MEDIA MANAGEMENT

UNIT 1

Organizational behavior

Organizational Behavior (OB) can be defined as the understanding, prediction and management
of human behavior both individually or in a group that occur within an organization.

It is the study of both group and individual’s performance and activity within an organization.

Importance of OB
While working in an organization, it is very important to understand others’ behavior as well as
make others understand ours. In order to maintain a healthy working environment, we need to
adapt to the environment and understand the goals we need to achieve. This can be done easily
if we understand the importance of OB.

Following points bring out the importance of OB −

• It helps in explaining the interpersonal relationships employees share with each other as
well as with their higher and lower subordinates.

• The prediction of individual behavior can be explained.

• It balances the cordial relationship in an enterprise by maintaining effective

communication.

• It assists in marketing.

• It helps managers to encourage their sub-ordinates.

• Any change within the organization can be made easier.

• It helps in predicting human behavior & their application to achieve organizational goals.

• It helps in making the organization more effective.

Thus studying organizational behavior helps in recognizing the patterns of human behavior and
in turn throws light on how these patterns profoundly influence the performance of an
organization.

There are three major factors that affect OB. The working environment being the base for all
three factors, they are also known as the determinants of OB. The three determinants are −

• People
 • Structure
• Technology

People
An organization consists of people with different traits, personality, skills, qualities, interests,
background, beliefs, values and intelligence. In order to maintain a healthy environment, all the
employees should be treated equally and be judged according to their work and other aspects
that affects the firm.

Example − A company offers campus placement to trainees from different states like Orissa,
Haryana, Arunachal Pradesh and many more. However, during and after training, all trainees
are examined only on the basis of their performance in the tasks assigned.

Organizational Structure
Structure is the layout design of an organization. It is the construction and arrangement of
relationships, strategies according to the organizational goal.

Example − Organizational structure defines the relation of a manager with employees and co-
workers.

Technology
Technology can be defined as the implementation of scientific knowledge for practical usage. It
also provides the resources required by the people that affect their work and task performance in
the right direction.

Example − Introduction of SAP, big data and other software in the market determines
individual and organizational performance.

Environment
All companies function within a given internal and external environment. Internal environment
can be defined as the conditions, factors, and elements within an enterprise that influences the
activities, choices made by the firm, and especially the behavior of the employees. While
external environment can be defined as outside factors that affect the company's ability to
operate. Some of them can be manipulated by the company’s marketing, while others require
the company to make adjustments.

Some examples of internal environment include employee morale, culture changes, financial
changes or issues, and some examples of external environment include political factors,
changes to the economy and the company itself.

The concept of OB is based on two key elements namely −

• Nature of people
• Nature of the organization
Nature of People
In simple words, nature of people is the basic qualities of a person, or the character that
personifies an individual they can be similar or unique. Talking at the organizational level, some
major factors affecting the nature of people have been highlighted. They are −

• Individual Difference − It is the managerial approach towards each employee

individually, that is one-on-one approach and not the statistical approach, that is,
avoidance of single rule. Example− Manager should not be biased towards any
particular employee rather should treat them equally and try not to judge anyone on any
other factor apart from their work.

• Perception − It is a unique ability to observe, listen and conclude something. It is

believing in our senses. In short, the way we interpret things and have our point of view
is our perception. Example − Aman thinks late night parties spoil youth while Anamika
thinks late night parties are a way of making new friends. Here we see both Aman and
Anamika have different perception about the same thing.

• A whole person − As we all know that a person’s skill or brain cannot be employed we
have to employee a whole person. Skill comes from background and knowledge. Our
personal life cannot be totally separated from our work life, just like emotional
conditions are not separable from physical conditions. So, people function is the
functioning of a total human being not a specific feature of human being.

• Motivated behavior − It is the behavior implanted or caused by some motivation from

some person, group or even a situation. In an organization, we can see two different
types of motivated employees −
 • Positive motivation − Encouraging others to change their behavior or say
complete a task by luring them with promotions or any other profits. Example −
“If you complete this, you will gain this.”

• Negative motivation − Forcing or warning others to change their behavior else

there can be serious consequences. Example − “If you don’t complete this, you
will be deprived from the office.”

• Value of person − Employees want to be valued and appreciated for their skills and
abilities followed by opportunities which help them develop themselves.

Nature of Organization
Nature of organization states the motive of the firm. It is the opportunities it provides in the
global market. It also defines the employees’ standard; in short, it defines the character of the
company by acting as a mirror reflection of the company. We can understand the nature of any
firm with its social system, the mutual interest it shares and the work ethics.

Let us take a quick look at all these factors −

• Social system − Every organization socializes with other firms, their customers, or
simply the outer world, and all of its employees - their own social roles and status. Their
behavior is mainly influenced by their group as well as individual drives. Social system
are of two types namely −

• Formal − Groups formed by people working together in a firm or people that

belong to the same club is considered as formal social system. Example − A
success party after getting a project.

• Informal − A group of friends, people socializing with others freely, enjoying,

partying or chilling. Example − Birthday party.

• Mutual interest − Every organization needs people and people need organizations to
survive and prosper. Basically it’s a mutual understanding between the organization and
the employees that helps both reach their respective objectives. Example − We deposit
our money in the bank, in return the bank gives us loan, interest, etc.

• Ethics − They are the moral principles of an individual, group, and organization. In
order to attract and keep valuable employees, ethical treatment is necessary and some
moral standards need to be set. In fact, companies are now establishing code of ethics
training reward for notable ethical behavior.

BEHAVIOR IN MEDIA ORGANIZATION/ AUDIOVISUAL INDUSTRY:

Modes of employment within the TV industry have changed profoundly in the two
decades from secure employee status to short term contracts. From day one film
production has been a model of mixed employment that includes casual and freelance
workers, short term projects and full time retained staff.

The entire audio visual industry remains a precarious occupation. Most production staff
would agree that you are only as good as your previous or last job, in negotiations to
secure the next one. Most people are on short term contracts with no guarantee of their
next assignment.

To understand what might motivate them to work within this sector, we need to
understand the concept of human motivation.

Abraham Maslow, father of human psychology suggested that we have 7 innate needs:

• Physiological – what our bodies need to physically survive ( food, water and
shelter)

• Safety – physical security need so that we can maintain a secure and safe
environment from predators.

• Love – considered the basic social need for relationships and a sense of
belonging.

• Esteem- Need to satisfy the ego by social standing and peer group recognition.

• Self- actualization – a sense of fulfillment

• Freedom of enquiry and expression – a sense of fairness, honesty and ethical

dealing

• To know and understand: to fulfill the need to satisfy an enquiring mind that is
curious and wants to learn and explore.

(Maslow’s hierarchy of needs)

This hierarchy of needs is often represented in a simple form as a set of blocks/steps. As one
level is satisfied the individual can go on to the next – that is, we would agree that the need to eat
is rather a greater priority than a career goal. However, this diagram doesn’t really explain the
more complex behavior in the relatively stable modern economies like the audio visual sector.

(NOW DRAW THE OVERLAPPING LADDERS DIAGRAM OF HIERARCHY OF

NEEDS)

(after the diagram…)

• Given the complexities of the modern industrial working environment, it is probably

more useful to foresee Maslow’s hierarchy as more of a continuum of overlapping
ladders that might be stepped on by the individual. This model gives an indication of the
behavior of workers in the audiovisual industry.

• They operate not with a strict hierarchy of needs but with an expectation of future
promise. The individual who ca see future opportunities that might lead them to a point of
self-actualization is often more than willing to put up with short-term hardships in the
industry.

• There has been a tradition in the audiovisual industry to appoint new joiners as runners.
The tasks they are given are often trivial and sometimes demeaning compared to their
intellect and qualifications.

• There is an expectation that if they can see themselves through this period of initiation,
then somehow their talent will be recognized.

• A key driver for the motivation of those in the audiovisual industry is to express a sense
of creativity.

• Many would recognize that the path to self-fulfillment will be a rocky one. It is a high
profile industry in which creativity, innovation and the potential to earn great money can
be achieved. It all comes with a high degree of failure.

It is important for the manager within the audiovisual industry to have an insight into individual
and group behavior, the range of personalities and temperaments that are found within
production groups. Being a member of a team in the media production environment has special
demands. Usually teams are not big enough to enable a person to hide in the shadow of someone
else doing similar work. Individuals must take ownership and control of the activity to which
they have been allocated.

Production managers expect their staff to act positively by looking for how they can add value to
their roles and to the project as a whole. This is what managers seek from staff and colleagues
who work for them when trying to get a project completed successfully with the right quality, to
the right cost and on time.

GROUP BEHAVIOR

Group: Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to
achieve particular objectives.

Group behavior: Individuals form groups, live in groups, move in groups and work in groups.
The study of group behavior is important.

Individual and group behavior differs from each other. Group behavior affects productivity.
Human resources comprise individuals and individuals move in groups. Every manager must
possess the knowledge group behavior along with individual behavior. Individual behavior is
influenced by group behavior.

THE JOHARI WINDOW MODEL:

It is necessary to improve self-awareness and personal development among individuals when

they are in a group. The ‘Johari’ window model is a convenient method used to achieve this task
of understanding and enhancing communication between the members in a group. American
psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham developed this model in 1955. The idea was
derived as the upshot of the group dynamics in University of California and was later improved
by Joseph Luft. The name ‘Johari’ came from joining their first two names. This model is also
denoted as feedback/disclosure model of self-awareness.

Introduction
The Johari window model is used to enhance the individual’s perception on others. This model is
based on two ideas- trust can be acquired by revealing information about you to others and
learning yourselves from their feedbacks. Each person is represented by the Johari model
through four quadrants or window pane. Each four window panes signifies personal information,
feelings, motivation and whether that information is known or unknown to oneself or others in
four viewpoints.

The Johari Window Model

The method of conveying and accepting feedback is interpreted in this model. A Johari is
represented as a common window with four panes. Two of these panes represent self and the
other two represent the part unknown to self but to others. The information transfers from one
pane to the other as the result of mutual trust which can be achieved through socializing and the
feedback got from other members of the group.

1. Open/self-area or arena – Here the information about the person his attitudes, behaviour,
emotions, feelings, skills and views will be known by the person as well as by others. This is
mainly the area where all the communications occur and the larger the arena becomes the more
effectual and dynamic the relationship will be. ‘Feedback solicitation’ is a process which occurs
by understanding and listening to the feedback from another person. Through this way the open
area can be increased horizontally decreasing the blind spot. The size of the arena can also be
increased downwards and thus by reducing the hidden and unknown areas through revealing
one’s feelings to other person.
2. Blind self or blind spot – Information about yourselves that others know in a group but you
will be unaware of it. Others may interpret yourselves differently than you expect. The blind spot
is reduced for an efficient communication through seeking feedback from others.
3. Hidden area or façade – Information that is known to you but will be kept unknown from
others. This can be any personal information which you feel reluctant to reveal. This includes
feelings, past experiences, fears, secrets etc. we keep some of our feelings and information as
private as it affects the relationships and thus the hidden area must be reduced by moving the
information to the open areas.
4. Unknown area – The Information which are unaware to yourselves as well as others. This
includes the information, feelings, capabilities, talents etc. This can be due to traumatic past
experiences or events which can be unknown for a lifetime. The person will be unaware till he
discovers his hidden qualities and capabilities or through observation of others. Open
communication is also an effective way to decrease the unknown area and thus to communicate
effectively.
Example
Linda got a job in an organization. Her co-workers knew a little about her and in this context the
unknown and hidden areas will be larger and the open area will be small. As the others don’t
know much about her the blind spot also will be smaller and the model will be as shown in
Figure 1.

Linda spent most of her free time sketching in the office which was her preferred pastime and
her co-workers found her very shy and elusive. With that evaluation she got the idea how she
was and tried to be more talkative and interacted more with other co-workers. This helped her to
increase her open area and thus making the hidden and unknown areas smaller. (Figure 2)
Through the feedback Linda got from her co-workers she could perform well in the office and
her real capacity could be obtained as a result of an effective interaction among the colleagues.

INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

Once we have identified individuals who function well in teams and offered them and
opportunity to work in an innovative and creative environment, there are still the wider
organizational constraints that might limit the ability of the team to function effectively.

Definition: “the process of making changes to something established by introducing something

new that adds value to customers and contributes to the knowledge store of the organization”.

It has been suggested that one of the major threats to innovation is a sense of job insecurity and
lack of safety at work. In production teams, if all the members feel that they are truly part of the
team and are participating in the production process, there is much evidence to suggest that the
project will be more successful.

A good project manager who gives continuous feedback and fosters a sense of belonging in
members of a team will have powerful effect on improving the team’s performance.

The role of the entrepreneur / producer in fostering innovation is:

 • To identify the staff who are likely to be innovative

• To promote innovation amongst all staff

• To promote innovation among teams

• To promote innovation within the work organization.

Innovation and creativity is possible if certain factors are taken into account:

• A balanced team

• Individuals to be trained and developed

• The team is given a clear goal

• Tasks and targets are clear

• If the team has a motivating piece of work to do, such as a film or TV programme

• There is a high level of participation, which also ensures a high standard of work and
quality of innovation.

• Challenges to the team are made within a safe environment

• The production manager, director or producer has good communication skills to bring the
best out of the members

• Individuals are respected and given a great deal of autonomy in the work.

THE CULTURE OF THE ORGANIZATION

When many people first learn that organizations have a definable culture, they are surprised.
Up until that moment, most people would have considered culture only as a social thing like
race, religion or other aspects of social order. All these attributes are present within the
business environment but in addition to any national social culture, there is a unique business
culture relating to that organization.

This will include formal and informal business structure- how people dress, how they
behave, how they refer to one another. Unless you understand the jargon, the acronyms and
the shared behaviors, it is almost impossible to penetrate and understand what is going on
easily and quickly.

The culture conditions of an organization also have an impact on the mindset of the
individuals within an organization. In many instances this may help the business to function
but at times it disables free thinking in an innovative and creative environment.

There are four types of organization culture forms:

• The power culture

• The role culture

• The task culture

• The person culture

 • The power culture is found in the small entrepreneurial organizations typical of many
small audiovisual businesses. There is a central figure who controls the whole aspect of
the business. It is suggested that we can visualize the structure as being similar to that of
spider’s web. Whilst the business is small, the individual at the centre of the organization
controls all the activities of the organization.

• The role culture is similar to that of a temple. The pillars represent the departments;
specializations or activity support the centre. The top part or the cap represents the
infrastructure and management of the business.

• The task culture is project driven. The diagram looks like a fishing net. Where the points
or strands intersect, there lies the power in an organization. It is based on teams getting
the job done with a high degree of autonomy. The control is maintained by the managers.

• The person culture is little bit more an amorphous mass, often made up of group of
individuals who need some form of administrative and management support to enable
them to do their professional tasks. Example – A doctor’s group practice, a law firmor
any team of professionals who feel they have equal standing in the community and
among their peer group.

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 MEDIA MANAGEMENT – UNIT 2

MEDIA ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Media entrepreneurship:

It is the creation and ownership of a small enterprise or organization whose activity

adds at least one voice or innovation to the media marketplace.

‘An entrepreneur is an individual who personifies and orchestrates the creative process
through which a new venture is realized in the market place’.

The owner or director of the Very small independent production house (VSIPH) is being creative
in two levels:

 In the establishment of the new enterprise

 In applying their craft skills on each new production project they get.
Role of the entrepreneur:

 Continuous creativity is a very important aspect of a company. If the creativity fails, the
company will fold or fall slowly.
 They must be innovators and not just adopters of others’ ideas.
 They must function in the areas of ambiguity (uncertainty or doubts) in the company
 The VSIPH has no tangible products; all they have is a history of past successes to
convince the new client that the new product will be the same in quality but different and
innovative.
 A good television programme has to obey the rules of production and yet break the rules
subtly (finely or slightly or delicately) so that something innovative and new comes out
while still being a product that can be used and enjoyed.
An interesting factor in the audio visual industry is that many individuals start their media
careers in artists roles, seek opportunities to become entrepreneurial, and possibly end up in the
professional mode.

Example: Actor Dhanush’s production company – Wunderbar

To summarize, entrepreneurs have an innate need to launch ventures and the ability to combine
visionary thinking and concrete action.
 MEDIA ORGANIZATION

Organization which produce, distribute and promote information are media organizations. Eg:
newspaper organization, radio or television centre, Advertising/ PR agencies etc. Media firms
that develop, produce and distribute messages that inform, entertain or persuade.

Information firms are like other manufacturers: they produce and distribute a product (messages)
and then in order to sell that product, they select an audience and develop marketing, promotion
and sales strategies to reach the audience.

The basic manufacturing process of a media organization:

 Gathering information and developing messages:gathering information for stories by

making a list of ideas and sending out reporters to check the sources. After developing
the raw ideas the reporters and editors complete the stories together by pulling together
information, words, photography and graphics
 Producing finished copies of messages: In producing the message, technical difference
exists between the print and electronic media. In print, it involves typesetting,
platemaking etc. In TV or film it involves film or video editing, dubbing etc..
 Distributing the message: It includes transporting or screening the messages to the
media audiences. In case of print publications, the newspapers are distributed via Trucks
or lorries to delivery persons who sell papers to audience. Broadcasters send their
programmes through air from their transmitter and tower directly to listeners.
 Promoting and selling the product: Media companies not only develop and produce
information products, they also sell them.

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN THE

INDIAN MEDIA INDUSTRY

 The Media & Entertainment industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the
county.
 It has various segments like – TV, film, advertising, print and digital. It has witnessed
tremendous growth in the last few years
 The Indian film industry is the largest in the world in terms of number of films produced
per year ( Bollywood – 1602 films in 2012 alone beating the U.S and Chinese.
 Media is a vivid and versatile industry
 Media is broadcasting with the help of TV and radio; entertainment with the use of audio
– visuals – films, videos & games; internet that includes blogs, forums, music, news,
publishing of books, papers, magazines..
 Thus the scope of career in this field is vast and varied.
 Business opportunities in Indian media & entertainment industry are enormous. Most
media organizations in India are in the private sector, while quite a few are owned by the
government.
 Media organizations directly under the control of central government come under the
ministry of Information & broadcasting. The govt. media units are :
 Akashvani (AIR)
 Prasar bharti
 DD
 Press information bureau
 Photo division
 Registrars of newspapers
 Film division
 Central board of film certification
 Directorate of ad & visual publicity
 Song & drama division
 The Indian press is mostly in private hands. News agencies like PTI, UNI, Hindustan
Samachar form the major sources for disseminating information to the public.
 There are also media companies and industrial houses that are launching newspapers and
magazines and TV channels. Example – TIMES GROUP – India times, Filmfare, Planet
M, Times of India; GOENKA- Indian express, Express avenue…
 In the film industry there are positions like Story and script writing, copywriting for ads,
cinematography, photography, Sound mixing and recording, Direction of films.
 Driving growth of this industry: Raised regulations, quality content development,
increased consumer base and good marketing, creative use of technology and work
effectiveness.
 Advertising industry is another major employer for media professionals. Some top ad
companies in India:
 Ogilvy & Mather
 J.Walter Thompson
 Mudra communication
 Ulka advertising
 RK Swamy advertising
 Many media companies in India have grown up speedily and are recruiting newer and
younger talent for increased efficiency and creativity.

GREINER’S DEVELOPMENT MODEL

OF A COMPANY
Larry Greiner assumes that an organization grows and expands throughout the years.
The Greiner growthmodel makes it easier to understand why management styles, organizational
structures, coordination mechanisms work and why they do not work at certain phases in
the development phase of an organization.

(The diagram I drew on the board and this is the same. So you people can draw either this
one or the one I drew. It’s the SAME)

1. Creativity:
When companies form and enter the Creative phase, they are typically driven by the
creative force of the founder and the new products and services that create value for
customers. Innovation is natural and people do whatever is needed to make things work.
the company is young and relatively small. The organization is informal and the
employees are very loyal.
Leadership crisis:
Initially the founder is able to cope with the demands of leadership, but as the company
grows, they are pulled more and more in different directions until they are unable to fulfil
their duties. Coordination and internal control can no longer be carried out by one
person.
2. Direction:
The response to the leadership crisis is to get more professional in management, for
example, by hiring managers who have got more experience and education in the subject.
 Rules ensue and procedures and business are formalized and standardized. The central
coordination remains in the hands of the entrepreneur.
Autonomy crisis:
Because of further growth, the coordination problems may become too big for the
entrepreneur. In addition, middle managers need more autonomy. The question arises of
how to give managers and individuals the freedom to choose and succeed in a way that
also helps the whole company
3. Delegation:
The response to autonomy crisis is to divide and conquer with greater structure and
deeper hierarchy, where individual departments have individual managers and are
delegated greater autonomy. Results are aimed for and the middle managers are
responsible for achieving tactical and operational objectives. A structure is created with
separate product groups and individual managers.
Control crisis:
The more divisional managers, the more difficult it will become for the management
board to coordinate all the divisions that operate independently. There is a risk of a
management crisis. There is a good chance that the divisional managers plot their own
course too much as a consequence of which the company could break up.
4. Coordination:
The response to the loss of control is to put additional effort into reporting and
communicating in all directions. More emphasis is put on the coordination between
various units. Various staff departments take up a strong position from the headquarters
from which the divisional managers are managed. Finance is still managed centrally and
is more refined. Reporting also becomes more sophisticated with increasing demands on
departments for all the information
Red tape crisis:
Increasing reporting and control adds layers of bureaucracy at all levels. Layers in the
company face off against one another and play cat & mouse games. When the staff
departments have too much power and when there is too little scope for the divisional
managers, a red tape crisis arises. The rules have made the company too inflexible and
rigid.
5. Collaboration:
Cooperation between managers and staff departments is aimed at and this creates a break-
up of the hierarchical coordination forms in the organization. Bureaucracy is simplified
and trust is rebuilt with greater focus on common organizational goals. A work structure
or an arrangement will be made in such a way that it connects people.
Growth crisis:
While a collaborative organization is better in many ways, there are now problems in
how to grow further without overloading current systems and processes. There is every
 chance that supervision and control decline sharply. This could mean the end for
organizations, unless they develop through external alliances.
6. Alliances:
In this ‘growth through undertaking phase’ the organization only requires good external
contacts and alliances. These can be found in mergers, alliances and extensive networks.
Mergers and acquisitions are also subject to failure, often because of cultural and
personal differences.
Identity crisis:
Because an organization is more focused on alliances than its own core-business, there is
a good chance that an identity crisis will present itself. The organization is taken over
completely by other businesses and the ‘old’ situation will disappear completely.
NATURE AND STRUCTURE, WORK PROCESS,
RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES OF MANAGEMENT OF
DIFFERENT MEDIA ORGANIZATIONS – PRINT MEDIA &
ELECTRONIC MEDIA – AIR & DD

PRINT MEDIA – STRUCTURE OF NEWSPAPER ORGANIZATION

Publisher: The publisher is responsible for all of the operations of the newspaper, both editorial
and business. The main job of the publisher is to see that the newspaper remains financially
healthy.
Editor: The editor is responsible for all of the editorial content of the newspaper and for the
budgets and money spent by the editorial side of the newspaper. Often on smaller papers, the
publisher and editor is the same person.

Managing editor: The is the person who is in charge of the day-to-day production of the
newspaper.

Editorial page editor: The editorial page editor is responsible for the editorial page and the "op-
ed" page of the newspaper. These pages are where the newspaper's editorials are printed as well
as letters to the editor, columns by syndicated columnists and guest columns by local people.

City editor: The city editor -- sometimes called the metro editor -- is in charge of the news
coverage of the area in which the newspaper is located. That position is one of the most
important on the staff. The city editor usually has the largest staff and assigns most of the local
news reporters.

Reporters: A news reporter rather information about news stories in the local area.
A beat reporter covers the same subject or location all the time; a general assignment reporter
covers any story assigned by the city editor or assistant city editor.

State/regional editor, Business editor, Sports editor, Lifestyle editor: Like the city editor
takes care of city stories, all of these branches take care of their respective beats like state news,
business news, sports news and lifestyle news.

Chief copyeditor: The chief copy editor is in charge of the newspaper's copydesk. The people
on the copydesk read news stories (and sometimes stories from other sections) to make sure they
are written according to the newspaper's standards. The chief copy editor makes final decisions
about the copy and is in charge of the staffing of the desk.

Copyeditor: A copy editor is specially trained to read the stories that other have written and
make sure they conform with the rules of grammar and style. A copy editor also writes headlines
and performs other duties that help produce the newspaper every day.

Photo editor: A photo editor is not a photographer, although it is often the case that the photo
editor is a former photographer. This editor assigns photographers and helps select the photos
that the newspaper prints.

Photographer: A photographer takes pictures of local news events for the newspaper. A
photographer might have a variety of assignments each day. Larger newspapers have a staff of
sports photographers, but on most newspaper, a photographer will be assigned to shoot sports
stories as well as news events.
Graphics editor: The graphics editor is the head of the graphics department, sometimes called
the "art department." This editor is in charge of all of the graphics and illustrations produced for
the newspaper.

Graphics reporter: A graphics reporter researches and designs informational graphics that
support news stories the paper. A graphics reporter is an expert in graphic forms and also must
be able to local information that can be used to build graphics.

http://www.ablongman.com/stovall1e/chap04/newspaperorgchart.html

ELECTRONIC MEDIA

AIR& DD

Prasar Bharti (Broadcasting corporation of India) is the public service broadcaster in the country
with Akashvani (AIR) and DD as its two constituents. It came into existence on 23rd November
1997, with a mandate to organize and conduct public broadcasting services to inform, educate
and entertain the public.

AIR and DD are divided into 4 wings:

 Programme wing
 Engineering wing
 News wing
 Administrative and Finance wing

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF AIR

 AIR comes under the ministry of Information & Broadcasting

 A secretary and 4 joint secretaries who are supposed to do the following jobs, assist the
minister of Information & Broadcasting:
o Policy
o Broadcasting
o Financial advisor
o Film
 In order to help the Joint secretaries in execution of above jobs, there are deputy secretary
and undersecretaries also
 In AIR ‘Director General’ is the HEAD of the organization and it is a sensitive post
requiring:
o Wide cultural background
o Initiative
o Tact
o Administrative abilities
 o Sound judgement of matters and people
o Qualities of leadership
 Occasionally IAS officers are assigned an additional task of ‘Director General’ of AIR
and since independence, there have been 15 IAS officers who have performed this task
 There are additional directors general and deputy directors general who also help the
directors general
 A Director heads the News division
 A Director is assisted by chief news editor, News editor, Joint director etc., Others
employed in the news department of the radio station are the news readers, announcers,
translators etc.,
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF DD

The Director general, DD is responsible for the overall administration of the DD network
consisting of 60 DD kendras/ production centers.

The overall HEAD of all departments – Director General

I.Department of program and administration

II. Department of engineering
Department of program and administration:

 In DD, the Director Generalheads the department of Program and administration. His
main job is to:
o Supervise
o Guide
o Govern
o Control the entire functionary of the department
 He is assisted by:
o Additional director General – Looks after programme policy, planning, PR etc.,
o Deputy Director General (Development) - Looks after the proper and sequence
wise development of the programme
o Deputy Director General (News and current affairs) – Looks after the
administrative part of current news gathering, news selection, news processing,
news evaluation and news presentation.
o Deputy Director General (Communication and film) – monitors the entire
communication process of the organization.
o Deputy Director General (production and transmission) – looks after the entire
activities of production and transmission
o Director (finance and personnel control) – guides, governs and controls the
financial activities and personnel works
Department of engineering:
 This department is headed by Engineer-in-chief who is answerable to the Director
General
 Engineer-in-chief is responsible for the growth and maintenance of all the engineering
and technical activities
 In addition to that there is a large number of staff in DD, directly associated with pre-
production, production and post-production
o Program producer
o Video engineer
o Lighting engineer
o Cameraman
o Studio engineers
o Script designer
o Script writer
ADVERTISING AGENCY

An advertising agency is a service based on advertising business dedicated to creating,

planning, and handling advertising and sometimes other forms of promotion and
marketing in a promotion for its clients. An agency can also handle overall marketing and
branding strategies and sales promotions for its clients.
An advertising agency is a team of experts which services clients who are known as
‘accounts’. The word ‘accounts’ has nothing to do with numbers or accountancy. An
account is simply an advertiser who uses the agency’s services.
The role of the ad agency is to plan, create and execute advertising campaigns for clients.
Eg: Ogilvy & Mather, Ulka advertising, Cheil India etc.
An advertiser is a person or company that advertises a product, service, or event.

STRUCTURE OF AN AD AGENCY:
 Client servicing department/ Account department:
o This department consists of an Account director, Account executive (Senior &
junior) and market research team.
o Here the client servicing director and the executives are the first people to get in
direct contact with clients and get information about their needs and make
necessary plans.
o The client is called an ‘account’.
 o An agency can provide advertising services to more than one brand or company.
Example: If XXX agency provides ad service to ‘Hamam soap’, they can also
provide ad services to ‘Dove’ or ‘Loreal’ or any other company(s)
o The client servicing executives design and decide what to do, on the basis of the
opinions or feedback derived from the consumers by research analysts
o The market research team does a complete market survey on the preferences of
consumers, current market conditions, and consumers’ opinion of the company.
This data is submitted to the executives for analysis.
o The executives, after analyzing, makes plans for advertisement and sends it to the
client servicing head who finalizes it.
o The strategies planned and briefed is called ‘client brief’. This brief is a small
document that contains strategies for promotion, what to do and which media to
use.
o This brief is now passed on to the creative department.
 Creative department:
o Once this department receives the client brief, they pick the strategy from it and
develop it for media consumption.
o The strategy can include print media, radio, TV etc for which the ‘Copy’ is to be
created initially
o The creative executive heads and the juniors sit together, brainstorm and work on
transforming the idea into an advertisement
o The department consists of ‘Copywriters’ and ‘Script writers’.
o In case of print media, the copy or content is created by copywriters
o If TV is the chosen mode for advertising, a story board is created and script is
written and directed by the team
o The text and all the other elements present in the ad is called a ‘copy’
o A creative brief is a document created through initial meetings and discussions
between a client and designer before any work begins. Throughout the project,
the creative brief continues to inform and guide the work.
 o The visualization department takes up the brief and designs a protocol or
miniature design of the advertisement. Once this is approved by the client, it goes
for final work
 Media planning:
o Media planning is done secretly where a type of media is planned for the
advertisement.
o In case of print media – magazines, newspapers, journals; In case of outdoor –
hoardings, Ariel ads (hot air balloon); In case of electronic media – TV or radio
o So according to the nature of the ad, media is planned
o Once it is planned, a pre-test is done to see the kind of response from the
audience. This lets the advertiser and agency know if the ad will be a success,
before releasing it to the whole world.
o A post- test is also done to check how audience has responded to the
advertisement.
o Media planning saves up lot of money, time and efforts of the agency and the
advertiser.
 Administration:
This department takes care of all the miscellaneous activities throughout the production
of the advertisement.

PRODUCTION HOUSE

A production company or a production house provides the physical basis for works in the realms
of performing arts, film, television, radio and video.

The production company maybe directly responsible for fundraising for the production or may
accomplish this through a parent company, partner or private investor.

Producer: The producer will work on the production for the entire process from the initial
concept right through marketing and distribution. He/she develops budget for entire production
including performance fee, publicity, programs, music, costumes, set construction supplies,
fundraising expenses.

It handles the following functions:

 Budgeting
  Scheduling
 Scripting
 Supply with talent and resources
 Organization of staff
 The production itself
 Post-production
 Distribution
 Marketing
Production houses are the power houses in any film industry. It is them who decide whether a
film will be made or not.

Production companies are often either owned or under contract with a media conglomerate or
motion picture company who act as Production Company’s partner/parent company. Example:
EROS international – it is a leading player in the Indian film entertainment industry.

Sometimes actors choose to form a production company to pursue their own artistic goals. For
example: Wunderbar films by Dhanush; Sivaji by superstar.

Production houses examples:

 AVM – movies made - Ayan, Sivaji, Thirupathi, Perazhagan , A Aa E Ee

 Ayngaran international – movies made - Villu, Aegan, Sarvam, Nandhalala, Peranmai,
Kalavadiya pozhudhugal
 Raj kamal films – movies made - Mumbai Express, Virumaandi

MEDIA MANAGEMENT – UNIT 3 & 4

Economics:

It is the science that deals with the production, distribution and consumption of commodities; It
branch of knowledge concerned with the production, consumption and transfer of wealth.

Micro economics: It focusses on issues that affect individuals and companies. This could mean
studying the supply and demand for a specific product, the production that an individual or
business is capable of, or the effects of regulations on a business.

Macroeconomics: It focusses on issues that affect the economy as a whole. Unemployment

rates, the GDP of an economy and the effects of imports and exports.

MEDIA ECONOMICS:
It is defined as a field of study that is concerned with ‘how media operators meet the
informational and entertainment wants and needs of audiences, advertisers and societies with
available resources’.

Media economics involves the application of economic theories, concepts and principles to study
the micro and macroeconomic aspects of mass media companies and industries. Economics is
concerned with WHAT is produced, the TECHONOLOGY and ORGANIZATION of how it’s
produced and for WHOM it is produced.

Example: A firm produces outputs it expects will sell to its target groups (WHAT) and it will
employ the most efficient technology and organization as possible (HOW). The proceeds of
selling the output will be distributed to employees, suppliers and owners and shareholders
(WHOM).

The operations of media firms are undertaken in the context of given market conditions,
technological alternatives, the regulatory and legal environment and their anticipated financial
implications.

COST AND REVENUE FACTORS OF MEDIA

PRINT: NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINES – Terms to learn

Subscription: It is an arrangement to receive something, typically a publication, regularly by

paying advance.

Circulation: It is a count of how many copies of a particular publication are distributed.

Circulation audits are provided by ABC – Audit Bureau of Circulations. Example: Times of
India has circulation of 30,57,678 – 3rd largest Newspaper in India by circulation and largest
selling English language daily in the world, according to ABC.

Top 10 Newspapers in terms of circulation:

1. DainikBhaskar
2. DainikJagran
3. Amar Ujala
4. Times of India
5. Hindustan
6. MalayalaManorama
7. Eenadu
8. Rajasthan Patrika
9. Daily thandhi
10. Mathrubhumi
Readership: It is an estimate of how many readers a publication has. As most publications
have more than one reader, per copy, the NRS readership estimate is very different from the
circulation count. Readership estimate also show the demographic profile of readers and also
what else they read and do.

National readership survey: NRS was established in 1956 and provides the most authoritative
and valued audience research in use for print and digital advertising. The NRS investigates the
readership of over 480 dailies, weeklies, bi-weeklies and monthlies in over 475 towns.

Indian readership survey: IRS collects a comprehensive range of demographic information and
provides extensive coverage of consumer and product categories. It was launched in 1995 with
an objective of setting an industry standard for readership.

THE ECONOMICS OF PRINT MEDIA

COSTS:

The cost of producing a Newspaper or magazine depends on the number of pages, extent of color
used, quality of paper and circulation and degree of competition in the market. It could change
from year to year.

1. Producing/printing cost: It varies with the size of print run in the organization.
2. People cost: It refers to the staff costs. When more brands are launched, competition
increases giving rise to shortage of staff.
3. Marketing cost: Every brand has to create a unique identity for itself in the market. Eg:
‘The Hindu’s LIT FOR LIFE. Several events and concerts can also be sponsored by the
organization.
4. Distribution cost: It refers to trade margins and cost of returns of ‘unsold copies’.
REVENUES:

1. Circulation: It is brought in from the retail price of a magazine or newspaper after

deducting trade margins and unsold copies. The ratio could change depending on
circulation, language, price and frequency.
2. Advertisement: 80% revenue come from advertisements. It varies according to price,
circulation, market and advertisement rates.
3. Subscription: Inspired by publications like Reader’s Digest, India Today, Femina, this
scheme of ‘Subscription’ was launched. Earlier this was a major revenue stream. This
scheme is more of ‘buying circulation numbers’.
4. Internet/ mobile apps: Most newspaper are ramping up their internet and mobile presence
to generate revenues using their original content.
Print Industry 2005 2006 2007 2008
(INR Billion)
Newspapers 108.0 128.3 148.3 158.7
Magazines 9.1 10.3 12.1 13.9

Total industry 117.1 138.6 160.4 172.6

size
Print industry revenue from 2005-2008

The sector is projected to grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate – CAGR at 9% to touch
INR 373 Billion by 2018. The opportunity may lie in capitalizing on expansion opportunity and
tapping the growth potential in regional markets.

The following can pave way for growth in the next year:

 Innovation on product content and distribution

 Increasing demand for region specific content
 Expansion by large players into new geographic locations and languages leading to
penetration of regional print media
 Appropriate use of social media
Decline of print and growth of Online in the US and other parts of Europe is completely different
from emerging countries like Brazil and India. Social media, phone, tablet penetration is high!
Print media in India, China, Japan, Brazil is growing along with the growth of Online media.

110 million copies are sold daily in India and it’s the second largest market in the world.

Western newspapers are facing threat as people are moving online BUT the scenario is NOT
THE SAME in India for TWO REASONS:

 Internet penetration is low

 Newspapers are delivered at our DOORSTEP. The US and other countries there are only
newsstands.
THE ECONOMICS OF RADIO STATION

Radio started off with telegraphy and later to radio broadcasting. The earliest radio transmissions
in 1915 were by Universities to disseminate news. The first radio stations were set up in
Pittsburg, New York and Chicago in 1920s to broadcast election news , sporting events and
opera performances.

By middle of 1923, as many as 450 stations mushroomed across the U.S – All run by pool of
amateurs. The following year a number of independent stations clubbed together to form a 2nd
national network, the Columbia Broadcasting System. BBC from Britain came in later – set up in
1920.

Broadcasting was introduced in India by amateur radio clubs in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and
Lahore. The Times of India records that a broadcast was transmitted from the roof of its building
on August 20, 1921. However, the first license granted for transmitting a broadcast was given
only on Feb 23,1922.

The Radio club of Calcutta – First amateur radio club

The Madras Presidency Club- 1924.

Financial difficulties forced the clubs to come together in 1927 to form the Indian Broadcasting
Company Limited, a private company. In 1930, the company (IBC) went into liquidation. The
government took over the broadcasting facilities, beginning ISBS – Indian state broadcasting
service.

ISBS was turned into AIR in June 1936. It was under the ministry of department and labor. After
World War II, services were de-linked and AIR was transferred to the Department of
Information and Broadcasting in 1946 and it REMAINED with this department until September
1997, PRASAR BHARTI, an autonomous body was constituted, under the Prasar Bharti act.

COST FACTORS OF RADIO INDUSTRY:

1. License fee: A one-time entry or license fee for 10 years is being paid by private FM
stations collectively. License forms 5-8% of the total costs of a radio station.
2. Set-up costs: Average investment to set up a radio station is Rs. 15 to 25 million for
smaller station and 40-50 million for a metro or big city station. These costs include
transmission, studio and office equipment, premises and networking infrastructure.
3. Operating cost: Key elements of Operating cost are Payroll(40%),marketing (10-20%),
music royalty (2-3%) and overheads and utilities (20% of costs)
REVENUE FACTORS:

1. Advertisement and sponsorships: This is the main revenue stream for radio companies as
well.
2. Subscription: Satellite radios depend on this as a main source of revenue. Radio in India
is far from reaching there.
AIR began selling time, through sponsorship and spots, when it was set up as a private company
in 1927. The government disallowed advertising in 1934, only to be re-introduced in 1967.

This saw an acceptance of commercials on Vividh Bharti which made Rs.1.9 million that year
from advertisement revenues and the amount kept rising.

SELLING SPACE AND TIME

NEWSPAPER – Space:

Space is the term used for placing advertisements in Newspaper. Newspaper advertising have the
largest spend share among total marketing budget. The popular formats to advertise in
Newspapers are Display ads and classifieds. Ad rates for newspaper ads depends in readership
and page number. Front page ads attract premium over regular newspaper advertising card rate.
Newspaper advertising is quoted in terms of per.square.cm.
Newspaper advertising is the most popular advertising format among all available media
categories. It provides one of the lowest cost per reach among all advertising options. Another
significant advantage of Newspaper advertising is the localization.

Card rate of newspaper advertising and discounted cost depends on the following parameters:

 Number of readers of the newspapers. More the readers higher the cost
 Page position: front and initial pages of Newspapers have higher advertising rate than
inside pages.
 Volume: How big the ad is. Larger sizes attract better discounted rate.
The cost of advertising on newspaper would depend on the newspaper edition that has been
selected and the ad size. IRS data can be made use of to learn the number of readers for that
particular newspaper.

How are ads priced?

The classified text ads are charged on the basis of the number of lines/characters/words used in
the content. Display ads are calculated according to the amount of space taken up by the
advertisement in per sq cm.

SELLING TIME:

The term used for advertising in radio or TV is known as ‘time’. The key term here is PRIME
TIME.

Prime time refers to a part of daily broadcast time during which the number of listeners or
viewers in the highest. In radio broadcasting, there are commonly 2 Prime times:

 Morning drive – 6am to 10am

 Afternoon or Evening drive – 3pm to 8pm ( Monday to Friday)
Time slot Known as Desirability level Explanation

6am to 10am Morning drive HIGH One of the 2 most

desirable slots for
radio advertisers
because of high
engagement of
listeners
10am to 3pm MIDDAY MEDIUM Many stations tend to
lose audience during
this period. Some
music stations gain
audience as listeners
use radio for
background noise
 during work
3pm to 8pm Afternoon drive HIGH A coveted time for
advertising. Food and
entertainment
advertisers tend to
seek this time out for
advertising
8pm to 12am Evening LOW Listeners – less
responsive
12am to 6am Overnight VERY LOW Worst time to
advertise. Unless you
are running a 24 hour
diner or some other
business that cater to
people that work at
night, this period
should be avoided.

MEDIA PLANNING

In a world of brimming media choices – including TV, Radio, Newspaper, Magazine, billboards
and many others – you need a systematic method of determining which media to use, how to use
them, when to use them and where to use them effectively and efficiently to deliver your ad
messages.

It is the analytical framework used to consider these decisions and the process of directing the
advertising message to the target audience at the appropriate time and place using appropriate
channel.

Media planning helps answer questions like:

 What audience do we want to reach

 When and where do we want to reach them
 How many people should we reach
 How often do we need to reach them
 What will it cost to reach them
Since the cost of advertising is so high, it is considered extremely important to plan the ad of a
product or service. Careful planning at every stage of the process is essential if the ad budget is
to be spent purposefully.

It also involves pre-testing to find out how a sample of the target audience read the ad.
Sometimes ads can turn off people by certain negative images or illustrations or language. Eg:
Images that attack women.
Media planning is the selection of appropriate media for PLACEMENT OF ADS. Eg: Women
targeted ads – women magazines.

Planning Newspaper advertising:

Important elements to consider when planning and purchasing newspaper ad include:

a) How circulation and readership are measured

b) How Newspaper ad rates work
Every newspaper has rate card, a printed schedule of its ad rates, production specifications, ad
deadlines and other details. When you are considering more Newspapers, you can use rate cards
to compare ad rates.

When a newspaper offers no discount for buying one or more ads, it’s charging a FLAT RATE.
Many newspapers offer a VOLUME DISCOUNT by charging less per ad when advertisers buy
space repeatedly.

Advertisers often have the opportunity to buy space in more than one newspaper at a
combination rate, which is lower than the charge for buying space in each individual newspaper.
Combination rates can be offered by a publisher that owns 2 newspapers in the same city.

when you PLACE a newspaper ad, you fill an insertion order, a form that specifies the date(s)
you want the ad to run, the size of the ad, any preferred position you require, the rate you’ll be
charged.

Most national advertisers provide newspaper with ad materials, in finished form, but local
advertisers may ask newspapers to create their ads from information they supply. Then a copy is
sent for proff reading.

TV AD BUYING:

 You have to select which time of day your commercial should air. If you choose run of
station, the station can run your commercial at any time during the day. If you specify a
particular time, you’ll pay more.
 The size of the TV audience change during various times of the day which affects the
cost of commercial time. You tend to pay more during PRIME TIME.
 TV stations issue rate cards. However it is negotiated rather than fixed rate cards.
 To buy commercial time, you first check with networks stations for a list of avails, time
slots that are available to be purchased plus their prices and rating. Then you start
negotiating for price and schedule.
 Once you’ve selected the program and prices, you submit an insertion order that gives
details on when and where to run your ad.
 After the commercial is run, the station will provide an affidavit of performance, a sworn
statement confirming that the ad ran as scheduled.
PLANNING RADIO ADVERTISING:

According to information provided in the survey results like ILT survey and RAM, you plan the
time. Radio audience swell and shrink throughout the day. So you plan accordingly.

The 4 Phases of the Project Management Life Cycle

1. Initiation

2. Planning

3. Execution

4. Closure

Whether you’re working on a small project with modest business goals

or a large, multi-departmental initiative with sweeping corporate
implications, understanding the project management life cycle is
essential. Every project has essential milestones at the beginning, in
the middle, and at the end, following a path from initiation to
completion to evaluation.

Working with an understanding of the project management cycle

helps you keep your project organized and on track from ideation to
completion.

Project management life cycle overview

The project management life cycle describes high-level processes for
delivering a successful project. For every $1 billion invested in projects
by companies in the United States, $122 million was wasted due to
lacking project performance, according to Project Management
Institute Research. Wasted money and resources can be prevented
with effective project management, as 57% of unsuccessful projects
fail due to communication breakdown. In the phases of the project
management life cycle, you come up with the idea for a project, define
its goals, plan for its execution, and guide it to completion.

4 phases of the project management life cycle

The project management life cycle is usually broken down into four
phases: initiation, planning, execution, and closure—these make up
the path that takes your project from the beginning to the end. Some
methodologies also include a fifth phase, controlling or monitoring.
For our purposes, this phase is covered under the execution and
closure phases.

To help you visualize the project management lifecycle, use this free
customizable template. It’s easy to edit and share with your team.

Project
Management Life Cycle (Click on image to modify this template)

1. Initiation

In the initiation phase of the project, you identify a business need,

problem, or opportunity and brainstorm ways that your team can
meet this need, solve this problem, or seize this opportunity. During
this step, you figure out an objective for your project, determine
whether the project is feasible, and identify the major deliverables for
the project.

Instead of waiting to have the project strategy decided for you, Moira
Alexander advocates for a mental switch from being a project
"manager" to becoming a project "leader":

"Project managers must be able to sell business leaders on the

intrinsic value they offer to the business at a strategic level when they
are at the table from the start of strategic planning instead of after the
fact decision-making. Project managers effectiveness is drastically
muted when offering a "fix-it" or "workaround" once high-level
directional business decisions are made without their expertise."

Clearly, it's worth it to do what it takes to make your voice heard

early—before the strategy is set in stone.

Project management steps for the initiation phase

Steps for the project initiation phase may include the following:

 Undertaking a feasibility study: Identifying the primary problem

your project will solve and whether your project will deliver a
solution to that problem
 Identifying scope: Defining the depth and breadth of the project
 Identifying deliverables: Defining the product or service to
provide
 Identifying project stakeholders: Figuring out whom the project
affects and what their needs may be
 Developing a business case: Using the above criteria to compare
the potential costs and benefits for the project to determine if it
moves forward
You’ll also develop a statement of work or project initiation document,
which may include basic project life cycle flowcharts.

2. Planning

Once the project is approved to move forward based on your business

case, statement of work, or project initiation document, you move into
the planning phase. In this phase, you break down the larger project
into smaller tasks, build your team, and prepare a schedule for the
completion of assignments. During this phase, you create smaller
goals within the larger project, making sure each is achievable within
the time frame. Smaller goals should have a high potential for success.

Take a look at this example workflow diagram that you can use as a
template to plan your projects.

Project management steps for the planning phase

Steps for the project planning phase may include the following:

 Creating a project plan: Identifying the project timeline, including

the phases of the project, the tasks to be performed, and
possible constraints
 Creating workflow documents or process maps: Visualizing the
project timeline by diagramming key milestones using our Gantt
chart maker
 Estimating budget and creating a financial plan: Using cost
estimates to determine how much to spend on the project to get
the maximum return on investment
 Gathering resources: Building your functional team from internal
and external talent pools while making sure everyone has the
necessary tools (software, hardware, etc.) to complete their tasks
 Anticipating risks and potential quality roadblocks: Identifying
issues that may cause your project to stall while planning to
mitigate those risks and maintain the project’s quality and
timeline

The planning phase is also where you bring your team on board,
usually with a project kickoff meeting. It is important to have
everything outlined and explained so that team members can quickly
get to work in the next phase.

3. Execution

You’ve received business approval, developed a plan, and built your

team. Now it’s time to get to work. The execution phase turns your
plan into action. The project manager’s job in this phase of the project
management life cycle is to keep work on track, organize team
members, manage timelines, and make sure the work is done
according to the original plan.

Project management steps for the execution phase

Steps for the project execution phase may include the following:

 Creating tasks and organizing workflows: Assigning granular

aspects of the projects to the appropriate team members,
making sure team members are not overworked
 Briefing team members on tasks: Explaining tasks to team
members, providing necessary guidance on how they should be
completed, and organizing process-related training if necessary
 Communicating with team members, clients, and upper
management: Providing updates to project stakeholders at all
levels
 Monitoring quality of work: Ensuring that team members are
meeting their time and quality goals for tasks
 Managing budget: Monitoring spending and keeping the project
on track in terms of assets and resources

If you have a properly documented process already in place, executing

the project will be much easier.
 You can use swimlane
diagrams to make sure team members clearly understand their role in a project. (Click on image
to modify online)
4. Closure

Once your team has completed work on a project, you enter the
closure phase. In the closure phase, you provide final deliverables,
release project resources, and determine the success of the project.
Just because the major project work is over, that doesn’t mean the
project manager’s job is done—there are still important things to do,
including evaluating what did and did not work with the project.

Project management steps for the closure phase

Steps for the project closure phase may include the following:

 Analyzing project performance: Determining whether the

project's goals were met (tasks completed, on time and on
budget) and the initial problem solved using a prepared
checklist.
  Analyzing team performance: Evaluating how team members
performed, including whether they met their goals along with
timeliness and quality of work
 Documenting project closure: Making sure that all aspects of the
project are completed with no loose ends remaining and
providing reports to key stakeholders
 Conducting post-implementation reviews: Conducting a final
analysis of the project, taking into account lessons learned for
similar projects in the future
 Accounting for used and unused budget: Allocating remaining
resources for future projects
 By remaining on task even though the project’s work is
completed, you will be prepared to take everything you’ve
learned and implement it for your next project.

----------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT 5 - MM

Broadcast programming:

Broadcast programming is the practice of organizing and or ordering of broadcast media

programs (Internet, television, radio, etc. ) in a daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or season-long
schedule.
Television scheduling strategies are employed to give programs the best possible chance of
attracting and retaining an audience. They are used to deliver programs to audiences when they
are most likely to want to watch them and deliver audiences to advertisers in the composition
that makes their advertising most likely to be effective
At a micro level, scheduling is the minute planning of the transmission; what to broadcast and
when, ensuring an adequate or maximum utilization of airtime.
Programming History
With the beginning of scheduled television in 1936, television programming was initially only
concerned with filling a few hours each evening – the hours now known as prime time. Over
time, though, television began to be seen during the day time and late at night, as well on the
weekends. As air time increased so did the demand for new material. With the exception
of sports television, variety programs became much more important in prime time.
Also important is to know the strategy of broadcasting in creating the greatest program appeal
possible, to attract a wide range of audience. These audiences can have a variety of broadcast
program formats to choose from.
Programming Strategies
As you get ready to map out the program schedule for your station, strategy is one of the first
things you will want to consider. Basically, it is the planning and direction of your programming
schedule; the overall picture. At this point, you consider all of the variablesinvolved including
such things as the audience survey, selection of programming materials, putting the
programs in an appropriate time slot for a particular target audience, and so on. Two of the most
important strategies in programming are compatibility and audience flow.
Strategies employed in broadcast media:
1. Compatibility
One of your goals in programming is to scheduleyour material to coincide with what
people dothroughout their day. Your schedule should becompatible with the cyclic
nature of people’s dailyactivities. At the beginning of the day, most workingpeople do not
have time for entertainment programs but are interested in what happened overnight in
the news.An example of how the networks meet this need are themorning programs like
Today and Good MorningAmerica. Throughout the day, as people’s activitieschange,
so should your programming.
An example of this is the early afternoon lull whenshows with adult female appeal, such as
soap operas, arepopular.
Later in the afternoon, when children are out ofschool, programs with youth appeal, like
cartoons, arepopular. Another consideration for you to keep in mindis that television is a
leisure time activity and yourprogram schedule should reflect this fact. It would notbe good
programming for you to schedule your mostpopular programs when everyone is at work or
asleep.Air the shows people want to see at times when they cansee them.
Programming your schedule to be compatible with this cycle is known as dayparting. We
willexamine dayparting later in this section.
To make the compatibility principle work, you haveto consider who the available
audience is and what theyare doing. You have to study how the audience lives todetermine
not only scheduling, but also what type ofprogram to use, thereby creating a flow to
yourprogramming that meets the needs of the variousaudience types throughout the
day. An audiencesurvey is the best way for you to accomplish this.
 2. Audience flow
In commercial broadcasting, the programmer triesto keep the audience flowing from one
program to the next. His job is to maximize the number that flows from one program to the
next and the number that flows in from other stations while minimizing the number that
flows out.
As your audience changes throughout the day, your programming should coherently
flow with that change. Again we will use the afternoon hours as an example. You have
programmed soap operas in the early afternoon for a predominantly adult female
audience. Your decision to do that is based on survey information providing program
preferences for adult women. Later, as children come home from school, activity around the
house begins to increase and the adult female audience significantly declines. School-aged
children increase their viewing during these hours and your programming should reflect this
with children’s programming. Later after dinner, family viewing rises and programming is
adjusted accordingly.
With this amount of popular programming, the development of a flow to your schedule
becomes a lot easier. The important thing for you to remember is that your programming
should be scheduled to flow with target audience availability. It does not do any good for you
to schedule prime time shows at a time when most people are not able to watch Proramming
your station with audience flow in mind ensures that your schedule has structure and is not
just a haphazard mix.

Scheduling strategies:
Block programming occurs when the television network schedules similar programs back-to-
back. The concept is to provide similar programming to retain viewership.
Bridging is being used when a station tries to prevent the audience from changing channels
during a junction point - the main evening breaks where all channels stop programs and shift
gear.[2] This is achieved in a number of ways including: having a program already underway and
something compelling happening at a junction point, running a program late so that people ‘hang
around’ and miss the start of other programs, or using a television advertisement of the next
program during the credits of the previous.
Dayparting is the practice of dividing the day into several parts, during each of which a different
type of radio programming or television programming appropriate for that time is aired. Daytime
television programs are most often geared toward a particular demographic, and what the target
audience typically engages in at that time.

 Sign-on
 Early morning news
 Early morning
 Late morning
 Daytime television
 Early fringe
 Lunchtime news
 Early afternoon
 Late afternoon
 Early evening
 Evening news
 Prime time
 Late-night news
 Late night television
 Graveyard slot
 Sign-off (closedown)
 Late fringe
 Post late-fringe

Hammocking is a technique used by broadcasters whereby an unpopular program is scheduled

between two popular programs in the hope that viewers will watch it. Public television use this
as a way of promoting serious but valuable content.
In hotswitching, the programmers eliminate any sort of commercial break when one program
ends and another begins; this immediately hooks the audience into watching the next program
without a chance to change the television channel between programs.
Spoiling tactics are used to grab audience share, when broadcasters have similar products going
head to head. In such cases broadcasters may jostle in getting a slightly earlier airing date or
time, in the hope that once viewers have become committed to a program they will not switch
channels.[4] [5]
Stacking is a technique used to develop audience flow by grouping together programs with
similar appeals to "Sweep" the viewer along from one program to the next.[6]
Theming
Another strategem is having special theme days, such as for a holiday, or theme weeks such
as Discovery Channel's Shark Week.

Bibliography:
https://www.slideshare.net/alfielyn/planning-for-broadcast
https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Broadcast%20programming&item_type=topic
 http://photographytraining.tpub.com/14129/css/Programming-Development-227.htm

What is audience analysis?

It is a description of the audience size. It is a figure based on statistical sampling indicating
what proportion of the total audience tune in to a specific program or network.
Audience measurement bodies

TAM – television audience measurement:

Television, in nearly every country around the world, has become the dominant medium for
information, commercial communication and entertainment. This has led to the ever-increasing
desire by broadcasters, advertisers and advertising agencies to have accurate, consistent and
detailed information about TV audiences.

TAM (Television Audience Measurement) is the specialised branch of media research, dedicated
to quantifying (size) and qualifying (characteristics) this detailed television audience
information.

TAM Media Research is a joint venture company between AC Nielsen and Kantar Media
Research/IMRB. It is one of the two television Audience measurement analysis firms of India

Besides measuring television viewership, TAM also monitors advertising expenditure through
its division AdEx India. he viewership cell runs what is one of the largest Peoplemeter TV
Panels in the World with approximately 30,000 sample individuals representing all the Class-I
towns (towns with population more than 100,000) polled every week for their Viewership habits.
This division measures television Viewership of audiences for the 300-plus TV stations
operating in India.

Audience Measurement & Analytics Limited (aMap) is an overnight TV audience

measurement system that provides data on television in India such as demographics, ownership,
and viewership; it is based in Ahmedabad. (early 2007) It also runs the AmapDigital, an
overnight DTH (Direct-to-home) TV audience measurement panel ; aMap began in 2004 on the
basis of its research in India.

aMap provides data on television ratings, gross rating points (GRP), reach, time spent, market
share, target groups, connectivity of channels, content analysis and more.

aMap has an overnight panel encompassing 6,000 metered homes.

aMAP currently developed a software called ‘Dashboard’ to enable broadcasters, advertisers,

corporate and ad agencies to track second by second viewers’ response to programmes and ads.
BARC – Broadcast audience research council:

BARC (Broadcast Audience Research Council) India is an industry body set up to design,
commission, supervise and own an accurate, reliable and timely television audience
measurement system for India.

Guided by the recommendations of the TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) and MIB
(Ministry of Information and Broadcasting) notifications of January 2014, BARC India brings
together the three key stakeholders in television audience measurement - broadcasters,
advertisers, and advertising and media agencies, via their apex bodies.

BARC India is committed towards establishing a robust, transparent and accountable governance
framework for providing data points that are required to plan media spends more effectively.

RAM – Radio audience measurement:

Two agencies that conduct listenership surveys regularly are: Media research Users’ council
(MRUC) and RAM. The MRUC conducts Indian listenership survey (ILT). The ILT survey uses
the day after recall DAR method. It is conducted in Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata. In this method,
a several hundred listeners are interviewed by phone to determine if they can recall the message.
Based on their answers, a recall score is derived.

RAM ratings are available on a weekly basis.

AIR has an in-house audience research unit that conducts research on listening habits using
interviews panel studies and other tools to determine numbers on listenership and patterns.

Doordarshan audience research TV –DART – used the consumer panel method. A panel of 4700
respondents in 33 cities are requested to keep a diary of their viewing over a certain period.

DART ratings are primarily for DD’s national, regional and metro channels.

Audience measurement techniques:

1. People meter : A people meter is an audience measurement tool used to measure the
viewing habits of TV and cable audiences. The People Meter is a 'box', about the size of a
paperback book. The box is hooked up to each television set and is accompanied by a
remote control unit. Each family member in a sample household is assigned a personal
'viewing button'. The meters are not cameras; they do not make a video recording of what
is going on in front of the screen or whether the person who pressed his assigned button
on the remote control is physically present in the room where set is on.
 The meters can be connected directly to telephone lines and these in turn to central
computer data storage units. Laptop computers can also could be used by the rating
agencies to download the record from the meters.
Generally this mechanical recording is combined with panel surveys and interviews to
obtain a clearer picture of audience response.

2. The diary method: The diary system operates very simply: household panels are
selected to represent the general population. Each member of the household, 2 years or
older, is sent a diary. The participants manually enter information about themselves and
what shows they watch at what times for a one-week period. The audience data received
over several weeks is compiled and released twice a year (Fall and Spring).

There are several inherent flaws in BBM diaries. You are relying on people being honest
about their TV viewership. Then there is the issue of forgetfulness: a participant may
simply forget to write down what they watched. Diaries for younger viewers are filled out
by the main household contact or another adult member of the household which can add
to inaccuracies.
Diaries may be sent to the respondent by post or delivered personally by an interviewer.
At the end of the designated period, they can, again, be collected personally or sent back
to the organizers of the research by post. As already mentioned, diaries are usually
completed by individuals who record their own behavior. However, it is also possible that
a particular person (e.g. the housewife) is made responsible for recording the behaviour
of the members of a household as a whole. That is particularly the case when researchers
are interested in the media behavior of young children that are not able to complete a
diary by themselves.
Diaries can differ to the extent to which they are fully structured or pre-coded, semi-
structured or unstructured. Structured diaries usually include lists of all the channels,
stations and/or even programmes that can be received within a particular area.
In the case of unstructured diaries, respondents have to write in the names of channels,
stations and/or programmes. In such a case one version of a diary can be used for the
whole country, but more effort is required from the respondent in completing the diary. It
furthermore implies the post-coding of diary entries that could add considerably to the
time and effort of researchers.
3. Day after recall method:
In this method, a several hundred listeners are interviewed by phone to determine if they
can recall the message. Based on their answers, a recall score is derived.

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