Cellular and Mobile Communications

Subject code: A70434

ECE – IV-I Sem JNTUH-R15
DEPT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Prepared by:

Dr.P.G.Krishna Mohan, Professor

Mr. U Somanaidu, Assistant Professor
Mr. Shashikanth Reddy, Assistant Professor

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad – 500 043

1
 UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR MOBILE
RADIO SYSTEMS

2
Limitations of Conventional Mobile Systems
Inefficient Spectrum Utilization:
The spectrum utilization measurement is defined as the maximum number of
subscribers that could be served per channel in the busy hour,

Number of subscribers
N=
Number of channels

The typical values for N in conventional mobile systems is limited to 37 to 53.

In this system, each channel can serve only one customer at a time in whole area. In this
case, if 53 customers are associated per channel, then blocking probability is typically 50
percent during busy hour, which is very poor service performance. It is not efficient
utilization of spectrum. To achieve this, each channel should be able to serve multiple
subscribers simultaneously, so that larger number of customers can be accommodated in
frequency-slot allotted for the service area. The major approaches for efficient utilization
of RF spectrum are
3
i. Single Side Band (SSB), Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) and
similar other modulation techniques which require less bandwidth per user.

ii. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system in which many users can
use same spectrum at the same time and the user is distinguished by a
distinct code allotted to him.

iii. Cellular system which re-uses the allocated spectrum in different

geographical locations, which are located beyond radiation coverage of each
other. This cellular concept solved a major problem faced by mobile
telephone system world-wide, i.e. spectrum scarcity.

4
Poor Service Performance:
In conventional mobile systems, frequency reuse technique was not available, hence the
number of customers allotted per channel was quite large(typically 37 to 53) which
created a large blocking probability during busy hour. Large number of calls did not
mature during the busy hour, deteriorating the service performance. This limited
bandwidth allocation leaded to poor service performance.

Limited Service Capability:

In this system, there was no provision for hand-off, and hence when a mobile
user moved from one geographical zone to other, his call was dropped and user had to
intiate the call again. The limitation of service capability was overcome by handoff
mechanism provided in cellular mobile telephone system.

5
 Requirements of Mobile Communications
1. Terminal Mobility:
The portable subscriber set (small size and low weight) supported with small long-
life power battery is required, so that users can carry the set anywhere he moves.

2. Wireless Connectivity :
The user’s set and mobile telephone base station should have wireless connectivity for
free mobility.

3. Personal Mobility :
The user should be able to use the same telephone number wherever he goes, whether
in his home coverage area or outside coverage area with roaming facility.

6
4. Value addition :
Modern mobile communication is not restricted to voice only. It should be supported
with facilities to exchange all sorts of information voice, data, image, video,
multimedia for which it requires large bandwidth and interfacing with various types of
devices like telephone set, laptop, digital note book, etc.

5. Fast and efficient call processing

7
 Basic Cellular System

A Basic Cellular network has following components

1. Mobile Unit

2. Cell Site (Base Station)

3. MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office)

4. System interconnects and

5. Communication protocol

8
 Land Line Exchange

Voice Trunk

MTSO

Cell-n

Cell-1 Cell-2

A Basic Cellular System

9
Mobile Unit:
A mobile unit is a portable, low weight handset carried by the user which has
wireless connectivity with nearest base station. A simple mobile unit contains unit, a
radio transceivers and an antenna system. The transceiver consists of a transmitter and
receiver for two way telephonic conversation. It consists of a frequency synthesizer for
timing the designated channels. The control unit houses all the user interfaces.
Cell Site:
It provides an interface between the mobile unit and the MTSO. It is also
known as base station and consists of control unit (base station controller), radio
cabinets, antennas, a power plant and data terminals. It is connected with MTSO on one
side wideband media and on the other side has wireless connectivity with mobile unit.

10
 MTSO(Mobile Telephone Switching Office)
It is the heart of the mobile system. Its processor provides cellular
administration and central coordination. It may also be connected with landline
telephone network. It contains the cellular processor and the cellular switch.
The cellular switch is an analog or digital telephone exchange which controls
switching between landline subscriber unit to base station for landline to mobile
connectivity and vice versa. It controls switching between a base station to another base
station for mobile to mobile conversation. The cellular processor processes the data
received from base station controllers regarding the status of mobile unit. It also
processes the diagnostic data and billing information.

11
System Interconnect:
The radio connectivity, voice grade four wire-line connectivity, optical fiber
connectivity , microwave link, data link, etc., can be used to connect mobile unit, base
stations, MTSO and public switched telephone network (PSTN). Each mobile unit can use
only one channel. But this channel is not fixed. It can be assigned to any channel form
the entire band allocated for the service area. For second conversation , some other
channel may be assigned. Microwave link or T-carriers(wire line) are used to carry both
data and voice between MTSO and the base-station. The voice-trunks are used to
connect MTSO with PSTN. For wideband data and information, optical fibers can be used.

Communication Protocols: The protocols govern the process of call

connection and disconnection at the end of the conversation.
Example : IS-54, IS-95, GSM, etc.

12
 Performance Criteria

Voice Quality :
Voice quality is complicated parameter for design engineers. Because it depends
person to person and also all mobile users donot use a common equipment, so in this
area designer cannot decide that how to build a system without knowing the voice
quality that will satisfy the users.
In Military, Air force communication, this is not a problem, because Armed forces must
use the assigned equipment. But in general, the voice quality depend upon the
following criterion, a set value ‘x’ at which ‘y’ percent of customers rate the system
voice quality is good or excellent (from transmitter to receiver)

13
Generally following scale used for circuit merits (CM) in respect of voice quality.

Circuit Merits in respect of Voice Quality

Circuit Merit Score Quality Scale

CM 1 1 (Unsatisfactory) not understandable

CM 2 2 Poor (understandable, but repetitions are

required)
CM 3 3 Fair (Occasional repetitions required)

CM 4 4 Good (understandable, but some noise)

CM 5 5 Excellent

14
Service Quality:
Following parameters are required to judge the service quality,
1.Coverage area
2.Grade of service
3.Number of dropped Calls

1)Coverage Area: If a system serve as far as possible i.e., large area, it is good. But it is
not possible to serve 100 percent area due to irregulars Geographical structure and
following reasons.

i) The transmitted power must be very high to illuminate weak spots (where reception is
not faithful), which increases the cost.

ii)The higher the transmitted power, higher the interference.

Hence, a system usually cover 90% area in flat parts, while 60 to 75% in hill parts.

15
2) Grade of Services : The grade of service is very good, if number of block calls out of
100 is two or less than 2 in peak hour. However, the blocking probability at each cell site
is different. To decrease the block calls or blocking probability requires a good system
plan and sufficient number of radio channels as well as number of BTS.

3) Dropped Calls: To measure the dropped calls, there is a parameter named call drop
rate. If during Q calls, Q-1 calls are completed, then call drop rate is 1/Q, if Q-2 calls are
completed then call drop rate is 2/Q. As far as possible call drop must be low.

A system may need to provide some extra features like, voice mail service, Automatic
roaming, call waiting, live news, rail reservation facilities and navigation services.

16
 Operation of Cellular Systems
The Operation of a cellular system can be divided into four parts, besides a
handoff procedure.

1. Mobile Unit Initialization:

Out of total radio channels (say 416) available for a cellular coverage area, few
channels (say 21) are designated for setting up connections, and are called as set-up-
channels. When a subscriber activates his mobile unit by switching on the power, its
receiver scans the set-up channels, selects the strongest one (nearest cell-site) and locks
on it for a certain time. This is known as self-location scheme. This scheme has the
disadvantage that trace of idle mobile units does not appear on cell site. This limitation
can be removed by a process called registration.

17
2. Mobile Unit Originated Call :
The mobile user enters the called number and presses the send button, his request
goes to cell-site through a set-up channel. The cell-site, sends the request via a high
speed link to MTSO for allocating a voice-channel. The MTSO allots a suitable free
voice channel and cell-site links two subscribers for conversation.
3. Land Line Originated Call:
When a land-line subscriber dials a mobile unit number, the respective telephone
exchange transfers it to MTSO via voice grade trunk lines. The MTSO sends this
information on relevant cell sites along with a search algorithm. Each cell-site uses its
setup channel to transmit information and mobile unit recognizes it and locks into it.

4. Call Termination : When the mobile user switches off its transmitter, a signaling
tone is sent to the respective cell-site and both sides makes the voice channels free.

18
 CONTENTS
 INTRODUCTION
 1G TECHNOLOGY
 2G TECHNOLOGY
 MODELS OF 1G & 2G
 2.5 TECHNOLOGY
 3G TECHNOLOGY
 4G TECHNOLOGY
 WIRELESS APPLICATIONS
 WIRELESS SERVICES
 EVOLUTION FROM 1G TO 5G TECHNOLOGY
 CONCLUSION

19
 INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS WIRELESS ?
The word wireless in dictionary is defined "having no wires ” .
In networking terminology , wireless is the term used to describe any computer
network where there is no physical wired connection between sender and receiver,
but rather the network is connected by radio waves and or microwaves to maintain
communications.
Wireless networking utilizes specific equipment such as NICs and Routers in place
of wires (copper or optical fiber).

20
 1G TECHNOLOGY

1G refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile

telecommunications which was first introduced in 1980s and completed in early
1990s.
It's Speed was upto 2.4kbps.
It allows the voice calls in 1 country.
1G network use Analog Signal.
AMPS was first launched in USA in 1G mobile systems.

21
 DRAWBACKS OF 1G

Poor Voice Quality Poor Battery Life Large

Phone Size No Security Limited Capacity
Poor Handoff Reliability 1G Wireless System

22
 2G TECHNOLOGY

2G technology refers to the 2nd generation which is based on

GSM.
It was launched in Finland in the year 1991.
2G network use digital signals.
It’s data speed was upto 64kbps.

Features Includes:

 It enables services such as text messages,

picture messages and MMS (multi media message).

 It provides better quality and capacity .

23
 DRAWBACKS OF 2G

 2G requires strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there

is no network coverage in any specific area , digital signals would weak.

 These systems are unable to

handle complex data such as Videos.

2G Wireless System

24
 2.5G TECHNOLOGY
2.5G is a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G) generation
of mobile telephony.
 2.5G is sometimes described as 2G Cellular Technology
combined with General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS).

Features Includes:
 Phone Calls
 Send/Receive E-mail Messages
 Web Browsing
 Speed : 64-144 kbps
 Camera Phones
 Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. Mp3 song

25
 3G TECHNOLOGY
3G technology refer to third generation which was
introduced in year 2000s.

Data Transmission speed increased from 144kbps-

2Mbps.

Typically called Smart Phones and

features increased its bandwidth
and data transfer rates to accommodate web-based
applications and audio
and video files.

26
 FEATURES OF 3G TECHNOLOGY
Providing Faster Communication

Send/Receive Large Email Messages

High Speed Web / More Security Video Conferencing

/ 3D Gaming

TV Streaming/ Mobile TV/ Phone Calls

Large Capacities and Broadband Capabilities

11 sec – 1.5 min. time to download a 3 min Mp3 song.

27
 DRAWBACKS OF 3G TECHNOLOGY

 Expensive fees for 3G Licenses Services

 It was challenge to build the infrastructure

for 3G

 High Bandwidth Requirement

 Expensive 3G Phones.

 Large Cell Phones

28
 4G TECHNOLOGY
High-speed data access
High quality streaming video Combination of wi-
fi and wi-max
Capable of providing 100Mbps – 1Gbps speed.
One of the basic term used to describe 4G is MAGIC.
MAGIC:
Mobile Multimedia Anytime Anywhere Global
Mobility Support
Integrated Wireless Solution Customized Personal
Services
Also known as Mobile Broadband Everywh
ere.

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 4G (Anytime, Anywhere)

The next generations of wireless technology that promises higher data rates
and expanded multimedia services.
Capable to provide speed 100Mbps-1Gbps.
High QOS and High Security
Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements, anywhere.

Features Include:
 More Security
 High Speed
 High Capacity
 Low Cost Per-bit etc.

30
 Hexagonal Shaped Cells
The Hexagonal Shaped communication cells are artificial and that shape cannot
be generated in the real world. Engineers draw hexagonal shaped cells on a
layout to simplify the planning and design of cellular system because it
approaches the circular
shape, that is the ideal power coverage area. The circular shapes have
overlapped areas which make the drawing unclear

Hexagonal cells

Fictitious Ideal Real

Signal Coverage
31
 Topics to be discussed
 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels

 Time dispersion parameters

 Coherence bandwidth

 Doppler spread and coherence time

 Types of Small-Scale Fading

32
 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
 In order to compare different multipath channels and to develop some general
design guidelines for wireless systems we need parameters which quantify the
multipath channel. The parameters are:

 Delay spread

 Coherence bandwidth

 Doppler spread

 Coherence time

33
 Delay Spread

 The signal transmitted from a cell site and arriving at a mobile unit will be from
different paths

 Each path has a different path length

 The time of arrival for each path is different.

 For an impulse transmitted at the cell site, by the time this impulse is received at
the mobile unit it is no longer an impulse but rather a pulse with a spread width
that we call the delay spread.

34
 Delay Spread
 Mean excess delay
 RMS delay spread
 Excess delay spread

Mean excess delay

Mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay
profile and is defined by the equation

  k k
a
2
 P( )k k
 k
 h

a k
2
 P( ) k
k h

35
RMS delay spread
RMS delay spread is the square root of the second central
moment of the power delay profile and is defined by the
equation:

   2  ( )2


where

 ak  k
2 2
 P( )k k
2

2  k
 h

ak
2
 P( ) k
k h

36
 Excess delay spread
Maximum excess delay is defined as the x - 0 , where 0 , is
the first arriving signal and  x is the maximum delay at which
a multipath component is within X dB of the strongest arriving
multipath signal

37
 Coherence bandwidth
 Coherence bandwidth Bc is a statistical measure of the range of
frequencies over which the channel can be considered flat i.e., a channel
which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and
linear phase.

 Coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two

frequency components have a potential for amplitude correlation.

38
 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
 Doppler Spread Bd is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the
time rate of change of the mobile radio channel and is defined as the
range of frequencies over which the received
doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero.

 When a signal of frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal spectrum,

called the Doppler spectrum, will have components fc - fd to fc + fd, where
fd is the Doppler shift.

 Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used
to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness
of the channel in the time domain.

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 TYPES OF SMALL SCALE FADING
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Multipath Tİme Delay
Spread)

Frequency Selective Fading

Flat Fading
1. BW Signal > Bw of Channel
1. BW Signal < BW of Channel
2. Delay Spread > Symbol
2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period
Period

Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)

Slow Fading
Fast Fading
1. Low Doppler Spread
1. High Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time > Symbol Period
2. Coherence Time < Symbol Period
3. Channel variations smaller than
3. Channel variations faster than
baseband
baseband
signal variations
signal variations
40
 Fading Effects due to Multipath Time Delay

 Flat Fading
 If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response
over a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal, then the received signal will undergo flat fading.
 In flat fading, the multipath structure of the channel is such that spectral
characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at the receiver.

 Flat fading channels are also referred as amplitude varying

channels or narrow band channels, since the bandwidth of the
applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel flat fading
bandwidth.
41
To summarize , a signal undergoes flat fading if
 Bs<<Bc
where
Bs is bandwidth and
Bc is the coherence bandwidth of the channel
and
 Ts>>
where
Ts is the reciprocal bandwidth and
 rms delay spread.

42
Frequency Selective Fading
If the channel possesses a constant gain and linear phase response
over a bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal, then the channel creates frequency selective fading on the
received signal.
Frequency selective fading is much difficult to model than flat fading
channels because each multipath signal must be modeled and the channel
must be considered to be a linear filter.
It is for this reason that wideband multipath measurements are made and
models are developed from these measurements.

43
For frequency selective fading, the spectrum S(f) of the transmitted signal has
a bandwidth which is greater than the coherence bandwidth Bc of the channel.
Frequency selective fading is caused by multipath delays which approach or
exceed the symbol period of the transmitted symbol.
Frequency selective fading channels are also known as wideband channels
since the bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the bandwidth of the
channel impulse response.
As time varies, the channel varies in gain and phase across the spectrum of
s(t),resulting in time varying distortion in the received signal r(t).

44
To summarize, a signal undergoes frequency selective fading if:

 Bs>Bc
where
Bs is bandwidth and
Bc is the coherence bandwidth of the channel
and
 Ts< 

where
Ts is the reciprocal bandwidth and

 rms delay spread.

45
 Types of Small-Scale Fading….
 Fading effects due to Doppler Spread:
 Channels are also classified depending upon how rapidly the
transmitted baseband signal changes compared to the rate of change
of channel.

 It is either a

Fast Fading

 Slow Fading

46
 Fast Fading

In Fast Fading channel the channel impulse response changes at a rate

much faster than the transmitted baseband signal.

In other words the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the
symbol period of the transmitted signal.
This causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler spreading, which leads
to signal distortion.
When viewed in frequency domain, signal distortion due to fast fading
increases with increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal.
Therefore, a signal undergoes fast fading if

Ts  Tc and Bs  B D

47
 Slow Fading
In Slow Fading channel the channel impulse response changes at a rate
much slower than the transmitted baseband signal
Here the channel may be assumed static over one or several bandwidth
intervals.
In the frequency domain, this implies that the Doppler spread of the
channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband channel.
Therefore, a signal undergoes fast fading if and
Ts  Tc

Bs  BD

48
 UNIT-II
CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE & NON CO-
CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

49
 2.1 Introduction to Cellular Systems
• Solves the problem of spectral congestion and user capacity.
• Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum without major
technological changes.
• Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
• Enable a fix number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number
of users by reusing the channel throughout the coverage region.

50
 2.2 Frequency Reuse
• Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within
a small geographic area called a cell.
• Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
• By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the
channel groups may be reused to cover different cells.
• Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
• Frequency reuse or frequency planning

•seven groups of channel from A to G

•footprint of a cell - actual radio coverage
•omni-directional antenna v.s. directional
antenna

51
• Consider a cellular system which has a total of S duplex channels.
• Each cell is allocated a group of k channels, k  S .
• The S channels are divided among N cells.
• The total number of available radio channels
S  kN
• The N cells which use the complete set of channels is called cluster.
• The cluster can be repeated M times within the system. The total
number of channels, C, is used as a measure of capacity
C  MkN  MS
• The capacity is directly proportional to the number of replication M.
• The cluster size, N, is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12.
• Small N is desirable to maximize capacity.
• The frequency reuse factor is given by 1/ N

52
• Hexagonal geometry has
– exactly six equidistance neighbors
– the lines joining the centers of any cell and each of its neighbors are
separated by multiples of 60 degrees.
• Only certain cluster sizes and cell layout are possible.
• The number of cells per cluster, N, can only have values which
satisfy
N  i2  ij  j2

• Co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, ex, i=3 and j=2.

53
 Co-channel Interference
Reduction Factor

• Q= D/ R

• D = f(KI, C/I)

• where KI is the number of co channel interfering cells in the

first tier and

• C/I is the received carrier‐to‐interference ratio at the desired

mobile receiver

54
 Co-channel Interference Reduction Factor

 Reusing an identical frequency channel in different cells is limited by

co-channel interference between cells, and the co-channel interference

can become a major problem.

 Co-channel interference is a function of a parameter q defined as

q= D/R
 The parameter q is the co-channel interference reduction factor.

 The separation D in above equation is a function of K I and C/I.

D = f(KI, C/I)

55
where KI is the number of co-channel interfering cells in the first tier and
eC/I is the received carrier-to-interference ratio at the desired mobile
nrueceiver.number of co-channel interfering cells in the first tier and
C/I is the received carrier-to-interference ratio at the desired mobile
receiver.

56
 In a fully equipped hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are
always six co-channel interfering cells in the first tier as shown in Fig
below

Fig: Six effective interfering cells of cell 1 57

 The maximum number of KI in the first tier can be shown as six.
 C/I can then be expressed as

 The six co-channel interfering cells in the second tier cause weaker
interference than those in the first tier. Therefore , the co-channel
interference from the second tier of interfering cells is negligible.
 Thus C/I can be expressed as

58
 2.3 Channel Assignment Strategies
• Frequency reuse scheme
– increases capacity
– minimize interference
• Channel assignment strategy
– fixed channel assignment
– dynamic channel assignment
• Fixed channel assignment
– each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channel
– any new call attempt can only be served by the unused channels
– the call will be blocked if all channels in that cell are occupied
• Dynamic channel assignment
– channels are not allocated to cells permanently.
– allocate channels based on request.
– reduce the likelihood of blocking, increase capacity.
59
 2.4 Interference and System Capacity
• Sources of interference
– another mobile in the same cell
– a call in progress in the neighboring cell
– other base stations operating in the same frequency band
– noncellular system leaks energy into the cellular frequency band

• Two major cellular interference

– co-channel interference
– adjacent channel interference

60
 2.4.1 Co-channel Interference and System
Capacity
• Frequency reuse - there are several cells that use the same set of
frequencies
– co-channel cells
– co-channel interference
• To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cell must be separated
by a minimum distance.
• When the size of the cell is approximately the same
– co-channel interference is independent of the transmitted power
– co-channel interference is a function of
• R: Radius of the cell
• D: distance to the center of the nearest co-channel cell
• Increasing the ratio Q=D/R, the interference is reduced.
• Q is called the co-channel reuse ratio

61
• For a hexagonal geometry
D
Q   3N
R

•A small value of Q provides large capacity

•A large value of Q improves the transmission quality
- smaller level of co-channel interference
•A tradeoff must be made between these two
objectives

62
• Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. The signal-to-
interference ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver can be expressed as
S  S
i0

I
I
i
i1
S: the desired signal power
Ii : interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell base
station
•The average received power at a distance d from the transmitting antenna
is approximated by
n
d  close-in reference point
Pr  P0  
 d0  d0
or
d  P0 :measued power

Pr (dBm)  P0(dBm) 10n log    TX

 d0 
n is the path loss exponent which ranges between 2 and 4.
63
 • When the transmission power of each base station is equal, SIR for a
mobile can be approximated as
S R n
 i0
I
 i
D
i1
n

• Consider only the first layer of interfering cells

S (D / R)n
 
 3N  n

i0  6
I i0 i0

• Example: AMPS requires that SIR be

greater than 18dB
– N should be at least 6.49 for n=4.
– Minimum cluster size is 7

64
• For hexagonal geometry with 7-cell cluster, with the mobile unit being
at the cell boundary, the signal-to-interference ratio for the worst case
can be approximated as
4
S R

I 2(D  R) 4  (D  R / 2)4  (D  R / 2)4  (D  R) 4  D 4

65
 2.4.2 Adjacent Channel Interference
• Adjacent channel interference: interference from adjacent in frequency
to the desired signal.
– Imperfect receiver filters allow nearby frequencies to leak into the
passband
– Performance degrade seriously due to near-far effect.
receiving filter response

signal on adjacent channel signal on adjacent channel

desired signal

FILTER
interference
interference desired signal

66
• Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful
filtering and channel assignment.
• Keep the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as
large as possible
• A channel separation greater than six is needed to bring the adjacent
channel interference to an acceptable level.

67
 2.4.3 Power Control for Reducing
Interference

• Ensure each mobile transmits the smallest power

necessary to maintain
a good quality link on the reverse channel
– long battery life
– increase SIR
– solve the near-far problem

68
 2.5 Trunking and Grade of Service
• Erlangs: One Erlangs represents the amount of traffic density carried
by a channel that is completely occupied.
– Ex: A radio channel that is occupied for 30 minutes during an hourcarries
0.5 Erlangs of traffic.
• Grade of Service (GOS): The likelihood that a call is blocked.
• Each user generates a traffic intensity of Au Erlangs given by
Au  H
H: average duration of a call.
 : average number of call requests per unit time
•For a system containing U users and an unspecified number of
channels, the total offered traffic intensity A, is given by
A  UAu
•For C channel trunking system, the traffic intensity, Ac is given
as
Ac  UAu / C 69
 2.6 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems

• Methods for improving capacity in cellular

systems
– Cell Splitting: subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells.
– Sectoring: directional antennas to control the
interference and frequency reuse.
– Coverage zone : Distributing the coverage of a cell
and extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach place.

70
 2.6.1 Cell Splitting
• Split congested cell into smaller cells.
– Preserve frequency reuse plan.
– Reduce transmission power.

Reduce R to R/2
microcell

71
Illustration of cell splitting within a 3 km by 3 km square

72
• Transmission power reduction from Pt1 to Pt2
• power at the new and old cell boundary
Examining the receiving
n
Pr [at old cell boundary]  Pt1R
n
Pr [at new cell boundary]  Pt 2 (R / 2)

•If we take n = 4 and set the received power equal to each other
Pt1
Pt2 
16
• The transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB in order to fill in the
original coverage area.
• Problem: if only part of the cells are splited
– Different cell sizes will exist simultaneously
• Handoff issues - high speed and low speed traffic can be
simultaneously accommodated

73
 2.6.2 Sectoring
• Decrease the co-channel interference and keep the cell radius R
unchanged
– Replacing single omni-directional antenna by several directional antennas
– Radiating within a specified sector

74
 • Interference Reduction

position of the mobile

interference cells

75
 Advantages over sectoring

• As the mobile travels from one zone to another within the

cell, it retains the same channel. Thus, a handoff is not
required at the MSC

• A given channel is active only in the particular zone in

which the mobile is traveling and hence the base station
radiation is localized and interference is reduced

• The co-channel interference is also reduced as a large

base station is replaced by several lower powered
transmitters on the edges of the cell

76
 2.6.3 Microcell Zone Concept
• Antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell
• Any channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station
• Mobile is served by the zone with the strongest signal.

• Handoff within a cell

– No channel re- assignment
– Switch the channel to a different zone site
• Reduce interference
– Low power transmitters
are employed

77
 UNIT-III
CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

78
 Topics
• Introduction
• Real time co channel interference
• Co-channel measurement design of antenna
system
• Antenna parameters and their effects
• Diversity receiver in co channel
interference – different types

79
 Co-Channel Interference
• Frequency reuse - there are several cells that use the same set of
frequencies
– co-channel cells
– co-channel interference
• To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cell must be separated by a
minimum distance.
• When the size of the cell is approximately the same
– co-channel interference is independent of the transmitted power
– co-channel interference is a function of
• R: Radius of the cell
• D: distance to the center of the nearest co-channel cell
• Increasing the ratio Q=D/R, the interference is reduced.
• Q (co-channel interference reduction method) is called the co-channel reuse
ratio
80
 Co-channel Interference
Reduction Factor

• Q= D/R
• D = f(KI, C/I)
• where KI is the number of co channel interfering cells
in the first tier and
• C/I is the received carrier‐to‐interference ratio at the
desired mobile receiver

81
 Real time Co-Channel Interference

• Signal is
• Interference i s
• The received signal is

• Where

• And

82
• The average processes on X and Y are

• The signal‐to‐interference ratio

83
• The sampling delay time should be small enough to satisfy

•Determining the delay time to meet the requirement of above equation for this
calculation is difficult and is a drawback to this measurement technique.
•Therefore, real‐time co-channel interference measurement is difficult to
achieve in practice.

84
 Co-channel measurement design of antenna
system

Design of an Omni-directional Antenna System in the Worst

Case
•The worst case is at the location where the mobile unit would
receive the weakest signal from its own cell site but strong
interferences from all interfering cell sites.
•To prove that a K = 7 cell pattern does not provide a sufficient
frequency‐reuse distance

85
Co-channel interference (a worst case)

86
where q = 4.6, C/I = 17 dB, which is lower
than 18 dB.
If we use the shortest distance D − R, then

87
Therefore, in an Omni-directional-cell system, K
= 9 or K = 12 would be a correct choice. Then
the values of q are

88
 Design of a Directional Antenna System

• Call traffic begins to increase

• Use the frequency spectrum efficiently
• Avoid increasing the number of cells
• When K increases, the number of frequency channels assigned in a cell
must become smaller
• The efficiency of applying the frequency‐reuse scheme decreases
• Instead of increasing k ,we use directional antennas to reduce co channel
interference

89
Three sector case

Let q = 4.6; then

90
 Six sector case

For q = 4.6, the equation becomes

91
 Diversity Receiver In Co-Channel Interference –Different Types

• Diversity: It is the technique used to compensate for fading channel

impairments. It is implemented by using two or more receiving antennas.

• Diversity is usually employed to reduce the depth and duration of the fades
experienced by a receiver in a flat fading channel.

• These techniques can be employed at both base station and mobile

receivers.

92
• Diversity requires no training overhead as a transmitter doesn’t require
one.
• It provides significant link improvement with little added cost.
• It exploits random nature of wave propagation by finding independent (
uncorrelated) signal paths for communication
• It is a very simple concept where in one path undergoes a deep fade and
another independent path may have a strong signal.
• As there is more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and
average SNRs at the receiver may be improved, often as much as 20-30 dB

93
• A diversity scheme is a method that is used to develop information from
several signals transmitted over independent fading paths.
• It exploits the random nature of radio propagation by finding independent
(uncorrelated) signal paths for communication.
Objective of Diversity:
Combining the multiple signals in such a fashion so as to reduce the effects of
excessive deep fades.

94
 Diversity

Macroscopic diversity Microscopic diversity

95
 Types Of Diversity
MACROSCOPIC DIVERSITY

•Prevents Large Scale fading.

•Large Scale fading is caused by shadowing due to

variation in both the terrain profile and the nature of the
surroundings.
• This fading is prevented by selecting an antenna
which is
not shadowed when others are, this allows increase in
the signal- to-noise ratio.

96
 Polarization Diversity

Principle :
Polarization diversity relies on the decor relation
of the two receive ports to achieve diversity gain.
The two receiver ports must remain cross-
polarized.

97
 Space Diversity
Principle :

A method of transmission or reception, or both, in

which the effects of fading are minimized by the
simultaneous use of two or more physically
separated antennas, ideally separated by one half or
more wavelengths.

SpaceDiversity

SelectionDiversity ScanningDiversity MaximalRatioCombining EqualGainCombining

98
 Signals received from spatially separated antennas
on the mobile would have essentially uncorrelated
envelopes for antenna separations of one half wavelength or
more.

99
 Selection Diversity

Principle :

Selecting the best signal among all the

signals received from different braches at the
receiving end.

100
•Selection diversity offers an average improvement in the link margin
without requiring additional transmitter power or sophisticated receiver
circuitry.

•Selection diversity is easy to implement because all that is needed is a side

monitoring station and an antenna switch at the receiver.

•However it is not an optimal diversity technique because it does not use all
of the possible branches simultaneously.

•In practice the SNR is measured as (S+N)/N, since it is difficult to measure

SNR.

101
 Feedback or Scanning Diversity
Principle :
Scanning all the signals in a fixed sequence
until the one with SNR more than a predetermined threshold
is identified.
This method is very simple to implement, requiring only one
receiver.

The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior to those

obtained by the other methods.

102
 Maximal Ratio Combining
Principle :

Combining all the signals in a co-

phased and weighted manner so as
to have the highest achievable SNR
at the receiver at all times.

103
 Equal Gain Combining
Principle :

Combining all the signals in a co-phased

manner with unity weights for all signal
levels so as to have the highest achievable
SNR at the receiver at all times.

104
 Frequency Diversity
Principle :

The same information signal is transmitted

and received simultaneously on two or more
independent fading carrier frequencies.

105
• The rational behind this technique is that
frequencies separated by more than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel will not
experience the same fade.

• The probability of simultaneous fade will be the

product of the individual fading probabilities.

• This is often employed in microwave LOS links

which carry several channels in a frequency
division multiplex mode(FDM).

106
 Time Diversity
Principle :

The signals representing the same information

are sent over the same channel at different
times.

107
• Time Diversity repeatedly transmits information
at time spacing that exceeds the coherence time
of the channel.
• Multiple repetitions of the signal will be received
with multiple fading conditions, thereby providing
for diversity.
• A modern implementation of time diversity
involves the use of RAKE receiver for spread
spectrum CDMA, where multipath channel
provides redundancy in the transmitted message.

108
 UNIT-IV
NON CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

109
Topics:

•Adjacent‐channel Interference
•Near‐End‐Far‐End Interference
•Interference between systems
•UHF TV Interference
•Long distance interference

110
 Adjacent‐channel Interference

• next‐channel (the channel next to the

operating channel) interference
• neighboring‐channel (more than one channel
away from the operating channel)
interference.

111
 Next‐Channel Interference
next‐channel interference will arrive at the
mobile unit from other cell sites if the system
is not designed properly.

mobile unit initiating a call on a control

channel in a cell may cause interference with

the next control channel at another cell site.

The filter with a sharp falloff slope can help to

reduce all the adjacent‐channel interference,

including the next‐channel interference. 112
Neighboring‐channel Interference
The channels which are several channels away
from the next channel will cause interference
with the desired signal.
a fixed set of serving channels is assigned to
each cell site.
If all the channels are simultaneously
transmitted at one cell‐site antenna, a
sufficient amount of band isolation between
channels is required for a multichannel

combiner to reduce inter modulation products.

113
 Near‐End‐Far‐End
Interference
•In One Cell
•In Cells of Two Systems

114
 Near‐End‐Far‐End Interference
In One Cell
The close‐in mobile unit has a strong signal

which causes adjacent‐channel interference

In this situation, near‐end‐far‐end interference
can occur only at the reception point in the
cell site.

115
 Near‐End‐Far‐End Interference
In Cells of Two Systems
The frequency channels of both cells of the two

systems must be coordinated in the

neighborhood

of the two‐system frequency bands.

116
 Avoidance of Near‐End‐Far‐End
Interference
The near‐end mobile units are the mobile units
which are located very close to the cell site.

These mobile units transmit with the same power as

the mobile units which are far away from the cell
site.

117
d0‐ The distance between a calling mobile transmitter
and a base‐station receiver
dI ‐ The distance between a mobile transmitter
causing interference and the same base‐station
receiver.
The ratio dI/d0 is the near‐end‐far‐end ratio.
The effect of the near‐end‐far‐end ratio on the carrier
adjacent‐channel interference ratio is dependent on the
relative positions of the moving mobile units.
118
Interference between Systems
•In One City
•In Adjacent Cities

119
Interference between Systems
In One City

120
 Interference between Systems
In Adjacent Cities
• Two systems operating at the same frequency band and in
two adjacent cities or areas may interfere with each other if
they do not coordinate their frequency channel use.
• Most cases of interference are due to cell sites at high
altitudes
• In any start‐up system, a high‐altitude cell site is always
attractive to the designer.
• Such a system can cover a larger area, and, in turn, fewer cell
sites are needed.
• However, if the neighboring city also uses the same system

block, then the result is strong interference, which can be

avoided by the following methods. 121
 • 1. The operating frequencies should be coordinated between two cities.
• The frequencies used in one city should not be used in the adjacent city.
• This arrangement is useful only for two low‐capacity systems.
• 2. If both systems are high capacity, then decreasing the antenna heights

will result in reduction of the interference not only within each system but
also between the two systems.
• 3. Directional antennas may be used.
• For example, if one system is high capacity and the other is low capacity,
the low‐capacity system can use directional antennas but still retain the
high tower.
• In this situation frequency coordination between the two systems has to
be worked out at the common boundary because all the allocated
frequencies must be used by the high‐capacity system in its service area
but only some frequencies are used by the low‐capacity system.

122
 UHF TV Interference
Two types of interference can occur between

UHF television and 850‐MHz cellular mobile

phones.

Interference to UHF TV Receivers from Cellular

Mobile Transmitters

Interference of Cellular Mobile Receivers by

UHF TV Transmitters

123
•Interference between TV and cellular
mobile channels is illustrated in Figure

124
 Some UHF TV channels overlap cellular mobile channels.
These two types of service can interfere with each other
only under the following conditions.

1. Band region with overlapping frequencies.

 Two services have been authorized to operate within
the same frequency band region.
2. Image interference region.
The TV receiver or the cellular receiver (mobile unit or cell
site) can receive two transmitted signals, for instance, one
from a TV channel and one from a cellular system, and
produce a third‐order inter modulation product which falls
within the TV or the mobile receive band.

125
• Let fTm = mobile transmit frequency
=fRc = cell‐site receive frequency
=fTc 45 MHz
•fRm = mobile receive
frequency
=fTm + 45 MHz
=fTc = cell‐site transmit
frequency
fT,TV = TV transmit frequency

fR,TV = TV receive frequency 126

 Third‐order inter modulation gives the following results in two
cases of interfering UHF TV receivers.

•Case 1. When the mobile transmitter is located near a TV

receiver
Let

• mobile transmit frequency fTm lies in the 825‐ to 845‐MHz band

• TV transmit frequency fT,TV lies in the 780‐ to 800‐MHz band,
• fTm will interfere with the TV receiver as seen from Eq. (7.9‐3).
•This interference region is called the image interference region.

127
 Case 2. When the cell site transmitter is located near a TV
receiver

cell‐site transmit frequency fTc lies in the 870‐ to 890‐MHz

band,
fT,TV lies in the 780‐ to 800‐MHz band,
fTc will interfere with the TV receiver, as shown in Eq.
(7.9‐6).
This interference region is called the image interference
region.

128
 Interference of Cellular Mobile Receivers by
UHF TV Transmitters

•Case 1. Let

•the mobile unit receiver frequency fRm lies in the 870‐ to

890‐MHz band,
•fT,TV, which lies in the 780‐ to 800‐MHz band,
•will interfere with the mobile unit receiver, as shown in Eq.
(7.9‐10).

129
 Case 2. Let

cell‐site receiver frequency fRc lies in the 825‐ to

845‐MHz band,
fT,TV, which lies in the 780‐ to 800‐MHz band, will interfere
with the cell‐site receiver as shown in Eq. (7.9‐13).

130
Case 3. When a mobile receiver approaches a TV
transmitter, it is easy to find that transmission
from the TV station will not interfere with the
reception at the mobile receiver.

131
 Case 4. When the cell‐site receiver is only 1 mi or less
away from the TV station, interference may result.

when the cell site is very close to the TV station, the

interference decreases as a result of the two vertical narrow
beams pointing at different elevation levels.

For this reason it is advisable to mount a cell‐ site antenna

in the same vicinity as the TV station antenna if the
problems of shielding and grounding can be controlled.

132
 Long‐Distance Interference
•Overwater Path
•Overland Path

133
 Power Control
Who Controls the Power Level?

The power level can be controlled only by the mobile

transmitting switching office (MTSO), not by the mobile units

there can be only limited power control by the cell sites as a

result of system limitations.

134
 Use of Parasitic Elements

 Interference at the cell site can sometimes be

reduced by using parasitic elements, creating a
desired pattern in a certain direction.

 Currents appearing in several parasitic antennas are

caused by radiation from a nearby drive antenna.

 A driven antenna and a single parasite can be

combined in several ways.

135
 1. Normal spacing
Parasitic elements with effective interference
reduction. (a) One‐quarter wavelength spacing; (b)
one‐half wavelength spacing; (c) combination of a and
b.

Cell‐site directional antennas with a

non‐wind‐resistant structure: a four‐ element structure
that has only one active element.
136
 2. Relatively close spacing

In relatively close spacing two elements are

placed as close as 0.04l.

Three cases can be described here

137
 a. The lengths of two elements are
identical.
Two elements, one active and one parasitic, are
separated by only 0.04l.
At this close spacing, the current flowing in the
parasite is very strong.

The two elements form a null along the y axis in the

horizontal

There is a directive gain of 3 dB relative to a single

element.
The horizontal pattern and the vertical pattern of the
closely spaced arrangement are shown

138
b.The length of the parasite is 5 percent longer than that
of the active one.
>> A directive gain of 6 dB is obtained.
c.The length of the parasite is shorter than that of the
active one.

>>the parasite acts as a director

>>A gain of 8 dB is obtained.

139
 Diversity Receiver

The diversity scheme applied at the receiving end of the

antenna is an effective technique for reducing interference
because any measures taken at the receiving end to
improve signal performance will not cause additional
interference.

140
 Cross Talk
A Unique Characteristic of Voice Channels

In a mobile cellular system there is a pair of frequencies,

occupying a bandwidth of 60 kHz, which we simply call a
''channel”.

A frequency of 30 kHz serves a received path, and the

other 30 kHz accommodates a transmitted path.

141
 Channel Combiner
A channel combiner is installed at each cell site.
Then all the transmitted channels can be combined with
minimum insertion loss and maximum signal isolation
between channels.

we can eliminate the channel combiner by letting each

channel feed to its own antenna.
Then a 16‐channel site will have 16 antennas for
operation

It is an economical and a physical constraint.

142
Different kinds of channel combiners.
(a)Fixed‐tuned combiner,
(b)tunable combiner,
c) ring combiner.

143
 UNIT-III
CELL COVERAGE FOR SIGNALAND TRAFFIC

144
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

OBTAINING THE MOBILE POINT-TO-POINT MODEL (LEE MODEL)

PROPAGATION OVER WATER OR FLAT OPEN AREA

FOLIAGE LOSS

PROPAGATION IN NEAR-IN DISTANCE

LONG-DISTANCE PROPAGATION

PATH LOSS FROM A POINT-TO-POINT PREDICTION MODEL

CELL-SITE ANTENNA HEIGHTS AND SIGNAL COVERAGE CELLS

MOBILE-TO-MOBILE PROPAGATION

145
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Cell coverage can be based on signal coverage or on traffic

coverage.

We have to examine the service area as occurring in one of

the following environments:

Human-made structures
In a building area In an open area
In a suburban area
In an urban area

Natural terrains Over flat terrain Over hilly terrain Over

water
Through foliage areas

146
Ground Incident Angle and Ground ElevationAngle

A coordinate sketch in a flat terrain.

147
The ground incident angle θ is the angle of wave arrival incidental
pointing to the ground.

The ground elevation angle φ is the angle of wave arrival at the mobile unit.

Ground Reflection Angle and Reflection Point

A coordinate sketch in a hilly terrain.

148
 THE MOBILE POINT-TO-POINT MODEL (LEE MODEL)

This mobile point-to-point model is obtained in three steps:

(1) generate a standard condition.

(2) obtain an area-to-area prediction model.

(3) obtain a mobile point-to-point model using the area-to-area model as a base.

149
 OBTAIN PATH LOSS FROM A POINT-TO-POINT PREDICTION
MODEL: A GENERAL APPROACH
• Finding the Antenna-Height Gain

150
Finding the Antenna-Height
Gain

151
Antenna Height Gain

152
Another Physical Explanation of Effective Antenna Height

153
Another Physical Explanation of Effective Antenna Height

154
Another Physical Explanation of Effective Antenna Height

155
Man-made environment

(a) Sparse man-made structures.

(b) Dense man-made structures.

156
Illustration of the terrain effect on the effective
antenna gain at each position.
(a) Hilly terrain contour.

157
Illustration of the terrain effect on the effective
antenna gain at each position

(b) Point-to-point prediction

158
 General Formula of Lee Model
• 1. Direct-wave case.
– The effective antenna height is a major factor
which varies with the location of the mobile unit
while it travels.
• 2. Shadow case.
– No effective antenna height exists. The loss is
totally due to the knife-edge diffraction loss.
• 3. Over-the-water condition.
– The free space path-loss is applied.

159
General Formula of Lee Model

160
 Merits of Lee Model
• The point-to-point model is very useful for designing a mobile
cellular system with a radius for each cell of 10 mi or less.

• This point-to-point predictioncan be used to

provide overall coverage of all cell sites and to avoid
co-channel interference.

• The occurrence of handoff in the cellular system can be predicted

more accurately.

• The point-to-point prediction model is a basic tool that is used to

generate
 a signal coverage map
 an interference area map
 a handoff occurrence map
 or an optimum system design configuration
161
A Standard Condition
To generate a standard condition and provide correction factors, we have used the
standard conditions shown on the left side and the correction factors on the right side
of Table

Generating a Standard Condition

162
Effect of the Human-Made Structures.

Because the terrain configuration of each city is different, and the human-made
structure of each city is also unique.

The way to factor out the effect due to the terrain configuration from the man-made
structures is to work out a way to obtain the path loss curve for the area.

The path loss curve obtained on virtually flat ground indicates the effects of the
signal loss due to solely human-made structures.

163
We may have to measure signal strengths at those high spots and also at
the low spots surrounding the cell sites.

Propagation path loss curves for human-made structures.

(a) For selecting measurement areas

164
Then the average path loss slope, which is a combination of measurements from
high spots and low spots along different radio paths in a general area,
represents the signal received as if it is from a flat area affected only by a
different local human-made structured environment.

(b) path loss phenomenon.

165
Therefore, the differences in area-to-area prediction curves are due to the different
manmade structures.

The measurements made in urban areas are different from those made in suburban
and open areas.

Any area-to-area prediction model can be used as a first step toward achieving the
point-to-point prediction model.

Area-to-area prediction model which is described here can be represented by two

parameters:
(1)the 1-mi (or 1-km) intercept point
(2)the path-loss slope.

The 1-mi intercept point is the power received at a distance of 1 mi from the
transmitter.

There are two general approaches to finding the values of the two parameters
experimentally.

166
1. Compare the area of interest with an area of similar human-made structures which
presents a curve as shown.

(c) Propagation path loss in different cities.

167
2. If the human-made structures of a city are different from the cities listed in
previous figure, a simple measurement should be carried out.

Set up a transmitting antenna at the center of a general area.

As long as the building height is comparable to the others in the area, the antenna
location is not critical.

Take six or seven measured data points around the 1-mi intercept and around the
10-mi boundary based on the high and low spots.

Then compute the average of the 1 mi data points and of the 10 mi data points.

By connecting the two values, the path-loss slope can be obtained.

168
If the area is very hilly, then the data points measured at a given distance from the
base station in different locations can be far apart.

In this case, we may take more measured data points to obtain the average path-
loss slope.

If the terrain of the hilly area is generally sloped, then we have to convert the data
points that were measured on the sloped terrain to a flat terrain in that area.

The conversion is based on the effective antenna-height gain as

where h1 is the actual height and he is the effective antenna height at either the 1-
or 10-mi locations.

169
Path-loss Phenomena

The plotted curves shown in the previous figure have different 1-mi intercepts and
different slopes.

170
(d) Explanation of the path-loss phenomenon.

171
The Phase Difference between a Direct Path and a Ground-Reflected Path

A simple model.

172
Based on a direct path and a ground-reflected path, where a direct path is
a line-of-sight (LOS) path with its received power

and a ground-reflected path with its reflection coefficient and phase changed after
reflection, the sum of the two wave paths can be expressed as:

where av = the reflection coefficient

φ = the phase difference between a direct path and a reflected
path
P0 = the transmitted power
d = the distance
λ = the wavelength
173
In a mobile environment av = −1 because of the small incident angle of the ground wave
caused by a relatively low cell-site antenna height. Thus,

174
 Then the received power of becomes :

If φ is less than 0.6 rad, then sin(φ/2) ≈ φ/2, cos(φ/2) ≈ 1 and equation simplifies to

From Equation, we can deduce two relationships as follows:

175
where ΔP is the power difference in decibels between two different path lengths and
ΔG is the gain (or loss) in decibels obtained from two different antenna heights at
the cell site.

176
PROPAGATION OVER WATER OR FLAT OPEN AREA

Propagation over water or flat open area is becoming a big concern because it is
very easy to interfere with other cells if we do not make the correct
arrangements. Interference resulting from propagation over the water can be
controlled if we know the cause.

the permittivity of s
eawater and fresh water are the same, but the conductivities
of seawater and fresh water are different.

Then (seawater) = 80 − j84 and ( fre sh water) = 80 − j0.021.

Based upon the reflection coefficients formula with a small incident angle, both
the reflection coefficients for horizontal polarized waves and vertically
polarized waves approach 1.

Because the 180◦ phase change occurs at the ground reflection point, the
reflection coefficient is −1.

177
Below shown are the two antennas, one at the cell site and the other at the
mobile unit, are well above sea level, two reflection points are generated.

A model for propagation over water.

178
The formula to find the field strength under the circumstances of a fixed point-to-
point transmission and a land-mobile transmission over a water or flat open land
condition.
Between Fixed Stations
The point-to-point transmission between the fixed stations over the water or flat
open land can be estimated as follows. The received power Pr can be expressed as

179
Propagation between two fixed stations over water or flat open land.

180
The
formula are the complex reflection coefficients and can be found from the

When the vertical incidence is small, θ is very small and

And thereafter, the equation then becomes:-

as Δφ is a function of Δd and Δd can be obtained from the following calculation. The

effective antenna height at antenna 1 is the height above the sea level.

181
 The effective antenna height at antenna 2 is the height above the sea level.

where h1 and h2 are actual heights and H1 and H2 are the heights of hills. In
general, both antennas at fixed stations are high, so the reflection point of the
wave will be found toward the middle of the radio path. The path difference d can
be obtained as

Then, equation becomes

182
Therefore, we can set up five conditions:

183
Land-to-Mobile Transmission Over Water
There are always two equal-strength reflected waves, one from the water
and one from the proximity of the mobile unit, in addition to the direct wave.

Therefore, the reflected power of the two reflected waves can reach the mobile unit
without noticeable attenuation. The total received power at the mobile unit would
be obtained by summing three components.

184
 Where Δφ1 and Δφ2 are the path-length difference between the direct
wave and two reflected waves, respectively. Because Δφ1 and Δφ2 are very
small usually for the land-to-mobile path, then

Follow the same approximation for the land-to-mobile propagation over water.

Then,

185
In most practical cases, Δφ1 + Δφ2 < 1; then
equation reduces to << 1 and the

186
FOLIAGE LOSS
Foliage loss is a very complicated topic that has many parameters and variations.
The sizes of leaves, branches, and trunks, the density and distribution of leaves,
branches, and trunks, and the height of the trees relative to the antenna heights
will all be considered.

A characteristic of
foliage environment.

187
This unique problem can become very complicated . For a system design, the
estimate of the signal reception due to foliage loss does not need any degree of
accuracy.

Furthermore, some trees, such as maple or oak, lose their leaves in winter, while
others, such as pine, never do.

However, a rough estimate should be sufficient for the purpose of system design.
In tropic zones, the sizes of tree leaves are so large and thick that the signal can
hardly penetrate.

Sometime the foliage loss can be treated as a wire-line loss, in decibels per foot or
decibels per meter, when the foliage is uniformly heavy and the path lengths are
short.

When the path length is long and the foliage is non uniform, then decibels per
octaves or decibels per decade is used.

188
PROPAGATION IN NEAR-IN DISTANCE

We are using the suburban area as an example.

At the 1-mi intercept, the received level is −61.7 dBm based on the reference set of
parameters; that is, the antenna height is 30 m (100 ft).

If we increase the antenna height to 60 m (200 ft), a 6-dB gain is obtained. From 60
to 120 m (20 to 400-ft), another 6 dB is obtained.

At the 120-m (400-ft) antenna height, the mobile received signal is the same as
that received at the free space.

The antenna pattern is not isotropic in the vertical plane.

189
A typical 6-dB omni-directional antenna beam width.

190
The reduction in signal reception can be found in the figure and is listed in the
table below.

At d = 100 m (328 ft) [mobile antenna height = 3 m (10 ft)], the incident angles and
elevation angles are 11.77◦ and 10.72◦, respectively.

191
Curves for near-in propagation.
192
Calculation of Near-Field Propagation

The range dF of near field can be obtained by letting φ in the equation below be π.

The signal received within the near field (d < dF ) uses the free space loss formula,
and the signal received outside the near field (d > dF ) can use the mobile radio path
loss formula, for the best approximation.

193
LONG-DISTANCE PROPAGATION

The advantage of a high cell site is that it covers the signal in a large area, especially in
a noise-limited system where usually different frequencies are repeatedly used in
different areas.

However, we have to be aware of the long-distance propagation phenomenon.

A noise-limited system gradually becomes an interference-limited system as the traffic

increases.

The interference is due to not only the existence of many co-channels and adjacent
channels in the system, but the long-distance propagation also affects the
interference.

194
Within an Area of 50-mi Radius

For a high site, the low-atmospheric phenomenon would cause the ground wave
path to propagate in a non-straight-line fashion.

The wave path can bend either upward or downward.

Then we may have the experience that at one spot the signal may be strong at
one time but weak at another.

195
At a Distance of 320 km (200 mi)
Troposphere wave propagation prevails at 800 MHz for long-distance
propagation; sometimes the signal can reach 320 km (200 mi) away.

The wave is received 320 km away because of an abrupt change in the effective
dielectric constant of the troposphere.

The dielectric constant changes with temperature, which decreases with height
at a rate of about 6.5◦C/km and reaches −50◦C at the upper boundary of the
troposphere.

In tropospheric propagation, the wave may be divided by refraction and

reflection.

Tropospheric refraction: This refraction is a gradual bending of the rays due to

the changing effective dielectric constant of the atmosphere through which the
wave is passing.

196
Tropospheric reflection: This reflection will occur where there are abrupt
changes in the dielectric constant of the atmosphere. The distance of
propagation is much greater than the line-of-sight propagation.

Moistness: Water content has much more effect than temperature on the
dielectric constant of the atmosphere and on the manner in which the radio
waves are affected.
The water vapor pressure decreases as the height increases.

Tropospheric wave propagation does cause interference and can only be

reduced by umbrella antenna beam patterns, a directional antenna pattern,
or a low-power low-antenna approach.

197
CELL SITE AND MOBILEANTENNAS

198
 ANTENNAS AT CELL SITE
• For Coverage
– Use Omni-directional Antennas
• High-Gain Antennas

• There are standard 6-dB and 9-dB gain Omni-

directional antennas

199
Coverage High-gain Omni-directional antennas
Gain with reference to dipole: (a) 6 dB; (b) 9 dB

200
Cell-site antennas for Omni cells

(a) for 3N channels (b) for 6N channels.

201
Ring combiner
• A ring combiner is used to combine
two groups of channels into a single
output.

• The function of a ring combiner is to

combine two 16-channel combiners
into one 32-channel output.

• Therefore, all 32 channels can be

used by a single transmitting
antenna.

• The ring combiner has a limitation of

handling power up to 600 W with a
loss of 3 dB.

202
 Relation between Gain and Beam Width
• Relation between Gain and Beam Width
• The receiver gain GR can be related to its half-
power beam width as

• θHP and φHP are the half-power beam widths in

the θ and φ planes
• The factor 4π is the solid angle subtended by a
sphere in steradians (square radians)

203
Relation between Gain and Beam Width

204
A typical pattern for a directional antenna
of 120° beam width

(a) Azimuthally pattern of 8-dB

directional antenna
205
A typical pattern for a directional antenna of 120° beam
width

206
Directional antenna arrangement

(a) 120◦ sector (45 radios);

(b) 60◦ sector;
(c) 120◦ sector (90 radios).
207
Cell-site antenna mounting

208
 Other Antennas at cell site
• Location antennas
• Setup channel antennas
• Spaced diversity antennas

209
Spatial Diversity

210
 Diversity Antenna Spacing

(a)η = h/d;
(b)(b) proper arrangement with two antennas.

211
 Umbrella-Pattern Antennas
• Normal Umbrella-Pattern Antenna.
• Broadband Umbrella-Pattern Antenna
• High-Gain Broadband Umbrella-Pattern
Antenna

212
Dipole antenna

213
Monopole Antenna

214
 Discone Antennas

(a)Single antenna.
(b) An array of antennas
215
Photo of discone antenna

216
Discone Antenna

217
Radiation pattern

218
High gain Broadband umbrella-pattern antenna

219
UNIQUE SITUATIONS OF CELL-SITE ANTENNAS

Antenna Pattern in Free Space and in Mobile

Environments

220
Front-to-back ratio of a directional antenna in a
mobile radio environment.

221
Minimum Separation of Cell-Site Receiving Antennas

Antenna pattern ripple effect

222
• Regular Check of the Cell-Site Antennas

• Choosing an Antenna Site

223
 MOBILE ANTENNAS
• Roof-Mounted Antenna
• Glass-Mounted Antennas

224
Mobile antenna patterns
(a) Roof mounted
3-dB-gain
collinear antenna
versus roof-
mounted quarter-
wave antenna.

225
Mobile antenna patterns
(b)Window mounted
“on-glass” gain
antenna versus roof-
mounted quarter-
wave antenna.

226
Roof Mounted Antenna

227
 Mobile Antennas
• Mobile High-Gain Antennas
• Horizontally Oriented Space-Diversity
Antennas
• Vertically Oriented Space-Diversity Antennas

228
Horizontally spaced antennas

(a)Maximum difference in lcr of a four-

branch equal-gain signal between α = 0 and
α = 90◦ with antenna spacing of 0.15λ
(b)Not recommended. (c) Recommended.
229
Level Crossing Rate

230
Vertical separation between two mobile antennas.

231
The theoretical derivation of correlation

232
Correlation coefficients in different areas and
different street orientations.

233
 Two vertically spaced
antennas mounted on a
mobile unit.

234
 UNIT-IV
FREQUENCY MANAGEMENTAND
CHANNELASSIGNMENT

235
 Frequency Management
• Frequency management
– Designating set-up channels and voice
channels (done by the FCC),
– Numbering the channels (done by the FCC), and
– Grouping the voice channels into subsets
(done by each system according to its preference).

236
 Channel assignment
• Means the allocation of specific channels to
cell sites and mobile units.

• A fixed channel set – Cell site- long-term basis

• During a call- Mobile unit - short-term basis

(handled by MTSO).

237
 Channel Assignment

• Ideally channel assignment should be based

on causing the least interference in the
system.

238
 Numbering the Channels
• The total number of channels (January 1988)
is 832.
• But most mobile units and systems are still
operating on 666 channels.
• A channel consists of two frequency channel
bandwidths,
– one in the low band
– one in the high band

239
 Numbering the Channels
• Two frequencies in channel 1 are
– 825.030 MHz (mobile transmit) and
– 870.030 MHz (cell-site transmit)

• The two frequencies in channel 666 are

– 844.98 MHz (mobile transmit) and
– 889.98 MHz (cell-site transmit)

240
 Numbering the Channels
• The 666 channels are divided into two groups:
– block A system
– block B system

241
Frequency-management chart.

242
 Numbering the Channels
• Each block has 333 channels
• The 42 set-up channels are assigned as
follows.
– Channels 313 - 333 block A
– Channels 334 - 354 block B
• The voice channels are assigned as follows.
– Channels 1 - 312 (312 voice channels) block A
– Channels 355 - 666 (312 voice channels) block B

243
 Numbering the Channels-
additional spectrum allocation

• New additional spectrum allocation - 10 MHz -

additional 166 channels are assigned

• a 1 MHz is assigned below 825 MHz (or 870 MHz)

• additionalchannels will be numbered up

to 849 MHz (or 894 MHz) and will then circle
back

• The last channel number is 1023 (=210)

244
New additional spectrum allocation

245
Full Spectrum Frequency Management

246
Full Spectrum Frequency Management

247
 Grouping into Subsets
• Voice channels for each system is 312

• We can group these into any number of subsets 21

set-up channels for each system

• it is logical to group the 312 channels into 21 subsets

• Each subset then consists of 16 channels

• In each set, the closest adjacent is 21

channel channels away
248
 Grouping into Subsets
• The 16 channels in each subset - connected to
a channel combiner

• Wide separation between adjacent channels -

requirement of minimum isolation

• Each 16-channel subset is idealized for each

16-channel combiner
249
 Grouping into Subsets
• In a seven-cell pattern system each cell
contains
three subsets,
iA + iB + iC

where i is an integer from 1 to 7

• The total number of voicechannels

in a cell is about 45

• The minimum separation between three

subsets is 7 channels (21/3) 250
 Grouping into Subsets
• If six subsets are equipped in an omnicell site,
• Minimum separation between two adjacent
channels can be only three (21/6 > 3) physical
channel bandwidths
• For Example

251
 Techniques for increasing frequency spectrum
• Increasing the number of radio channels using narrow
banding, spread spectrum, or time division

• Improving spatial frequency-spectrum reuse

• Frequency management and channel assignment

• Reducing the load of invalid calls

– Voice storage service for No-Answer calls
– Call forwarding
– Call waiting for Busy-Call situations
– Queuing

252
 Set-up Channels
• Set-up channels, also called control channels,
• Channels designated to set up calls
• A system can be operated without set-up
channels
• Set-up channels can be classified by usage into
two types
– access channels
– paging channels

253
 Access channels - Operational functions
• Power of a forward set-up channel [or forward control
channel (FOCC)]

• The set-up channel received level (Threshold)-RECC

• Change power at the mobile unit(Messages)

– Mobile station control message
– System parameter overhead message
– Control-filler message

• Direct call - retry

254
 Mobile station control message

• DCC – Digital Color Code

– A Digital Signal transmitted by an FOCC to detect

capture of an interfering mobile station
– Mobile station uses DCC to identify the land
station
• MIN
• VMAX
• SCC

255
SCC – SAT Colour Code

256
 System parameter overhead message

• SID - A digital identification uniquely

associated with a cellular system(15-bit)
• CMAX
• CPA - Combined paging/access
– CPA = 1 Paging &access channel are the same
– CPA = 0 Paging &access channel are not the same

257
 Control-filler message
• CMAC - a control mobile attenuation code

• the mobile station has to adjust its transmitter power

level before accessing a system on a RECC

258
 Paging Channels
• The assigned forward set-up channel (FOCC)
of each cell site is used to page the mobile
unit with the same mobile station control
message

259
 Selecting a voice channel
• For mobile-originating calls
• For paging calls

260
 Channel Assignment to the Cell Sites- Fixed Channel Assignment

• Set-up channels & Voice channels

• long-term basis

261
 Fixed Channel Assignment
• Setup-channels
– 21 channels
– N = 4, 7, 12 cell reuse patterns
– Omni-directional antennas
– One channel per cell
– Unused set-up channels
– Avoid interference between block A and B

262
 Fixed Channel
Assignment
• Voice Channels
– 21 subsets
– Min. co-channel & Adjacent channel interference
• 3 SAT Tones

263
Channel Assignment to Travelling Mobile Units

• Underlay-overlay
• Frequency Assignment
• Tilted Antenna

264
 Channel Assignment to Travelling Mobile Units

Underlaid-overlaid cell arrangements

(a) Undelay-overlay in omnicell
(b) underlay-overlay in sectorized cells
(c) two-level handoff scheme
265
Underlay-overlay arrangement

266
 Fixed Channel Assignment
• Adjacent-Channel Assignment
• Channel Sharing and Borrowing
• Sectorization

267
Adjacent-Channel Assignment

Adjacent channel assignment.

(a) Omnidirectional-antenna cells
(b) directional-antenna cells 268
 Channel Sharing and Borrowing
• Channel Sharing
Algorithm

269
 Sectorization
• The 120o sector cell for both transmitting and
receiving

• The 60o sector sell for both transmitting and

receiving

• 120o or 60o sector cell for receiving

sectorization only , and transmitting antenna
is omni-directional
270
 Non-Fixed Channel Assignment algorithms

• Dynamic Channel Assignment

• Hybrid channel Assignment
• Borrowing channel Assignment
• Forcible-borrowing channel Assignment

271
Simulation process and results

Cellular system.
Vehicle and radio-
channel distribution
in the busy rush hour

272
 Simulation process and results
• Average Blocking
• Handoff Blocking

273
 UNIT-V
HANDOFFS AND DROPPED CALLS

274
 Sub topics
• Why Handoff
• Types of Hand off and their characteristics
• Dropped call rates and their evaluation

275
 Why Handoffs?
• Handoff – voice channel
• Paging channels – Common Control channels
• value of implementing handoffs
• size of the cell
• people talk longer

276
 Handoff
• Mobiles may move out of coverage area of a cell and
into coverage area of a different cell during a call.

• MSC must identify new BS to handle call

– MSC must seamlessly transfer control of call to new BS
– MSC must assign call new forward and reverse channels within
the channels of new BS
• Some important performance metrics in handoff:
– Seamless – user should not know handoff occurring
– Minimum unnecessary Handoff due to short time fading
– Low probability of blocking new calls in the new cell
– Handoff to a good SNR channel so that an admitted call is not
dropped
277
 What is a Handoff?
• Handoff refers to a process of transferring an
ongoing call or data session from one channel
connected to the core network to another.
• Process of transferring a MS from one base
station to another.
• Also called as ‘Handover’.

278
 Reasons for a Handoff to be conducted
• To avoid call termination: call drops
• When the capacity for connecting new calls of
a given cell is used up.
• Interference in the channels.
• When the user behaviors change.
– Speed and mobility.

279
Importance of handoff decision time

280
 Different cell structures
• Macro cells

Seven cell clusters in a macro cellular system.

281
 Types of Handoffs
• Hard handoff: “break before make” connection
– Intra and inter-cell handoffs

Hard Handoff between the MS and BSs

282
 Handoff Main Steps
1. Initiation
2. Resource reservation
3. Execution
4. Completion

Important handoff parameter:

SNRold to initiate handoff based on minimum acceptable quality
SNRnew of the target channel (SNRnew > SNRold )
D = SNRnew - SNRold dB
 If D too small, unnecessary handoffs occur
 If D too large, may be insufficient time to complete handoff before
SNRold becomes too weak and signal is lost

283
Occurrence of handoff

284
 Types of Handoff
A. Natures of handoff

1. Hard handoff - Break Before Make

2. Soft handoff - Make Before Break

3. Softer handoff

B. Purposes of handoff

1. Intracell handoff

2. Intercell handoff

3. Inter BSC/MSC handoff

285
 4. Intersystem handoff:

5. Intercarrier handoffs:

6. Intermode handoff:

C. Algorithms of handoff
1. MCHO (Mobile Control Handoff)

2. NCHO (Network Control Handoff)

3. NCHO/MAHO (Network Control Handoff/Mobile Assists Handoff)

286
 INITIATION OF HANDOFF
• Signal strength - reverse voice channel
• Threshold level - minimum required voice
quality
• Cell site – MTSO
• Unnecessary Handoff
• Failure Handoff

287
288
The velocity of vehicle V and the pathloss slope
γ , can be used to determine the value of Δ
dynamically

289
 DELAYING A HANDOFF
• A Two-Level Handoff Algorithm
• Advantage of Delayed Handoffs
– Switching processor
– Interference

290
291
292
 Advantages of handoff
1. If the neighboring cells are busy delayed handoff helps to
continue the call in progress smoothly till the new cell gets
free.

2. In two-handoff-level algorithm only after the second

handoff the call will be dropped. Thus probability of call
blocking is very less.

3. This algorithm also makes handoff to take place at correct

location.

4. The algorithm avoids interference in the system.

293
 POWER-DIFFERENCE HANDOFFS

• power difference (∆)

294
 FORCED HANDOFFS

A forced handoff is defined as a handoff that

would normally occur but is prevented from happening,
or a handoff that should not occur but is forced to
happen.

295
 In forced handoff let us focus on few topics such as,

Controlling a Handoff
 By cell site – threshold level - variation
 By MSC
Creating a Handoff
 MSC ordering Cell site – threshold level increase

296
 Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)

•Every mobile measures received power from

surrounding base stations and continually reports
levels to the serving base station

•Handoff is initiated when Rx power of other than

serving BTS is higher by a certain level and time

•Handoff requires continuous RSSI measurement of

all channels

297
 Intersystem Handoff

• In intersystem handoff, the new and old BSs

are connected to two different MSCs.
• We trace the intersystem handoff procedure of
IS-41, where network-controlled handoff
(NCHO) is assumed.
• In this figure, a communicating mobile user
moves out of the BS served by MSC A and
enters the area covered by MSC B.

298
 Intersystem Handoff

• Intersystem handoff requires the following

steps:
• Step 1. MSC A requests MSC B to perform
handoff measurements on the call in progress.
MSC B then selects a candidate BS2, BS2, and
interrogates it for signal quality parameters on
the call in progress. MSC B returns the signal
quality parameter values, along with other
relevant information, to MSC A.

299
 Intersystem Handoff

• Step 2. MSC A checks if the MS has made too

many handoffs recently (this is to avoid, for
example, numerous handoffs between BS1 and
BS2 a where the MS is moving within the
overlapped area) or if intersystem trunks are
not available. If so, MSC A exits the procedure.
Otherwise, MSC A asks MSC B to set up a
voice channel. Assuming that a voice channel
is available in BS2, MSC B instructs MSC A
to start the radio link transfer.
300
 Intersystem Handoff

• Step 3. MSC A sends the MS a handoff order.

The MS synchronizes to BS2. After the MS is
connected to BS2, MSC B informs MSC A that
the handoff is successful. MSC A then
connects the call path (trunk) to MSC B and
completes the handoff procedure.

301
 QUEUING OF HANDOFFS
• Queuing of handoffs is more effective than two-threshold-
level handoffs
• 1/μ - average calling time in seconds, including new calls
and handoff calls in each cell
• λ1 - arrival rate (λ1 calls per second) for originating calls
• Λ2 - arrival rate (λ2 handoff calls per second) for handoff
calls
• M1- size of queue for originating calls
• M2 -size of queue for handoff calls
• N- number of voice channels
• a =(λ1 + λ2)/μ
• b1 =λ1/μ
• b2= λ2/μ
302
 Case – 1
• No queuing on either the originating calls or
the handoff calls
• The blocking for either an originating call or a
handoff call is

303
 Case-2
• Queuing the originating calls but not the
handoff calls
• The blocking probability for originating calls is

304
 Dropped Call Rates
• The dropped call is defined as an established
call which leaves the system before it is
normally terminated
• The Dropped Call Rate (DCR) parameter
represents what percentage of all established
calls is dropped during a specified time period
• The DCR and voice quality are inversely
proportional and high DCR may indicate
coverage, handoff, or channels accessibility
problems 305
The perception of dropped call rate by the
subscribers can be higher due to:

1.The subscriber unit not functioning properly

(needs repair).
2.The user operating the portable unit in a
vehicle (misused).
3.The user not knowing how to get the best
reception from a portable unit (needs
education).
306