Bullying: Age Differences
Bullying: Age Differences
Bullying: Age Differences
Bullying can occur in many contexts, in childhood and adult life (Monks et al., 2009). The
earliest sustained work, and the largest volume of research, has concerned school
bullying, the main area reviewed here. There has also been substantial research on
workplace bullying and prison bullying. Topics such as abuse in families, or elder abuse,
could be considered as fitting the criteria of bullying, but research in these topics has
generally followed different traditions and is published in different journals. Monks and
Coyne (2011) bring together reviews of these and related areas.
“Bullying among children is commonly defined as intentional, repeated hurtful acts, words,
or other behavior, such as namecalling, threatening and/or shunning committed by one or
more children against another. These negative acts are not intentionally provoked by the
victims, and for such acts to be defined as bullying, an imbalance in real or perceived
power must exist between the bully and the victim. Bullying may be physical,
verbal, emotional or sexual in nature.”
Age Differences
Gender Differences
Boys are found to be more numerous in the bully role, but the sexes are more equal in the
victimrole. Girls featuremore as defenders. Boys usemore physical bullying,with physical
strength being more salient amongst boy’s peer groups. There is little gender difference in
verbal bullying. Some studies find girls more often carrying out indirect and relational
bullying and cyberbullying, bound up with friendships and exclusion, especially now
through social networking. In a meta-analysis, Barlett and Coyne (2014) found girls doing
more cyberbullying perpetration up to early adolescence, but boys more in later
adolescence.
Many studies show high rates of bullying in children with disabilities; these aremost
informative when there is a well-matched comparison group. A survey in Northern Ireland
(RSMMcClure Watters, 2011) reported significantly higher rates of being a victim, and also
a bully, for children with a disability, in primary and post-primary school. Some reasons for
children with disabilities being more involved as victims, and sometimes bullies, are as
follows: having fewer friends and lower quality friendships; negative peer perceptions and
social rejection (Mishna, 2003); lacking some social skills that would help in avoiding or
coping with bullying (Van Roekel, Scholte & Didden, 2009); and some characteristics of a
disability, such as clumsiness or a stammer or poor hearing, may make someone an easy
target for those who enjoy bullying others (Hugh-Jones & Smith, 1999).
Identity-based Bullying
This refers to bullying on the basis of group rather than individual characteristics. Bullying
related to a child’s race or ethnicity is referred to as racist bullying or racial harassment.
Although racist attitudes can be widespread, it is not necessarily the case that children
fromethnic minority groups experience more bullying than ethnic majority children. In
England, Tippett, Wolke and Platt (2013) examined this in a large sample of 10- to 15-
year-olds. White children were not more involved than other ethnic groups, even
controlling for age, gender, parental qualifications and economic situation.
Although most school pupils say they do not like bullying, a significant minority do say they
could join in bullying. These ‘pro-bullying’ or ‘anti-victim’ attitudes have been found to
increase with age up to around 14 or 15years, after which theymay start to decline (Rigby,
1997).
Why is there this age change? Salmivalli (2010) reviewed the evidence for a dominance
hypothesis for the occurrence of bullying. This supposes that some children who bully are
driven by a desire for dominant status in the peer group. Ringleader bullies especially may
feel rewarded if followers and reinforcers support their bullying actions, and if many
bystanders remain passive. Pepler, Craig and Roberts (1998) found exactly this to often
happen when observing children in Canadian playgrounds. Concerns about status in the
peer group and worries about peer rejection are known to peak during the adolescent
years, especially soon after puberty (Ellis et al., 2012). At this mid-adolescent period, there
may therefore be more motivation to initiate bullying (to exhibit dominance) and to assist or
reinforce bullying (to avoid peer rejection or being bullied oneself ).
Volk et al. (2012) argue that bullying can be considered as an evolutionary adaptation, in
the sense that theymay get some benefits (at least short term) from bullying others. Some
bullies are popular in the peer group, do not necessarily have low self-esteem and are
socially skilled in manipulating others. In fact, several studies find that bullies, especially
ringleader bullies, can do well on theory of mind tasks (Smith, 2016), gaining advantage
from understanding how the victim feels, and how to hurt them most effectively (what has
been called ‘cold cognition’). This may be most true of a subgroup of bullies. Peeters,
Cillessen and Scholte (2010), in a Dutch sample of 13 year olds, distinguished three kinds
of pupils nominated as bullies by peers: one group was popular and socially intelligent; a
second group was relatively popular and with average social intelligence scores; a third
group, the smallest numerically, was unpopular and had lower than average scores on
social intelligence.
School factors contribute further understanding of bully and victim rates. Some studies find
their contribution (beyond that of individuals and classes) to be small; when multilevel
analyses are done on individual, school and classroom factors, then classroom variance
absorbs much of the non-individual variance, and the school variance is what is finally left
over. But the E-Risk study in England and Wales found that school factors were
significantly associated with victim risk (Bowes et al., 2009).
School factorsmay operate through school climate (howsafe and happy pupils feel in
school), school policies and anti-bullying strategies (see interventions below). Gendron,
Williams and Guerra (2011), in a study of 78 elementary, middle and high schools in the
USA, found that bullying rates were predicted by (poor) school climate, as well as by
normative beliefs about bullying
The Cook et al. (2010b) review found that victims tended to lack social skills and to be less
liked or more rejected in the peer group. These characteristics would make them easier
targets for bullies. The children who are bully/victims were generally found to have the
aspects described of both bullies and victims, but in addition to score lowest on self-
esteem, and on academic performance.
Many studies suggest negative effects of being victimized. A major consequence of being
victimized is depression. Meta-analyses of many reports from longitudinal studies (Ttofi,
Farrington, & Lösel, 2011) confirm that even after adjustments for a range of other factors,
victims at school were at greater risk of later depression. These effects can be substantial
and long term (Wolke & Lereya, 2015). Data from the E-risk study (Fisher et al., 2012)
found that exposure to frequent bullying in 12-year-old children predicted higher rates of
self-harm, even after taking account of prior emotional problems. Victimized twins were
more likely to self-harm than their non-victimized co-twin, supporting a direct causal link
between peer victimization and self-harm. Suicide, although rare, can be an outcome to
which victim experiences can be a significant contributor (Kim et al., 2009). Children
involved in bullying others are at greater risk of depression as well (Ttofi et al., 2011), but
are more significantly at greater risk of later offending (Farrington et al., 2012).
Our data allow us to account for mother fixed effects for siblings who are born within the
1990-1992 time period. That is, we consider closely spaced siblings. In the analysis of the
effects of simple victimization, we exploit sibling pairs where one sibling is the victim of
bullying and the other is not. The outcome of the non-victim sibling can then be used as
the counterfactual outcome. A similar strategy is used when considering our refined
bullying definition.
The fixed effects strategy assumes that comparing siblings, perhaps conditional on
attributes, eliminates selective differences between victims and controls. A common
concern is exactly that although siblings are born into the same family and share this
environment, they may still differ along a wide range of characteristics. If less able siblings
are more likely to be exposed to bullying, the sibling comparison estimator will tend to bias
the effect of bullying upwards, just as the simple OLS is expected to do. To accommodate
this criticism, our estimations include a wide range of variables descriptive of the child
himself and his abilities; see above.
Among institutional characteristics, the previous literature indicates that class size is
perhaps of less importance, while school and teacher characteristics or fixed effects
should be included to account for anti-bullying prevention and related policies as well as
selection of certain types of children into schools and classrooms. Our second strategy
incorporates these fixed effects.16 Any moderating effects of class size on bullying will be
captured by such a strategy too. Again, we report robust standard errors and the within R-
squared. Rows five and six in Tables 4 and 5 show the results which corroborate the
findings from above.
Bullying
"La intimidación entre los niños se define comúnmente como actos, palabras u otros
comportamientos intencionados e hirientes, como la llamada de un nombre, la amenaza y
el rechazo cometidos por uno o más niños contra otro. Estos actos negativos no son
provocados intencionalmente por las víctimas, y para que tales actos se definan como
acoso escolar, debe existir un desequilibrio en el poder real o percibido entre el agresor y
la víctima. La intimidación puede ser física, de naturaleza verbal, emocional o sexual ".
Diferencias de edad
Diferencias de género
Los varones son más numerosos en el rol de acosador, pero los sexos son más iguales
en el rol de víctima. Las chicas se destacan como defensas. Los niños utilizan el bullying
físico, y la fuerza física es más destacada entre los grupos de pares de niños. Hay poca
diferencia de género en el acoso verbal. Algunos estudios encuentran que las niñas
realizan con mayor frecuencia el acoso escolar indirecto y relacional y el acoso
cibernético, relacionadas con amistades y exclusión, especialmente ahora a través de las
redes sociales. En un metanálisis, Barlett y Coyne (2014) encontraron que las niñas
cometían más actos de acoso cibernético hasta la adolescencia temprana, pero los niños
más en la adolescencia posterior.
Muchos estudios muestran altas tasas de acoso escolar en niños con discapacidades;
estos son más informativos cuando hay un grupo de comparación bien pareado. Una
encuesta en Irlanda del Norte (RSMMcClure Watters, 2011) informó tasas
significativamente más altas de ser una víctima, y también un acosador, para niños con
una discapacidad, en la escuela primaria y post-primaria. Algunas de las razones por las
cuales los niños con discapacidades se involucran más como víctimas, y algunas veces
acosadores, son las siguientes: tener menos amigos y amistades de menor calidad;
percepciones negativas de los compañeros y rechazo social (Mishna, 2003); carecer de
algunas habilidades sociales que ayuden a evitar o hacer frente a la intimidación (Van
Roekel, Scholte & Didden, 2009); y algunas características de una discapacidad, como
torpeza o tartamudeo o mala audición, pueden hacer que alguien sea un blanco fácil para
aquellos que disfrutan acosando a otros (Hugh-Jones y Smith, 1999).
Bullying basado en la identidad
Actitudes hacia la intimidación y razones por las que algunos niños intimidan a
otros
Aunque la mayoría de los alumnos de la escuela dicen que no les gusta el acoso escolar,
una minoría significativa sí dice que podrían unirse al acoso escolar. Se ha encontrado
que estas actitudes de "pro-bullying" o "anti-víctima" aumentan con la edad hasta
alrededor de los 14 o 15 años, después de lo cual pueden comenzar a disminuir (Rigby,
1997).
¿Por qué hay este cambio de edad? Salmivalli (2010) revisó la evidencia de una hipótesis
de dominancia Por la ocurrencia de bullying. Esto supone que algunos niños que intimidan
son impulsados por un deseo de un estado dominante en el grupo de pares. Los matones
de cabecillas especialmente pueden sentirse recompensados si los seguidores y los
reforzadores apoyan sus acciones de acoso, y si muchos espectadores permanecen
pasivos. Pepler, Craig y Roberts (1998) descubrieron que esto sucede con frecuencia
cuando se observa a los niños en los patios de recreo de Canadá. Se sabe que las
preocupaciones sobre el estado en el grupo de pares y las preocupaciones por el rechazo
de compañeros alcanzan su punto máximo durante los años de adolescencia,
especialmente después de la pubertad (Ellis et al., 2012). En este período de mediados
de la adolescencia, por lo tanto, puede haber más motivación para iniciar la intimidación
(para exhibir el dominio) y para ayudar o reforzar la intimidación (para evitar el rechazo de
los compañeros o ser intimidado).
Volk et al. (2012) argumentan que la intimidación puede considerarse como una
adaptación evolutiva, en el sentido de que pueden obtener algunos beneficios (al menos a
corto plazo) de la intimidación de otros. Algunos matones son populares en el grupo de
pares, no necesariamente tienen baja autoestima y tienen habilidades sociales para
manipular a otros. De hecho, varios estudios encuentran que los agresores,
especialmente los agresores de cabecera, pueden desempeñarse bien en las tareas de la
teoría de la mente (Smith, 2016), obteniendo ventajas al entender cómo se siente la
víctima y cómo herirla de manera más efectiva (lo que se ha denominado 'resfrío
cognición'). Esto puede ser más cierto de un subgrupo de acosadores. Peeters, Cillessen
y Scholte (2010), en una muestra holandesa de niños de 13 años, distinguieron tres
clases de alumnos nominados como acosadores por compañeros: un grupo era popular y
socialmente inteligente; un segundo grupo fue relativamente popular y con puntajes
promedio de inteligencia social; un tercer grupo, el más pequeño numéricamente, era
impopular y tenía puntajes más bajos que el promedio en inteligencia social.
Los factores escolares contribuyen a una mayor comprensión de las tasas de acosadores
y víctimas. Algunos estudios encuentran que su contribución (más allá de la de individuos
y clases) es pequeña; cuando se realizan análisis multinivel sobre factores individuales,
escolares y del aula, la varianza en el aula absorbe gran parte de la varianza no
individual, y la varianza escolar es lo que finalmente queda. Pero el estudio E-Risk en
Inglaterra y Gales encontró que los factores escolares se asociaron significativamente con
el riesgo de las víctimas (Bowes et al., 2009).
Los factores escolares pueden operar a través del clima escolar (seguridad en el hogar y
los alumnos felices se sienten en la escuela), políticas escolares y estrategias contra el
acoso escolar (ver las intervenciones a continuación). Gendron, Williams y Guerra (2011),
en un estudio de 78 escuelas primarias, intermedias y secundarias en los EE. UU.,
Encontraron que el acoso escolar los índices fueron predichos por el clima escolar
(pobre), así como por las creencias normativas sobre el acoso escolar.
El cocinero et al. (2010b) la revisión encontró que las víctimas tienden a carecer de
habilidades sociales y a ser menos queridas o más rechazado en el grupo de iguales.
Estas características los harían objetivos más fáciles para los matones. En general, se
encontró que los niños que son acosadores / víctimas tienen los aspectos descritos de los
agresores y las víctimas, pero además de tener la puntuación más baja en autoestima y
en el rendimiento académico.