused at a specific depth. The beam hits the
defect and bounces back.
• The signals are received, then time-shifted according to the receiving
focal law. They are then reunited together to form a single ultrasonic
pulse that is sent to the acquisition instrument.

8 Chapter 1
 Probes Incident wave front
Emitting Pulses
Trigger
Acquisition Phased array
unit unit Flaw

Reflected wave front

Receiving Echo signals

Acquisition Phased array

unit unit Flaw

Delays at reception

Figure 1-2 Beam forming and time delay for pulsing and receiving multiple beams (same
phase and amplitude).

The beam focusing principle for normal and angled incidences is illustrated
in Figure 1-3.

a b

Delay [ns]
Delay [ns]

PA probe PA probe

Resulting wave surface

Figure 1-3 Beam focusing principle for (a) normal and (b) angled incidences.

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 9

 The delay value on each element depends on the aperture of the phased array
probe active element, type of wave, refracted angle, and focal depth.

There are three major computer-controlled beam scanning patterns (see also
chapters 3 and 4):

• Electronic scanning: the same focal law and delay is multiplexed across a
group of active elements (see Figure 1-4); scanning is performed at a
constant angle and along the phased array probe length (aperture). This
is equivalent to a conventional ultrasonic transducer performing a raster
scan for corrosion mapping or shear wave inspection. If an angled wedge
is used, the focal laws compensate for different time delays inside the
wedge.
• Dynamic depth focusing, or DDF (along the beam axis): scanning is
performed with different focal depths. In practice, a single transmitted
focused pulse is used, and refocusing is performed on reception for all
programmed depths (see Figure 1-5).
• Sectorial scanning (also called azimuthal or angular scanning): the beam is
moved through a sweep range for a specific focal depth, using the same
elements; other sweep ranges with different focal depths may be added.
The angular sectors may have different values.
g
(virtual probe aperture)
16

1 128

Scanning direction

Figure 1-4 Electronic scanning with normal beam (virtual probe aperture = 16 elements).

10 Chapter 1
 a 140 b
FD = 15

120

100
FD = 15
Time delay [ns]
80 FD = 30
FD = 30
60

40 FD = 60 FD = 60

20

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Element number

Figure 1-5 Delay values (left) and depth scanning principles (right) for a 32-element linear
array probe focusing at 15-mm, 30-mm, and 60-mm longitudinal waves.

1.2 Delay Laws, or Focal Laws

Phased array probes installed on the wedge provide delay laws with different
shapes, based on Fermat’s principle of minimum arrival time along a specific
path (see Figure 1-6). Other types of phased array probes (matrix or conical,
for example) may require advanced simulation for delay law values and for
beam feature evaluation (see chapters 3 and 5).

The focal law delay has a parabolic shape for depth focusing. The delay
increases from the edges of the probe towards the center. The delay will be
divisible in half when the focal distance is halved (see Figure 1-5). The
element timing has a linear increase when the element pitch is increasing (see
Figure 1-7).

If the beam deflection is sectorial (azimuthal), and the probe has no wedge,
the delay on identical elements will depend on the element position in the
active aperture and on the generated angle (see Figure 1-8).

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 11

 800
60 degrees
700

30 degrees
600

Time delay [ns]

500 F15/60
F30/60
F1 400 F15/45
F30/45
F2= 2 F1 F30/45
300
F30/30

200
45 degrees
∆β
100

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Element number

Figure 1-6 Example of delay dependence on refracted angle and element position for a
phased array probe on a 37° Plexiglas® wedge (H1 = 5 mm).

500

1 450

e1 400

F
350
Time delay [ns]

300
1

250
e2 > e2
L-waves - 5,920 m/s
F 200
Focal depth = 20 mm
Linear array n = 16 elements
150 Delay for element no. 1

100
1

50
e3 > e2 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
F
Element pitch [mm]

Figure 1-7 Delay dependence on pitch size for the same focal depth.

12 Chapter 1
 1400

LW-no wedge
1200 ____F1 = 15 mm
60º
_ _ _F2= 30 mm

1000
1

800
45º
F1

Delay [ns]
F2= 2 F1 30º
∆β1 600

400
∆β2
15º
200

0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29
Element number

Figure 1-8 Example of delay dependence on generated angle, and element position and focal
depth for a probe with no wedge (longitudinal waves).

If the phased array probe is on a wedge, the delay value depends on element
position and refracted angle.

The delay has a parabolic shape for the angle given by Snell’s law (45° in
Figure 1-6). For angles smaller than one provided by Snell’s law, the delay on
elements increases from the back towards the front of the probe. For greater
angles, the delay is higher for the back elements, because the beam generated
by the front elements follows a longer path in the wedge, and thus they have
to be excited first.

In all cases, the delay value on each element must be accurately controlled.
The minimum delay increment determines the maximum probe frequency
that can be used according to the following ratio:

n-
---
fc

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 13

1.3 Basic Components of a Phased Array System

The main components required for a basic scanning system with phased
array instruments are presented in Figure 1-9.

Computer UT PA instrument Motion Control

(with TomoView (Tomoscan III PA) Drive Unit
software) (MCDU-02)

Test piece Phased array probe Scanner/manipulator

inspected by
phased arrays

Figure 1-9 Basic components of a phased array system and their interconnectivity.

1.4 Basic Scanning and Imaging

During a scan with mechanical device, data is collected based on encoder

position. The data is displayed in different views for interpretation.

Typically, phased arrays use multiple stacked A-scans (also called B-scans)
with different angles, time of flight and time delays on each small
piezocomposite crystal (element) of the phased array probe.

The real-time information from the total number of A-scans, which are fired
for a specific probe position, are displayed in a sectorial scan or S-scan, or in a
electronic B-scan (see chapter 4 for more details).

Both S-scans and electronic scans provide a global image and quick
information about the component and possible discontinuities detected in the
ultrasonic range at all angles and positions (see Figure 1-10). S-scans were
adapted from the medical field to fit industrial-type inspection purposes.

14 Chapter 1
 a PA probe
b

Figure 1-10 Detection of four side-drilled holes (SDH): (a) sectorial scanning principle;
(b) S-scan view using ±30°.

Data plotting into the 2-D layout of the test piece, called “corrected S-scans,”
makes the interpretation and analysis of ultrasonic results straightforward.
S-scans offer the following benefits:

• Image display during a scan

• True depth representation
• 2-D volumetric reconstruction
Advanced imaging can be achieved by a combination of linear and sectorial
scanning with multiple-angle scans during probe movement. S-scan displays
in combination with other views (see chapter 4 for more details) lead to a
form of defect imaging or recognition. Figure 1-11 illustrates the detection of
artificial defects and the comparison between the defect dimensions
(including shape) and B-scan data.

Figure 1-11 Advanced imaging of artificial defects using merged data: defects and scanning
pattern (top); merged B-scan display (bottom).

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 15

 A combination of longitudinal wave and shear wave scans can be very useful
for detection and sizing with little probe movement (see Figure 1-12). In this
setup, the active aperture can be moved to optimize the detection and sizing
angles.

Figure 1-12 Detection and sizing of misoriented defects by a combination of longitudinal

wave (1) and shear wave sectorial scans (2).

Cylindrical, elliptical or spherical focused beams have a better signal-to-noise

ratio (discrimination capability) and a narrower beam spread than divergent
beams. Figure 1-13 illustrates the discrimination of cluster holes by a
cylindrical focused beam.

Figure 1-13 Discrimination (resolution) of cluster holes: (a) top view (C-scan); (b) side view
(B-scan).

16 Chapter 1
Real-time scanning can be combined with probe movement, and the data
merged into a single view (see Figure 1-14). This feature offers the following
benefits:

• High redundancy
• Defect location
• Accurate plotting
• Defect imaging

a b c

a+b+ c

Figure 1-14 Multiple scan patterns and merged data to show potential imaging techniques
for defects.

Figure 1-15 shows sectorial plans in the volume. Each slice presents a section
of the defect at a different position. Such slices compare to metallographic
multiple slices during defect sizing and characterization.

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 17

 Figure 1-15 Multiple scan patterns and merged data to show potential imaging techniques
for defects.

18 Chapter 1