EC2402 Optical Fiber

Communication and Networks

UNIT V
Optical Networks

PREPARED BY
G.SUNDAR M.Tech.,MISTE.,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR/ECE
SEMBODAI RUKMANI VARATHA RAJAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE
 Network Terminology
• Stations are devices that network subscribers use to communicate.
• A network is a collection of interconnected stations.
• A node is a point where one or more communication lines terminate.
• A trunk is a transmission line that supports large traffic loads.
• The topology is the logical manner in which nodes are linked
together by information transmitting channels to form a network.

2
 Segments of a Public Network
• A local area network interconnects users in a large room or work area, a
department, a home, a building, an office or factory complex, or a group of
buildings.
• A campus network interconnects a several LANs in a localized area.
• A metro network interconnects facilities ranging from buildings located in
several city blocks to an entire city and the metropolitan area surrounding it.
• An access network encompasses connections that extend from a centralized
switching facility to individual businesses, organizations, and homes.

3
 Network Categories
Optical Networks are categorized in multiple ways:
• All Optical (or Passive Optical) Networks Vs
Optical/Electrical/Optical Networks
• Based on service area
– Long haul, metropolitan and access network
– Wide area (WAN), metropolitan area (MAN) or local
area network (LAN)
• Depending on the Protocol
– SONET, Ethernet, ATM, IP
• Number of wavelengths
– single wavelength, CWDM or DWDM
 Passive Optical Networks
• There is no O/E conversion in between the
transmitter and the receiver (one continuous
light path)
• Power budget and rise time calculations has
to be done from end-to-end depending on
which Tx/Rx pair communicates
• Star, bus, ring, mesh, tree topologies
• PON Access Networks are deployed widely.
The PON will still need higher layer protocols
(Ethernet/IP etc.) to complete the service
 Star, Tree & Bus Networks
• Tree networks are widely deployed in the
access front
• Tree couplers are similar to star couplers
(expansion in only one direction; no splitting in
the uplink)
• Bus networks are widely used in LANs
• Ring networks (folded buses with protection)
are widely used in MAN
• Designing ring & bus networks is similar
Passive Optical Network
(PON) Topologies BUS

RING

STAR
 Linear bus topology Ex. 12.1

 Po 
10log 
P   ( N  1) L  2 NLC  ( N  2) Lthru  2 LTAP  NLi
 L, N 
 Star Network

Power Budget:
Ps-Pr = 2lc + α(L1+L2) + Excess Loss + 10 Log N + System Margin

Worst case power budget need to be satisfied

 Network Layering Concept
• Network architecture: The general physical arrangement
and operational characteristics of communicating
equipment together with a common set of
communication protocols
• Protocol: A set of rules and conventions that governs the
generation, formatting, control, exchange, and
interpretation of information sent through a
telecommunication network or that is stored in a
database
• Protocol stack: Subdivides a protocol into a number of
individual layers of manageable and comprehensible
size
– The lower layers govern the communication facilities.
– The upper layers support user applications by structuring and
organizing data for the needs of the user. 10
Synchronous Optical Networks
• SONET is the TDM optical network standard
for North America
• SONET is called Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) in the rest of the world
• SONET is the basic phycal layer standard
• Other data types such as ATM and IP can be
transmitted over SONET
• OC-1 consists of 810 bytes over 125 us; OC-
n consists of 810n bytes over 125 us
• Linear multiplexing and de-multiplexing is
possible with Add-Drop-Multiplexers
 Brief History
• Early (copper) digital networks were
asynchronous with individual clocks resulting
in high bit errors and non-scalable
multiplexing
• Fiber technology made highly Synchronous
Optical Networks (SONET) possible.
• SONET standardized line rates, coding
schemes, bit-rate hierarchies and
maintenance functionality
 Synchronous Optical
Networks
• SONET is the TDM optical network
standard for North America (It is called
SDH in the rest of the world)
• We focus on the physical layer
• STS-1, Synchronous Transport Signal
consists of 810 bytes over 125 us
• 27 bytes carry overhead information
• Remaining 783 bytes: Synchronous
Payload Envelope-user data,payment
and charges
 SONET/SDH Bit Rates

SONET Bit Rate (Mbps) SDH

OC-1 51.84 -
OC-3 155.52 STM-1
OC-12 622.08 STM-4
OC-24 1244.16 STM-8
OC-48 2488.32 STM-16
OC-96 4976.64 STM-32
OC-192 9953.28 STM-64
 SONET/SDH
• The SONET/SDH standards enable the interconnection
of fiber optic transmission equipment from various
vendors through multiple-owner trunk networks.
• The basic transmission bit rate of the basic SONET
signal is

• In SDH the basic rate is 155.52 Mb/s.

Basic formats of (a) an STS-N SONET frame and (b) an STM-N

15
SDH frame
Basic STS-1 SONET frame
 Basic STS-1 SONET frame

STS-1=(90*8bits/row)(9rows/frame)*125 s/frame  51.84 Mb/s

 Basic STS-N SONET frame

STS-N signal has a bit rate equal to N times 51.84

Mb/s
Ex: STS-3  155.52 Mb/s
Physical Configuration
 SONET Add Drop Multiplexers

ADM is a fully synchronous, byte oriented

device, that can be used add/drop OC sub-
channels within an OC-N signal
Ex: OC-3 and OC-12 signals can be individually
added/dropped from an OC-48 carrier
 Common values of OC-N and
STM-N
• OC stands for optical carrier. It has become common to
refer to SONET links as OC-N links.
• The basic SDH rate is 155.52 Mb/s and is called the
synchronous transport module—level 1 (STM-1).

25
 SONET/SDH Rings
• SONET/SDH are usually configured in
ring architecture to create loop diversity
by self healing
• 2 or 4 fiber between nodes
• Unidirectional/bidirectional traffic flow
• Protection via line switching (entire OC-N
channel is moved) or path switching (sub
channel is moved)
2-Fiber Unidirectional Path Switched
Ring

Node 1-2
OC-3
Node 2-4; OC-3

Ex: Total capacity OC-12 may be divided to

four OC-3 streams
 2-Fiber
UPSR
• Rx compares
the signals
received via the
primary and
protection paths
and picks the
best one
• Constant
protection and
automatic
switching
 4-Fiber Bi-directional Line
Switched Ring (BLSR)

All secondary fiber left for protection

Node 13; 1p, 2p 31; 7p, 8p
 BLSR Fiber Fault Reconfiguration

In case of failure, the secondary fibers between

only the affected nodes (3 & 4) are used, the
other links remain unaffected
 BLSR Node Fault Reconfiguration

If both primary and secondary are cut, still the

connection is not lost, but both the primary
and secondary fibers of the entire ring is
occupied
 BLSR Recovery from Failure
Modes
• If a primary-ring device fails in either node 3 or 4, the affected nodes detect
a loss-of-signal condition and switch both primary fibers connecting these
nodes to the secondary protection pair
• If an entire node fails or both the primary and protection fibers in a given
span are severed, the adjacent nodes switch the primary-path connections
to the protection fibers, in order to loop traffic back to the previous node.

33
 Generic SONET network
Large National
City-wide Backbone

Local Area

Versatile SONET equipment

are available that support wide
range of configurations, bit rates
and protection schemes
 WDM P-P Link

Several OC-192 signals can be carried,

each by one wavelength
 What Are Solitons, Why Are They Interesting
And How Do They Occur in Optics?

The phase velocity of a beam (finite width in space or time)

must depend on the field amplitude of the wave!
 SOLITON
• Two pulses under go wavelength shifts in opposite
direction so that the group velocity difference due
to the wavelength shift exactly compensate group
velocity difference due to birefringence.
 All Wave Phenomena: A Beam Spreads in Time and Space on Propagation

Space: Broadening by Diffraction

Time: Broadening by Group Velocity Dispersion

Spatial/Temporal Soliton
Broadening +
Narrowing Via a Nonlinear Effect
= Soliton (Self-Trapped beam)

1. An optical soliton is a shape invariant self-trapped beam of light

or a self-induced waveguide

2. Solitons occur frequently in nature in all nonlinear wave phenomena

3. Contribution of Optics: Controlled Experiments

 Solitons Summary
exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties
• solitons are common in nature and science

•any nonlinear mechanism leading to beam Self-consistency Condition

narrowing will give bright solitons, beams
whose shape repeats after1 soliton period! I(x)  Δn(x) = n2I(x)

•solitons are the modes of nonlinear

(high intensity) optics I(x) Δn(x)

• robustness (stay localized through

small perturbations) x x

• unique collision and interaction properties Δn(x) traps beam

• Kerr media
• no energy loss to radiation fields
• number of solitons conserved
• Saturating nonlinearities
• small energy loss to radiation fields
• depending on geometry, number of solitons
can be either conserved or not conserved.
 z
1D Bright Spatial Soliton Diffraction in 1D only!
x Optical Kerr Effect → Self-Focusing: n(I)=n0+n2I, n2>0
Vp(I>0) c c
Vp(I0) phase velocity: Vp (I)  
n n0  n2 I
Soliton Properties
1. No change in shape on
propagation

2. Vp(soliton) < Vp(I0)

3. Flat (plane wave) phase front

I(x)
4. Nonlinear phase shift  z (not
obvious)

Diffraction in space Phase

Self-focusing Soliton! front
n2>0
Vp(I0)>Vp(I>0)
 Optical Solitons

Temporal Spatio-Temporal Spatial

Homogeneous Media Discrete Media

1D, 2D

Cavity Solitons Propagating Solitons

Kerr n=n2I Media

Local Non-local Liquid Crystals
Kerr-like
Photorefractive
Quadratic Gain Media
 Optical Solitons
Temporal Solitons in Fibers Spatial Solitons 1D

Supported by Kerr
nonlinearity nNL = n2I

heff
n2
Field distribution
n1 n2>n1 along x-axis fixed
by waveguide mode

Spatial Solitons 2D Discrete Spatial Solitons 1D

nonlinearity Two color solitons

NOT Kerr Quadratic nonlinearity
 Nonlinear Wave Equation
 2   L  NL 
1   2
 ( 3)
 E  2 2 E  0 2 {P  P }
2
 Kerr  EEE depends on nonlinear
c t t  (1)  mechanism
0  E
   n 2   NL
E (r )  A( x, y) exp[i{kz  t}]  E  2  E   0 P
2 0 2 2

c
spatial     NL
Slowly varying phase  2ik E   E   0 P
2 2

and amplitude z diffraction nonlinearity

approximation (SVEA,1st
order perturbation theory) temporal   2   NL
 2ik E  kk2 2 E   0 P
2

z T
Group velocity dispersion
Plane Wave Solution?  Unstable mode
 Filamentation
Shape
invariance
Zero diffraction

and/or dispersion | E | 0 Nonlinear Mode
 z Spatial soliton
| E | 0 + 2 E  0 or k2  0
z
 1D Kerr Solitons: nNL = n2I= n2,E|E|2
Kerr Effect : P NL  2 0n0n2, E | E |2
“Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation” “NLSE”
 2  2
Space  2ik E  2 E  2k n n0 E Time  2ik
2 NL
E  2 E  2k 2 n NLn0 E
z x z T
diffraction nonlinearity dispersion nonlinearity

Bright Soliton, n2>0 Invariant shape Nonlinear

on propagation phase shift
n0 1 ( x, T ) z
E( x, T )  sech{ } exp[ i 2 2
]
n2, E n0 kvac ( w0 , T0 ) ( w0 , T0 ) 2n0 kvac ( w0 , T0 )
heff c 0 dPsol heff c 0
Psol    2 2 0
2
w0 k vac ( )n2 ||,E (;  ) dw0 w0 k vac ( )n2 ||,E (;  )
2(w0,T0) dP
Remarkable stability comes from sol  0,
dw0
x, T i.e. if Psol  w0  and vice - versa!

All other nonlinearities do NOT lead to analytical solutions and must be found numerically!
 Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation

A A i 2 A 
 1   2 2  A  i | A |2 A
z t 2 t 2
Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation

A 1  2 A
T  t  1 z  0 i   2 2   | A |2 A  0
z 2 T

Balance between dispersion and nonlinearity

 Stability of Kerr Self-Trapped Beams in 2D?

1 D Waveguide Case h
w0

w02 n0 vacw0 h
Diffraction length LD  Nonlinear length (/2) LNL 
vac 2n2 P
LD 2n2 n0 dP
 2 w0 P  constant 0 Stable , i.e. robust!
LNL vach dw0

2 D Bulk Medium Case w0 w02 n0 vacw02

LD  LNL 
vac 2n2 P
LD 2n2 n0 dP
 P  constant 0 Unstable!
LNL vac
2 dw0
Fluctuation in power leads to either diffraction or narrowing dominating

No Kerr solitons in 2D! BUT,2D solitons stable in other forms of nonlinearity

 Higher Order Solitons
2
- Previously discussed solitons were N=1 solitons where N LNL  LD
- Higher Order solitons obtained from Inverse Scattering or Darboux transforms
4[cosh(3 )  3e 4i cosh( )]ei / 2) 
z

T
N 2 u ( , ) 
[cosh(4 )  4 cosh(2 )  3 cos(4 )] LD T0

N=3
4 Soliton period (same for all N ) : z0  LD / 2
Intensity

z / z0
0
-10 0 10
T / T0
Need to refine “consistency condition”.
Soliton shape must reproduce itself every soliton period!
 Optical Bullets: Spatio-Temporal Solitons

t

Electromagnetic pulses that do not spread in time and space

Characteristic Lengths
Temporal Dispersion : LD (T )  T02 / | k 2 |

Spatial Diffraction : LD (r )  kw02 / 2
Nonlinear Length : LNL  [k vacn2 Ppeak / Aeff ]1

Soliton : LNL  LD (T )  LD (r )
Soliton period : z0  LD / 2

Require: dispersion length (time)  diffraction length (space)  nonlinear length

 Solitons Summary
exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties

• solitons are common in nature and science

• any nonlinear mechanism leading to beam narrowing will give bright solitons, beams whose
shape on propagation is either constant or repeats after 1 soliton period!
• they arise due to a balance between diffraction (or dispersion) and nonlinearity in both
homogeneous and discrete media. Dissipative solitons also require a balance between gain and
loss.
• solitons are the modes (not eigenmodes) of nonlinear (high intensity) optics
• an important property is robustness (stay localized through small perturbations)
• unique collision and interaction properties
• Kerr media
• no energy loss to radiation fields
• number of solitons conserved
• Saturating nonlinearities
• small energy loss to radiation fields
• depending on geometry, number of solitons
can be either conserved or not conserved.

• Solitons force you to give up certain ideas which govern linear optics!!
 WDM Networks

• Single fiber transmits multiple

wavelengths  WDM Networks
• One entire wavelength (with all the
data) can be switched/routed
• This adds another dimension; the
Optical Layer
• Wavelength converters/cross
connectors; all optical networks
• Note protocol independence
 Types of WDM
• Unidirectional
• Bidirectional
 WDM P-P Link

Several OC-192 signals can be carried,

each by one wavelength
 Versions of WDM
• Coarse WDM (CWDM)
 4-16 wavelength per fiber
 difficult to amplify
• Dense WDM(DWDM)
32+wavelength per fiber
Increase density and capacity
• Ultra Dense WDM(UDWDM)
100+ wavelength per fiber.
 WDM Networks
• Broadcast and Select: employs passive
optical stars or buses for local networks
applications
– Single hop networks
– Multi hop networks
• Wavelength Routing: employs
advanced wavelength routing
techniques
– Enable wavelength reuse
– Increases capacity
 Broadcast and Select network

Broadcast and Select N/W topologies:

1. Star
2. Bus
Types of broadcast and select N/W

 Single hop networks

without optical to electrical conversion
 Multi hop networks
Electro optical conversion occur
 Single hop broadcast and select WDM

Star Bus

• Each Tx transmits at a different fixed wavelength

• Each receiver receives all the wavelengths, but
selects (decodes) only the desired wavelength
• Multicast or broadcast services are supported
• Dynamic coordination (tunable filters) is required
A Single-hop Multicast WDM Network

It is attractive for
i. lograthamic splitting loss
ii. No tapping and insertion
loss

Support multicast or broadcast

Networks

Advantages:
1. Simple architecture
2. Protocol transparent

Disadvantage
Need rapidly tunable lasers
and optical filters.
 Multi-hop Architecture

Four node broadcast and select multihop network

Each node transmits at fixed set of wavelengths and
receive fixed set of wavelengths
Multiple hops required depending on destination
Ex. Node1 to Node2: N1N3 (1), N3N2 (6)
No tunable filters required but throughput is less
 Fig. 12-17: Data packet

In multihop networks, the source and destination

information is embedded in the header
These packets may travel asynchronously
(Ex. ATM)
 Shuffle
Net
Shuffle Net is one of
several possible
topologies in
multihop networks
N = (# of nodes) X
(per node)
Max. # of hops =
2(#of-columns) –1
(-) Large # of ’s A two column shuffle net
Ex: Max. 2 X 2 - 1= 3 hops
(-) High splitting loss
Wavelength Routing

• The limitation is
overcome by:
–  reuse,
–  routing and
–  conversion
• As long as the
logical paths
between nodes do
not overlap they
can use the same 
 OPTICAL CDMA
 Provide multiple access to a network without
using wavelength sensitive component
 Multiple access- 2 or more users use same
propagation channel simultaneously.
 CDMA- transforming narrow band signal into
wide band signal.
Why Spread spectrum used:
• Security.
Principle of spread spectrum

Pseudo Noise sequence:

• Periodic binary sequence noise like waveform generated by
shift registers
Principle of optical CDMA: based on optical spread
spectrum.
Optical encoder: map each bit into high rate optical
sequences.
Chip: symbol in the spreading code.
1 data bit: Encoded into sequences consisting of N chips.
0 data bit: Not encoded.
 Types of optical CDMA
Synchronous optical CDMA:
 Follow rigorous transmission schedule.
 More successful transmission.
 Real time transmission-voice, interactive video.-Efficient

Asynchronous optical CDMA:

 Access in Random and collision between users can occur.
 When traffic are bursty in nature and not need real time communication
requirements.
 Data transfer or file transfer and asynchronous scheme.
 OPTICAL CDMA NETWORK MODEL

 Setup consists of N transmitter and N receiver.

 Send data from node i to node k – node k is impressed upon the
data by the encoder at node i.
 In receiver differentiates codes by using correlation detection.
ULTRA HIGH CAPACITY N/Ws
• Major challenge – provide enormous BW
atleast 1THZ.

• Using dense WDM- increase capacity for

long transmission.

• Allow transfer rates 1 Tb/sec on single fiber.

• Attractive in LANs and MANs.

 Ultra high capacity WDM
systems.

EDFA- Erbium Doped fiber Amplifier 1530

nm to 1560 nm.

EDFA+Raman amplifier – boost the gain at

higher wavelengths.
 Two popular approaches for
increasing capacity.
• Widen spectral Bandwidth:
1530-1560 nm  1530-1610nm using
gain boosting with raman amplifier.

• Improve spectral efficiency:

Increase total transmission capacity
independent of any expansion of the EDFA
bandwidths.
Bit interleaved Optical TDM
Bit interleaved Optical TDM
 BIT Interleaved optical TDM
Bit interleaved TDM is similar to WDM
Access node share many small channels
operating at a peak rate that is a fraction of
the media rate.
Channel rate could vary from 100 Mb/s to
1Gb/s. Time multiplexed media rate is
around 100Gb/sec.
Laser source produce a regular stream of
very narrow R-Z optical pulses.
 This rate typically ranges from 2.5 to 10 Gb/s.
 Optical splitter – Divide the pulse train into N
separate streams.
 Modulated o/p delayed by different fraction of the
clock period.
 Interleaved by optical combiner to produce bitrate
NxB.
 Post and pre amplifier – compensate attenuation and
splitting loss.
 Rx end-aggregate pulse stream demultiplexed into
original N independent data for further signal
processing.
 Clock recovery- sync the demux.
TIME SLOTTED OPTICAL TDM
• Access node share one fast channel 100 Gb/s.
• Pulse separation is important- for suppressing
crosstalk and jitter during time extraction.
• This N/W backbone for high speed N/Ws.
• Provide high data rate & low data rate access.
• Speed range from 10 to 100Gb/s- high speed
videos,terabyte media banks and supercomputer.
• Advantages:
• Depending on user date rate and traffic satatistics.
• Improve-shorter user-access time,lower
delay,higher throughput.