ECE 4353

Chemical Process Safety

Source Models
(Lecture 5)
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain the government-industry’s responsibility for

health and safety

 Evaluate the nature of hazards posed by materials

which are flammable, toxic and reactive

 Identify and quantify common industrial methods to

control hazards.

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 Lecture 5
 5.1 Source Model

 5.2 Flow of Liquid through Hole

 5.3 Flow of Liquid through Hole in a Tank

 5.4 Gases or Vapors through Hole

 5.5 Choked Flow

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 5.1 Release mechanisms

1. Wide aperture release

Example : Overpressuring and explosion of tank

2. Limited aperture release

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 Release mechanisms: Physical state of material
affects release mechanism

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 5.2 Source Model

Source model describe how materials

are discharged from the process

 Rate of discharge
 Quantity discharged

 State of the discharged (solid/vapor/liquid)

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5.2 Source Model (Derivations)
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 5.2 Source Model

A. Flow of LIQUID through HOLE

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 5.2 Source Model

A. Flow of LIQUID through HOLE

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 5.2 Source Model – Flow of Liquid through Hole

A. Flow of LIQUID through HOLE

Mechanical Energy balance

For incompressible liquids, density is constant

External pressure is atmospheric, del P = Pg

Velocity within process u1 = 0
Change in elevation, del z = 0
Alfa = velocity profile correction factor = 0.5 (laminar)
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 Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE

Frictional losses represented by discharge coefficient

A new discharge coefficient C0

Velocity of fluid exiting a leak

Mass flowrate from hole of area A

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 Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE

C o Coefficient of Discharge

Coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the

true flow to the theoretical flow

It is applied to the theoretical flow equation to obtain

the correct flow rate.
C o = 0.61 for sharp edge and Re > 30000
C o = 1 for well rounded nozzle
C o = 0.81 for short sections of pipe (L/D >3)
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 Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE

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 Force, weight and mass
1. F = ma /gc : W = mg /gc

kg.m/s2 g.cm/s2 Ibm.ft/s2

2. gc = 1 --------- = 1 --------- = 32.174 -----------
N dyne Ibf

3. g = 9.8066 m/s2 ===> g/gc = 9.8066 N/kg

g = 980.66 cm/s2 ===> g/gc = 980.66 dyne/g
g = 32.174 ft/s2 ===> g/gc = 1 Ibf/Ibm

4. Example: Water has a density of 62.4 Ibm/ft3. How

much does 2.000 ft3 of water weigh?
 Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE

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5.3 Source Model – FLOW OF LIQUID THROUGH
HOLE IN A TANK

B. Flow of LIQUID through HOLE in a

TANK

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Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE IN A TANK

B. Flow of LIQUID through HOLE in a

TANK
Mass flowrate at any time

Initial mass discharge flowrate Qm @ hL = hL°

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Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE IN A TANK

B. Flow of LIQUID through HOLE in a

TANK
Time te for vessel to empty to the level of leak

If vessel at atmospheric pressure, Pg = 0

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Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE IN A TANK

A cylindrical tank 20ft high and 8 ft in diameter is used to

store benzene. The tank is padded with nitrogen to a
constant regulated pressure of 1 atmg. The liquid level
within the tank is presently at 17ft. A 1-in puncture
occurs in the tank 5 ft off the ground.
Estimate:
(a) The gallons of benzene spilled

(b) The time required for the benzene to leak out

(c) The maximum mass flowrate of benzene through the

leak.
Given Sg benzene = 0.8794
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Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE IN A TANK

(a)Benzene spilled = volume of benzene above the leak

V = A th L °
Area of tank At = (πd2)
4
= (3.142)(8 ft)2/ 4
= 50.2 ft2
V = (50.2 ft2)(17ft - 5ft)(7.48 gal/ft3 ) = 4506 gal

(b)Time required for benzene to leak out = te for vessel to empty to the level of
leak

t e = 56.4 min
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Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE IN A TANK

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Source Model – LIQUID THROUGH HOLE IN A TANK

(c) Maximum mass flowrate happens at t = 0 and hL = hL°

Qm = 10.4 lbm/s

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Source Model – GASES or VAPORS THROUGH HOLE

C. Flow of GASES/VAPOR through HOLE

Free expansion is an adiabatic
process in which no work is done on or
by the system.
Q = W = 0J
Real gases experience a temperature
change during free expansion.

For ideal gases, the temperature doesn't change, and

the conditions before and after adiabatic free expansion
satisfy P1*V1 = P2*V2
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5.4 Source Model – FLOW OF GASES or VAPORS
THROUGH HOLE

C. Flow of GASES/VAPOR through HOLE

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Source Model – GASES or VAPORS THROUGH HOLE

A. Flow of GASES/VAPOR through HOLE

Mechanical Energy balance

Initial Pressure within process = P0, External pressure = P

Velocity within process u0 = 0, Velocity at throat = u (<sonic velocity)
Change in elevation, del z = 0
Ws = 0

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Source Model – GASES or VAPORS THROUGH HOLE

For ideal gas with isentropic expansion,

The entropy of a given mass does not change during a

process that is internally reversible and adiabatic.
A process during which entropy remains constant is called an
isentropic process.
Some isentropic thermodynamic devices include: pumps, gas
compressors, turbines, nozzles, and diffusers.

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Source Model – GASES or VAPORS THROUGH HOLE

For ideal gas with isentropic expansion,

Eqn *
Mass flowrate at
any point
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Source Model – GASES or VAPORS THROUGH HOLE

C. Flow of GASES/VAPOR through HOLE

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5.5 Source Model – CHOKED FLOW OF GASES or
VAPORS THROUGH HOLE

D. Choked Flow of GAS through HOLE

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Choked Flow

What is choked flow?

When does choke flow happen?
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Choked Flow

Flow restri ctions in gas systems (e.g.

restriction orifices, control valves) will result in a
pressure drop.

If the pressure differential across them is large,

CCChoked FLOW will result.
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Choked Flow

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Choked Flow

Gas flowing along a pipe in which there is an orifice plate.

This results in a pressure drop.
Pressure upstream of the orifice plate (P1) is constant.
Pressure downstream (P2) is gradually reduced
This results in a greater pressure difference across the
orifice plate, increasing both the gas velocity and the gas
flow through the restriction.
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Choked Flow

Eventually, as the downstream pressure is dropped

further, the flow through the orifice plate becomes sonic.
Choked flow happens when velocities across a
restriction in the flow path becomes sonic.
Q (flow) is a function of
• Velocity
• Density
• Orifice Area
Any further drop in the downstream pressure will not
result in an increase in gas flow. Once the flow
becomes choked, it is independent of conditions
downstream of the restriction.
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Choked Flow

The pressure ratio (Upstream Pressure / Downstream

Pressure) at which choked flow occurs is known as the
Critical Pressure Ratio.

Rule of thumb: Critical Pressure Ratio is approx. 2 for a range of gases.

Example:
Air leak to atmosphere. P choked = 14.7 psia.
Flow will be choked
if upstream pressure is >14.7 / 0.528 = 27.8 psia = 13.1 psig.
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Choked Flow

Mass flowrate at
choked flow condition

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 Heat
Capacity
Ratios for
selected
gases

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Choked Flow

Velocity and mass flow rate is independent of the

downstream pressure
Q (flow) is a function of
• Velocity
• Density
• Orifice Area
Choked flow is a limiting condition where the mass flow
will not increase with a further decrease in the
downstream pressure environment while upstream
pressure is fixed.

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Source Model – GASES or VAPORS THROUGH HOLE

D. Choked Flow of GAS through HOLE

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Choked Flow

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APPLICATIONS OF CHOKE FLOW

Engineers can design equipment to

make use of choked flow in gases.
One example is in high temperature
steam cracking reactors.
Maintaining equal flow through
parallel reactor tubes is essential to
ensure even residence time in the
cracking reactor. Installing a
restriction orifice (RO) at the
entrance of each reactor tube
achieves choked flow. Provided
that choked flow is maintained,
flowrates are not affected by any
variation in reactor tube pressure
drop.

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH
RESTRICTION ORIFICE)
RO (restriction orifice) to restrict gas blow-by

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

RO (restriction orifice) to restrict gas blow-by

RO is installed here

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

RO to control pressurization

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

RO downstream of blowdown valves

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

Choked Flow of GAS through HOLE

Example 1:
A 0.1 in hole forms in a tank containing nitrogen at
200psig and 80°F. Determine the mass flowrate through
this leak.
For N2, Ɣ= 1.41

= 0.527

P choked = 0.527(200 + 14.7)psia = 113.1 psia

(An external pressure <113.1 psia will cause choke flow)
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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

Pressure is atms  choke flow

A = πd2/4 = (3.14)(0.1 in)2(1 ft2/144in2) =5.45 X 10-5 ft2
4

Assume discharge coefficient C0 = 1.0

P0 = 200 + 14.7 = 214.7 psia
T0 = 80 + 460 = 540R

Qm choked = 3.86 X 10-2 lbm/s

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

Example 2:
The vapor space above liquid ethylene oxide (EO) in
storage tanks must be padded with nitrogen to prevent
explosion. Nitrogen is supplied from a 200 psig source.
It is regulated to 81 psig and supplied to the storage
vessel. In the event of a failure of the regulator, the
vessel will be exposed to the full 200-psig pressure
which exceeds the pressure rating of the storage vessel.
To prevent rupture, the storage vessel is equipped with
a relief device to vent the nitrogen.
(a) Determine the mass flow rate of nitrogen through the
relief valve assuming an orifice size of 1.049 in?
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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

Po = 200 + 14.7 psia, A = πd2/4 = 0.864 in2

For N2, Ɣ= 1.41
P choked = (0.528)(214.7 psia) = 113.4 psia
Assume Co = 1.0
Choked flow can be expected because the system vents to atmospheric
conditions.
Qm = 4.16 lbm/s
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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

(b) Suppose the relief device is capable of relieving only

0.5 lbm/s. Suggest an Inherently safer design method
you may use to prevent an incident.

(c) Calculate the orifice diameter required to reduce the

flow from the nitrogen line to 0.5 lbm/s.

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

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CHOKED FLOW OF GASES THROUGH HOLE

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