Experiment — 1 Aim = To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current Apparatus :- A resistance wire of a battery or eliminator, voltmeter, ammeter, a rheostat, one plug key, connecting wires ete. Theory According to ohm's law Let's '!' be the current flowing through a conductor and 'v' be the potential drop across its ends. Then Val Observations:- (1) Least Counts of Voltmeter = Rebeca = (2) Least Counts of ammeter = maa A (3) Length of wire em Observations table :- 'S.N_] Voltmeter reading V (Volt) Ammeter reading | (Amp) No. of Div. Divi XLC[ No. of Di Divi. XLC. _ i 2 a a 5. 6 i | a 3 | 70 | Pe. No. 3eerste “YW Calculation :-(i) R, of (Re .. ohm (ii) Ry ohm (vy Re ohm (Rs -. ohm Mean value of resistance Re R1+R2+R3+R4+RS= ohm RI+R2+R3+R44RS = 5 Result :. 1. The resistance of the given wire is R =... ohm 2. Graph between Potential drop V and the current through the conductor | is straight line. 3. RIL=........ Qlem First of all, Circuit should be drawn and got checked, The connecting wires used should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends Should be removed by rubbing them with sand paper 3. Connections should be tight. 4. Before plugging in key, ensure that circuit and connections are right. 5. The plug should be inserted only while taking observations, unnecessary heating in this circuit (Write any two) otherwise current would cause Pg. No.4Experiment — 2 Aim:- To fing resistance of a given wire using a meter bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of the material of the wire. Apparatus :- A meter bridge, a unknown resistance wire, a resistance box, a jockey, one wey key, a galvanometer, a Leclanche cell, thick connecting wire, screw gauge ete. Theory :- tis simple apparatus based on the principle of Wheat Stone's bridge, when the bridge balanced PlR Qs If three resistance P.Q and R are known the value of the fourth resistance S can be calculated Where- ue ce Snr? The value of specific resistance p= —— where P= I (Resistance of length A to B) cm Q= 100 - | ( Resistance of length B to c) cm R=R (Resistance in R.B.) S = S ( Resistance of unknown resistance wire) P= Specific of Resistance = Radius of unknown resistance s = Resistance of unknown resistance Length of unknown resistance Circuit diagram :- Pg. No.5Observation : fesistance in | Balancing length S._ Resistance Box R (ohm) ‘AB= I (cm) Unknown Resistance | 100-1 xR(ohm) "| al a 100-1 Calculation :-()) Sy qi) (w) Mean value of resistance 5 Observations for specific Resistance ~- (@ Length of wire (L) om. (ii)__No. of divisions on the circular scale = 100 om. Observations table for diameter of wi tSASatSe4Ss _ .. ohm: ohm se ORM, ohm .. ohm ‘ohm (il) Pitch of the screw gauge (P) =... (iv) Least count of screw gauge (a) = P/100... [sn Main scale reading Stem) [CSR ] Diameter y= Stnxa = (dy#d,y2 em Mean diameter eel 2 {3 Mean radius (7) = d/2 = eM, Calculation :- SF oecescnene OHM, . ohm-m, Pg. No. 6Results :- w (i) Precautions : 0) (ii) (iii) 0) Resistance of unknown resistance wire as determined by using a meter bridge is found tobe S =o. Ohm, ‘The value of specific resistance of the material of the wire is p= ohm-rn Plugs in the resistance box should be pressed and made tight by screwing them a little in the clockwise direction. ‘While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the balance point, the jockey should be lifted again and again should not be pressed and slided to touch the wire throughout ‘As and when a sensitive galvanometer is used for detection of balance point it may get damaged due to sudden high current in the circuit. To avoid any error due to non- uniformity of bridge wire, the balance point should always be obtained near the mid-point of the wire. Pg. No.7Experiment -3 sistances in series and parallel using 1e way Key, meter bridge Aim : To verify the law of combination of re p Apparatus :- A meter bridge, unknown resistance wires, a resistance box, @ jockey, on galvanometer, a Leclanche cell, tick connecting wires, screw gauge etc ; : idge is Theory: tis a simple apparatus based on the principle of Wheatstone's bridge, when the bridg PP Pl balanced Pak Qs If three resistances P.Q and R are known the value of the fourth resistance S$ can be calculated, 100-1 7% Where P = (Resistance of length A to B) cm. Q = 100- / (Resistance of length B to C) cm. R = (Resistance in resistance box) $= S ( Resistance of unknown resistance wire) (i) series Combination of resistance :- (ii) Parallel combination of resistance ~ R,=R;+Ry 8 a R s y L. oa F k Circuit Diagram :- a} x St —] CF 1 c “ > | a I ta ee te fe St ] [ ? _] : - to) : || ——_______{¢)}&___«—_________ te Pg. No.8Observation table: _ restoncen | patina | Lona | een | | Uninown | sn. | eter" | tong | cetoo- | 100-1 | Meas] R 100"! R| j Resistance onm AB=L(cm)| (em) 1 (ohm) | a Mean 8, =| sf - = (oni) | —~Tihean S; =) S ~ | fon | | and Rein Mean Rs = series . (orm | Ry and Rein Mean Rp = parallel (ohm) Calculation:- Mean S; = Mean S2= Mean Rs = Mean Rp = Results:- (i) The value of the individual resistance by meter bridge re :- S ohm and S2= —— ohm (i) The equivalent resistance of series combination of S; and Sz is R; ohm (ii) The equivalent resistance of parallel combination of S; and Sz is Ry = ohm. (iv) The value of series combination of S; and Sz, S; + S2=... Ry ‘ohm, Since R, is nearly equal S; + S2 the law of series combination of resistance stands verified. (v) The sum of reciprocals of S; and Sz, ohm where as tea 1 Te Ete .. (ohm) whereas ;- (ohm)? Ry = ‘ohm Since the value of reciprocal of (2 + 2), R’p is nearly equal to Rp. Their difference R—-Rp (ohm) being negligibly small. The law of combination of resistances in parallel stands verified Pg. No.9Precautions:- “@ aii) (iy (iv) Plugs in the resistance box should be pressed and made tight by screwing them a little in the clockwise direction. While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the balance point, the jockey should be lifted again and again and should not be pressed and slided to touch the wire throughout. ‘As and when a sensitive galvanometer is used for direction of balance point it may get damaged due to sudden high current in the circuit. To avoid any error due to non- uniformity of bridge wire, the balance point should always be obtained near the mid-point of the wire. on No 10,Exporimont ~ 4 ‘Aim To compare the @.m.f, of two primary cell (Lechlanche and Daniell cell) using a potentiometer jockey, two primary cell (lechlanche and Daniell cells). two way key Apparatus :- A potentiometer, one way key, a galvanometer, a battery eliminator, a rheostat, connecting wire and sand paper. Theory :- Let the two primary cells whose e.m.f. are to e compared using the potentiometer E, = E.mf. of Lechlanche cell 1, = Balancing lengths for E; E,.E.m{. of daniell cell 1, = Balancing lengths for E, Diagram:- i: |»: t vi - ©z Observation table- E; = Volt, Ez =o... Volt ‘SIN. | Balance length for lechianche ceil] Balance length for Daniel cell 4 when E; inthe circuit Uy when E, in the circuit > t {em.) {om.) 7 2 3 a 5 Calcultion :- 0 : @ () BS errnrn 0) Mean value of 1 = . Result :- The ratio of E.m.f. of for Lechlanche cell to daniell cell = sesso and mean : both ratios are equal. : Precaution :- (i) Ensure that e.m4. of battery should be higher than E, and E; of the cells. (i) Allthe positive terminals should be connected t one point. (ii) Jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire. (jv) The wire of the potentiometer should be thoroughly cleaned Pg. No. 11Alms Apparatus Thoory = internal uh R = Resistance in resistance box Circuit diagram :- Resistance offered by electrolyte of a cell to th Experlmont ~ 5 II by using @ potentiorn a given primary c# : tance bor, hho cell, two one way keys, 2 resist fat, connecting wire and sand paper. call is its To determine the internal resistance a jockey, a Lechlancl A potentiomet battery eliminator, a rheost galvanometer, F 1e flow of ions inside the electric resistance which re teeR 1, = Balancing length in closed circuit Jalancing length in open circuit Internal resistance of cell Rh Ky i o- } a B t _Observation: a oe SN. | Rosistanco w Tenaih for Lechianche cot Tnjernal resistance Rosistanee Boxe | “Balance Length in open | Balance Length in closed rettiyR 2 | Ohm, circuit, (cm.) circuit 12 (em.) tn | = | . ohm ohm ohm ohm ohm Result :- The internal resistance of the given Lechlanche cell ies between ....... and Precautions :- ) (i) iv) Potentiometer wire and resistance are not take into account. All the positive terminals should be connected at one point. Jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire. ‘The wire of the potentiometer should be thoroughly cleaned.Experiment - 6 AIM :- To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit. Apparatus :- A galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, two resistance boxes, (5000 & 500 2 ) two one way keys and connecting wires. Theory :- (i) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflaction method :- = @ When R>> S then R-S~ R and from equation (i) we get =S di) ‘The figure of merit K is Define as the current required to produced one division in the galvanometer :- (il) Where R = Resistance of H.R.B. ‘S= Resistance of L.R.B E=E.mf. of battery 4 = Galvanometer Deflection K = Figure of merit Circuit diagram a “i++ H alr I RR T B. 8. 6 s s LR.B. 6) Observation Table :- E Volt SN] Resistance in | Dellectionin | Halfdefiecion | Resistance in | Galvanometer Figure in HRB. — | galvanometer in LRB. resistance merit R) (0) galvanometer (s) _RS (ohm (012) ohm Rs Amp.Di ton mp /Divi [op x] | Pg. No. 13,Result ohm, ()__ Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G = ... Amp./Divi (i) Figure of merit, K = PRECAUTIONS :- ()__Allthe connection should be neat, clean and tight (i) Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight. box should be introduced or else a small (ii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance resistance can damage the galvanometer. POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS :~ () The screw of the instruments may be loose. (ji) The plugs of galvanometer may not be tight. (ji) ‘The galvanometer divisions may not be of same size.Experiment -7 Aim: To find the focal length of a concave mirror by u-v method. Apparatus :- An optical bench, one mirror holder, two needles, concave mirror, ete Theory: The relation between the object distance u, the image distance v and the focal length f of a concave mirror is given as ~ ape wee = = focal length u= Object Distance v- Image distance Ray Diagram :- Observation tabl SN] Postion ofthe Object | mage T T ean Miror | Object] Image | Distance) Distance (v)) ’ = Fochal om ai a o (em) femy ] omy as length £ (om) 1 (om) es fem) | (em) | (em) 7 z 3 7 5 3 7 3 3 70 Mean value of focal length (f) = cm. Pg. No. 15Calculation :. (i) = =. . (ii) = em (iii) om (iv) fs= = =. (fe cnn cm (0) f= Ee nnennnnnees OM (vil) fete. cm, (viii) (x) f= (0) fro = EE errs | cm Mean focal longth f= MBtatnenthene ities Result:- (1) Mean value of focal length by calculation = ......c1escneue CM. (2) Focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from the graph- (i) (u-v) Hyperbola, (N=... om. (ii) (u-v) Intercepts on axes, (=... (ii) = v's > (straight line), (p=... Precaution :~ (i) The upright supporting the needles and the mirror should be rigid. (ii) The tips of needles and the pole of the mirror should be at the same horizontal level. (iii) Parallax of the image and object neediest should be removed tip to tip. (iv) The principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the length of the scalw. ee daceExporimont - 8 Aim :-To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting of graphs between u and v and between 1/u and 1/v. Apparatus :- An optical bench, one lens holder, two needles, convex lens, etc Theory :- The relation between the object distance u, the image distance v and the focal length f of a convex lens is given as- 1 rowy f= focal length U= Object Distance v- Image distance Ray diagram SN] Poslion ofthe | ijt Bislanea | Image Datance 5 7 | ) “ 2 : | (em) (om) (omy (my | Lo u 7 (em) | (om) | (omy Cc Pg. No. 17Calculation :-(i) cm (ii) (ii) em (iv) wv) om (vi) (vii) cm (viii) (x) & cm Mean focal length f= Lethe lohan let ft 5 Result:- (1) Mean value of focal length by calculation = oo. OM. (2) The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from the graph- (i) (u-v) Hyperbola, (= srceeeecee OM, v/s ) (straight line), (f)= -em, Precaution :- () The uprights carrying the lens and the needles should be straight. | (ii) The tips of needles should be as high as the optical centre of the lens (iii) Parallax should be removed tip to tip. (iv) The image and object needless should not be interchanged for different sets of observation. Pg. No. 18,Exporimont - 9 Aim:- To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation. Apparatus :-A drawing board, a sheet of paper, glass triangular prism, pins, a half meter scale, a graph paper, a protector etc. Theory: The refractive index j of the material of the prism is given by the relation :- Dm = minimum deviation angle A= Prism angle Diagram :- NN] Angle of incidence (i) | Angle of deviation (D) 30° 35° 40" 45 50" 55" 60" ~] ef a) ay of sy] -] Calculation :- Pg. No. 19Result :- (i) (i) Precaution:- “i (i) The angle of deviation D first decreases with the increase in the angle of incidence, attains a minimum value and then increases with further increase in the angle of incidence as indicated in the (D-i) graph. The refractive index of the prism material (glass) = The separation between the pins should not be less than 8 cm. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° to 60”,Exporiment ~ 10 Aim :-To determine the refractive index of glass slab using a travelling microscope Apparatus :-A marker, glass slab, travelling microscope. heat Famerent beapth Theory - Refractive index je = I reading of real depth at the bottom of the slab is r, and reading at cross due to reflection ist aed at the top of slab reading is r3 Then real depth = 13-1; Apparent depth =f ~ rs There for, refractive index of glass- oon H Diagram :- Observation :- value of one main scale division _ Least count of traveling microscope = ee em Obsevation table : Reading without glass slab__| Reading with glass slab | Reading with glass siab and] SN Powder MSR] Veg | eadna | MRS. [VSR [reading [MRS VSR | reading | s 1 [fe Sema} s n | y=Semxa | s a | y=Stnxa| om om om cm cm. em 7 5 | 3 Mean value r, om t em ne. cm Pg. No. 21Real depth d= tf — ry =... Real Depth. = Apperent Depth cm Apparent depth d, = f3 — 4 = --- rary Result - The refractive index of the glass slab using travelling microscope is determined as Precaution :~ @ (ii) (i (iv) Least count of the travelling microscope should be carefully calculated Eye piece should be adjusted such that cross wires are distinctly seen. Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on the top of slab. Cross wire, cross should be set on the ink cross mark on the paper. Pg. No. 22Experimont -14 Aim: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a-p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias. Requirement :- One p-n junction diode, a battery, a rheostat, a resistance, a milli ammeter, a micro ammeter, two voltmeter, connecting wires etc. Theory := Forward biasing - In forward biasing p- type of crystal in connected to the +ve of battery and n-type is Connected to the -ve of battery. Reverse biasing - In reverse biasing p-lype of crystal is connected to - ve of battery and n-type is connected to +ve of battery. Circuit diagram Forward bas Reverse Blas Observation :- Forward bias :- Least count of Voltmeter = so (volt) —haee__ Noord Range Least count of ammeter = ET = sess (@MP.) Reverse bias :~ SS It) Least count of Voltmeter = Frisia : (volt.) Rang (amp, Least count of Ammeter = = Observation :- For Reverso Bi Waitnier Reading | Anmeter Reading ve \ (Volt) ua) [Dit x16. | Division | Di LCPrecaution :- () Never cross the limits specified by the manufacturer or the diode will get damaged. (i) Voltmeter and ammeter of appropriate least count and ranges should be selected. (ii) The battery connection of p-n junction diode should be right. (iv) The variation in V should be done should be right.Experiment - 12 To draw the determine of a Zener diode and to determine it break down voltage. Apparatus :- One p-n junction Zener diode, a power supply with potential divided 0-15 v, a resistance of 1250, ammeter of range 0-15 mA, a voltmeter 0-15 with least count of 0-1v preferably a digit multimeter, connecting wires. Theory :- Zener diode is a semiconductor diode in which the n-type and p-type sections are heavily doped. This heavy doping results in a low value of reverse breakdown voltage. Zener diode is always operated in the reverse bias. In the forward bias, it works as normal diode. Circuit diagram :- Observation :- Range Least count of Voltmeter = ——tanee— (volt) Range Least count of ammeter = Se = (amp.) Observation table : Voltmeter reading “Ammeter SN Vv I (Volt) (ma) Division Division XLC Division Division XL. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Pg. No. 25Calculation :- From graph the breakdown voltage is Ze . volt. Result :- The reverse breakdown voltage = ... volt Precautions :- () Voltmeter and multi ammeter of appropriate least count and range should be selected for use (i) The zero error if any in the instruments should either be made nill by adjusting the pointer by a screw driver or connection should be applied. Pg. No. 26Experiment No, 14 AIM: To convert a given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of (0 - 3 V range and to verify the same. Requirement: Theory: Agalvanometer, a voltmeter of given range, battery of two cells. Two resistance boxes (5000 0 and 5000), two one way keys, a rheostat, connecting wire, () The resistance of galvanometer G = z (i) Figure of merit k= =e amp/division (ii) Full deflection current in galvanometer | ‘#4 Pp -O—F « © fina] f fy . aT L(G Circuit for conversion Le a Circuit for G & K Resistance of galvanometer = (G)..... Observation table for G & K SN’ Resistance in Deflection in Half deflection | Resistance in Galvanometer_ Figure in HRB. galvanometer in LRB. resistance merit (R) (0) galvanometer (8) RS at aa aor (ohm) (012) ‘ohm RS re (ohm) mp Divi. 1 Calculations: ohm Figure of merit (K) =... Aldivision No. of divisions of galvanometer = (a Pg. No. 29Observation table of conversion 1 division of galvanometer = 0.1 V Bservation table of conversion Galvanometer reading inDiv S.No. | Voltmeter reading v Difference (V.V}) a} of nm} | | | Pg. No. 30Exporiment No, 15 AIM: To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using # convey lens Requirements: Optical bench with two pins, mirror holder and four upright convex lens, conver mittor, lens holder Theory: Aconvex mirror always form a virlual image and thereto cannot be found directly. To find the focal length, indirect 1 its focal length Wo is used ” The focal length of a convex mirror { = and is equal to PI where Ris the radius of curvature < SS Qe ¢ oo fe = Record readings: Rough focal length of the convex lens = cm Sei | Radius of Focal length f= No. [Convex mirror P (cm) | Image needle I (cm) | curvature (R) RI2. (em) 4 on j=2e) 7 3 a | 4 | 7 = 7 Result : The focal length of the given convex mitFOF iS ....0..n CM Precautions: (i) The uprights should be vertical (use spirit level to make the optical bench horizontal) (ii) Parallax should be removes tip to tip. (ii) Index correction should be applied to R the radius of curvature of the mirror. Sources of Error: () The upright may not be vertical. (i) The parallax removed may not be perfect Pg. No. 31