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1. Introduction:
The Universe is all of space and time and
contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms
of matter and energy. While the spatial size of the entire Universe is
unknown, it is possible to measure the size of the observable universe, which
is currently estimated to be 93 billion light-years in diameter. In various
multiverse hypotheses, a universe is one of many causally disconnected
constituent parts of a larger multiverse, which itself comprises all of space and
time and its contents; as a consequence, ‘the Universe’ and ‘the multiverse’
are synonymous in such theories.
The earliest cosmological models of the Universe were developed
by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at
the center. Over the centuries, more precise astronomical observations
led Nicolaus Copernicus to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the
centre of the Solar System. In developing the law of universal
gravitation, Isaac Newton built upon Copernicus' work as well as Johannes
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and observations by Tycho Brahe.
Further observational improvements led to the realization that the Sun
is one of hundreds of billions of stars in the Milky Way, which is one of at
least hundreds of billions of galaxies in the Universe. Many of the stars in our
galaxy have planets. At the largest scale, galaxies are distributed uniformly and
the same in all directions, meaning that the Universe has neither an edge nor a
centre. At smaller scales, galaxies are distributed
in clusters and superclusters which form immense filaments and voids in space,
creating a vast foam-like structure. Discoveries in the early 20th century have
suggested that the Universe had a beginning and that space has been expanding
since then, and is currently still expanding at an increasing rate.
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2. Literature Review:
This article examines the origin of life on Earth and its connection to
the Superstring Theory that attempts to explain all phenomena in the universe
(Theory of Everything) and unify the four known forces and relativity and
quantum theory. The four forces of gravity, electro-magnetism, strong and
weak nuclear were all present and necessary for the origin of life on the Earth.
It was the separation of the unified force into four singular forces that allowed
the origin of life.
The beginning of the universe, the Big Bang, being an important sub
domain in cosmology, marks the very beginning of space and time. Therefore,
it has formed the modern scientific worldview. Transferring this to students
through science teaching is a frequent request in science literacy discussion
(e.g., American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993; Schecker
et al., 2004). However, it is not yet clear in science education if students’
conceptions about the Big Bang vary by nationality, and therefore, if it is
possible to apply the same teaching modules to students from different
countries, who may have diverse social and cultural backgrounds and different
curricula. These conceptions with which students enter the classroom were
investigated in our study. We implemented an open-ended questionnaire
survey in Germany, with questions based on recent U.S. studies. The results
clearly showed, with high interrater reliabilities, widespread misconceptions
like the Big Bang being an explosion of preexisting matter into empty space or
the universe having a centre. Furthermore, a comparison of results from
researchers in the USA, Sweden and Germany allowed us to identify
differences in students’ conceptions between the countries. Our findings appear
to indicate that German students have slightly better pre-instructional
conceptions about the Big Bang theory.
The Big Bang has little to do with everyday life, therefore, it can be
expected that a wide range of ideas will be formed. Currently, there is a lack of
scientific research concerning students’ pre-instructional conceptions in
cosmology. The results of our study will help to fill this gap and to build a
teaching module for cosmology.
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3. Composition:
The Universe is composed almost completely of dark energy, dark matter,
and ordinary matter. Other contents are electromagnetic radiation (estimated to
constitute from 0.005% to close to 0.01% of the total mass-energy of the
Universe) and antimatter.
I. Dark energy:
An explanation for why the expansion of the Universe is accelerating
remains elusive. It is often attributed to "dark energy", an unknown form of
energy that is hypothesized to permeate space. On a mass–energy
equivalence basis, the density of dark energy (~ 7 × 10−30 g/cm3) is much less
than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within galaxies. However, in
the present dark-energy era, it dominates the mass–energy of the universe
because it is uniform across space. Two proposed forms for dark energy are
the cosmological constant, a constant energy density filling space
homogeneously, and scalar such as quintessence or moduli, dynamic quantities
whose energy density can vary in time and space. Contributions from scalar
fields that are constant in space are usually also included in the cosmological
constant. The cosmological constant can be formulated to be equivalent
to vacuum energy.
II. Ordinary matter:
The remaining 4.9% of the mass–energy of the Universe is ordinary matter,
that is, atoms, ions, electrons and the objects they form. This matter
includes stars, which produce nearly all of the light we see from galaxies, as
well as interstellar gas in the interstellar and intergalactic media, planets, and
all the objects from everyday life that we can bump into, touch or squeeze.
However, advances in experimental techniques have revealed other previously
theoretical phases, such as Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic
condensates. Ordinary matter is composed of two types of elementary
particles: quarks and leptons. For example, the proton is formed of two up
quarks and one down quark; the neutron is formed of two down quarks and one
up quark; and the electron is a kind of lepton.
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4. Origin of Universe:
As far back as recorded history goes, there have been two sets of
opposing ideas, beliefs, theories, or teachings about the origin of the universe.
It has either existed eternally with no beginning or end, or it was created at
some point in time and will eventually come to an end. In the first part we
examined the early cultural, religious, and somewhat philosophical views of
how the universe began. We've also spent a little time looking at some ideas
about our own beginnings from a religious and scientific point of view. In this
section, we're going to take a brief excursion through the various theories that
science has put forth to explain the origin of the universe.
By far the most popular theory in science today is the big bang theory,
the idea that the universe came into existence at a certain point in time roughly
15 to 20 billion years ago. In the last 25 years this theory has moved to the
forefront of cosmology. You'll meet some of the key figures whose theories
have laid the foundation for the big bang. However, as you'll see as we move
through this section, this theory is not only a product of science but also of the
times in which we live. And although science would like to consider itself
removed from outside influences, it can't help but be affected by the people
who work in the field.
Much of the history of cosmology and its theories are a reflection of
these types of people and the cultures they lived in. Often the most widely
accepted theory becomes exactly that, because of the forceful personality
behind the ideas. And while science tries to remain free of influence from
things outside of it, the scientists who practice it are still a product of the
culture and the times in which they live. In other words, in relation to the
theories in cosmology, whether the universe has always existed or began with a
bang, can't be separated from the influence of the zeitgeist, or spirit of the
times. While there isn't enough time to go back through history in detail and
show you how the cosmological pendulum has swung from one theory to the
other, I can give you a rough outline and a few examples of some time periods
in which this occurred. Just remember that there are always many factors
impacting how any specific paradigm develops.
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5. Theories Related to Origin of Universe:
These theories are also called as Cosmological Theories. Many theories
were proposed from prior 3600 years. There are some belief systems on the
basis of religions such as Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Maya cosmology etc. First
theory proposed was Mesopotamian cosmology has a flat, circular earth
enclosed in cosmic ocean. However, modern cosmological ideas follow the
development of the scientific discipline of physical cosmology.
Fig. No. 1: Timeline of Universe
On behalf of the ministers of education and cultural affairs of the
German states, Schecker et al. (2004) suggested recommendations for
designing physics lessons for upper secondary schools. These suggestions
contain the development of a deepened understanding of the modern
worldview including astrophysics and cosmology as core content of physics
education in upper secondary school. Apparently, there is a need for education
development concerning better approaches for teaching certain topics in
modern physics such as cosmology (Schecker et al., 2004). Furthermore, the
interest of young people in the domain of astrophysics and cosmology is
above-average as stated in the Relevance of Science Education (ROSE) study.
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6. The Big Bang Theory:
The Big Bang theory is a cosmological model for the observable
universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale
evolution. The model describes how the universe expanded from a very high-
density and high-temperature state, and offers a comprehensive explanation for
a broad range of phenomena, including the abundance of light elements,
the cosmic microwave background (CMB), large-scale structure and Hubble's
law (the farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from
Earth). If the observed conditions are extrapolated backwards in time using the
known laws of physics, the prediction is that just before a period of very high
density there was a singularity which is typically associated with the Big Bang.
Current knowledge is insufficient to determine if the singularity was
primordial.
Since Georges Lemaître first noted in 1927 that an expanding universe
could be traced back in time to an originating single point, scientists have built
on his idea of cosmic expansion. The scientific community was once divided
between supporters of two different theories, the Big Bang and the steady state
theory, but a wide range of empirical evidence has strongly favoured the Big
Bang which is now universally accepted. In 1929, from analysis of galactic red
shifts, Edwin Hubble concluded that galaxies are drifting apart; this is
important observational evidence for an expanding universe. In 1964,
the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered, which was
crucial evidence in favour of the hot Big Bang model, since that theory
predicted the existence of background radiation throughout the universe before
it was discovered.
The known physical laws of nature can be used to calculate the
characteristics of the universe in detail back in time to an initial state of
extreme density and temperature. Detailed measurements of the expansion rate
of the universe place the Big Bang at around 13.8 billion years ago, which is
thus considered the age of the universe. After its initial expansion, the universe
cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles, and
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later atoms. Giant clouds of these primordial elements (mostly hydrogen, with
some helium and lithium) later coalesced through gravity, eventually forming
early stars and galaxies, the descendants of which are visible today.
Astronomers also observe the gravitational effects of dark matter surrounding
galaxies. Most of the matter in the universe seems to be in the form of dark
matter, and the Big Bang theory and various observations indicate that it is not
conventional baryonic matter (atoms). It is still not known exactly what dark
matter is. More recently, measurements of the red shifts of supernovae indicate
that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, an observation attributed
to dark energy’s existence.
In 1922, Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann proposed on
theoretical grounds that the universe is expanding, which was rederived
independently and observationally confirmed soon afterwards
by Belgian astronomer and Catholic priest Georges Lemaître in 1927 Lemaître
also proposed what became known as the "Big Bang theory" of the creation of
the universe, originally calling it the "hypothesis of the primeval atom".in his
paper Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles (Annals of the Scientific
Society of Brussels) under the title "Un Univers homogène de masse constante
et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses
extragalactiques" ("A homogeneous Universe of constant mass and growing
radius accounting for the radial velocity of extragalactic nebulae"), he
presented his new idea that the universe is expanding and provided the first
observational estimation of what is known as the Hubble constant. What later
will be known as the "Big Bang theory" of the origin of the universe, he called
his "hypothesis of the primeval atom" or the "Cosmic Egg".
American astronomer Edwin Hubble observed that the distances to
faraway galaxies were strongly correlated with their red shifts. This was
interpreted to mean that all distant galaxies and clusters are receding away
from our vantage point with an apparent velocity proportional to their distance:
that is, the farther they are, the faster they move away from us, regardless of
direction. Assuming the Copernican principle (that the Earth is not the center
of the universe), the only remaining interpretation is that all observable regions
of the universe are receding from all others. Since we know that the distance
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between galaxies increases today, it must mean that in the past galaxies were
closer together. The continuous expansion of the universe implies that the
universe was denser and hotter in the past.
The Big Bang theory offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad
range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements,
the CMB, large scale structure, and Hubble's Law. The framework for the Big
Bang model relies on Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity and on
simplifying assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space. The
governing equations were formulated by Alexander Friedmann, and similar
solutions were worked on by Willem de Sitter. Since then, astrophysicists have
incorporated observational and theoretical additions into the Big Bang model,
and its parameterization as the Lambda-CDM model serves as the framework
for current investigations of theoretical cosmology. The Lambda-CDM model
is the current "standard model" of Big Bang cosmology; consensus is that it is
the simplest model that can account for the various measurements
and observations relevant to cosmology.
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7. Timeline:
a) Singularity:
Extrapolation of the expansion of the universe backwards in
time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature
at a finite time in the past. This singularity indicates that general
relativity is not an adequate description of the laws of physics in this
regime. Models based on general relativity alone can no extrapolate
toward the singularity beyond the end of the Planck epoch.
This primordial singularity is itself sometimes called "the Big
Bang", but the term can also refer to a more generic early hot, dense
phase of the universe. In either case, "the Big Bang" as an event is also
colloquially referred to as the "birth" of our universe since it represents
the point in history where the universe can be verified to have entered
into a regime where the laws of physics as we understand them
(specifically general relativity and the standard model of particle
physics) work. Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia
supernova and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic
microwave background, the time that has passed since that event —
otherwise known as the "age of the universe" is 13.799 ± 0.021 billion
years. The agreement of independent measurements of this age supports
the ΛCDM model that describes in detail the characteristics of the
universe.
Despite being extremely dense at this time far denser than is
usually required to form a black hole the universe did not re-collapse
into a black hole. This may be explained by considering that
commonly-used calculations and limits for gravitational collapse are
usually based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and
do not apply to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang.
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b) Inflation and baryogenesis
The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much
speculation. In the most common models the universe was
filled homogeneously and isotropically with a very high energy
density and huge temperatures and pressures and was very rapidly
expanding and cooling. Approximately 10−37 seconds into the
expansion, a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation, during which
the universe grew exponentially and during which time density
fluctuations that occurred because of the uncertainty principle were
amplified into the seeds that would later form the large-scale
structure of the universe. After inflation stopped, reheating occurred
until the universe obtained the temperatures required for
the production of quark–gluon plasma as well as all other elementary
particles. Temperatures were so high that the random motions of
particles were at relativistic speeds, and particle–antiparticle pairs of all
kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions. At
some point, an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the
conservation of baryon number, leading to a very small excess
of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons—of the order of
one part in 30 million. This resulted in the predominance
of matter over antimatter in the present universe.
c) Cooling
Panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky reveals the
distribution of galaxies beyond the Milky Way.
Fig. No. 2: Cooling
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The universe continued to decrease in density and fall in
temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was
decreasing. Symmetry breaking phase transitions put the fundamental
forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their
present form. After about 10−11 seconds, the picture becomes less
speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained
in particle accelerators. At about 10−6 seconds, quarks and gluons
combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons. The small
excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over
antibaryons. The temperature was now no longer high enough to create
new proton–antiproton pairs (similarly for neutrons–antineutrons), so a
mass annihilation immediately followed, leaving just one in 1010 of the
original protons and neutrons, and none of their antiparticles. A similar
process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons. After
these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were
no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe
was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos).
A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was
about a billion (one thousand million) Kelvin and the density was about
that of air, neutrons combined with protons to form the
universe's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang
nucleosynthesis. As the universe cooled, the rest mass energy density of
matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation.
After about 379,000 years, the electrons and nuclei combined into
atoms (mostly hydrogen); hence the radiation decoupled from matter
and continued through space largely unimpeded. This relic radiation is
known as the cosmic microwave background radiation. The chemistry
of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years
ago, during a habitable epoch when the universe was only 10–17
million years old.
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d) Structure formation
Over a long period of time, the slightly denser regions of the
nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby
matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies,
and the other astronomical structures observable today. The details of
this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe.
The four possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter, warm
dark matter, hot dark matter, and baryonic matter. The best
measurements available, from Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP), show that the data is well-fit by a Lambda-CDM model in
which dark matter is assumed to be cold (warm dark matter is ruled out
by early reionization), and is estimated to make up about 23% of the
matter/energy of the universe, while baryonic matter makes up about
4.6%. In an "extended model" which includes hot dark matter in the
form of neutrinos, then if the "physical baryon
e) Cosmic acceleration
Independent lines of evidence from Type IA supernovae and
the CMB imply that the universe today is dominated by a mysterious
form of energy known as dark energy, which apparently permeates all
of space. The observations suggest 73% of the total energy density of
today's universe is in this form. When the universe was very young, it
was likely infused with dark energy, but with less space and everything
closer together, gravity predominated, and it was slowly braking the
expansion. But eventually, after numerous billion years of expansion,
the growing abundance of dark energy caused the expansion of the
universe to slowly begin to accelerate.
Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of
the cosmological constant term in Einstein's field equations of general
relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown and, more
generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with
the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both
through observation and theoretically.
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8. Summary:
The results of this study reported here reveal many different and some
widespread pre-instructional conceptions of German students around the Big
Bang theory. There is clearly a range of ideas, which students had formed
already in their environment probably mostly by informal learning, since
normally there was not any instruction for these students so far. This aspect
should be investigated further. The Big Bang being an explosion or the age of
the universe being infinite are just some of the major misconceptions students
have across different countries, for example, the U.S. Also notable is the lack
of ideas in some aspects, for example, ideas concerning the evidence for the
Big Bang theory. These outcomes should be taken into account when preparing
cosmology lessons.
Teachers should be aware of that problem to be able to plan lessons
accordingly. However, the sample size in this study was small and a larger
sample size is needed to confirm our findings. There is also an indication of
some country differences between the U.S. and Germany, which should be
analyzed in more detail. This aspect raises the question of the transferability of
results in educational research between different countries. If students’
conceptions are not directly transferable, how accurately must a sample need to
be described in order for the results to be generalisable and transferable? In
order to investigate this question, researchers need more details and the
exclusion of factors such as the use of different questionnaires or time
differences between surveys, as well as a standardized test.
Therefore, the next step is the development of a closed test instrument
on the basis of the study’s results. These closed items do not require a text
production but ‘‘only’’ the selection or assignment of statements, for example,
by marking in multiple-choice items. They are economical concerning
implementation and evaluation, and therefore, are especially suitable for larger
samples. This test will then be applied in studies in several countries with
larger samples to ensure the comparability of the results between countries.
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9. References:
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