ME44001 Chapter 5: Indoor Air Quality Lecture Notes

5.1 Our Atmosphere

Our atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases that completely surround the earth. It is
usually divided into four layers of very different characteristics as shown in Figure 5-1.

Height Layer Temperature Gases Water Vapor

40,000 km
Increases with Atomic H, O, N,
Thermosphere height He None

80 km Decreases with
Mesosphere height None
Ozone Layer
50 km Increases with O3 Little
Stratosphere height

12 km Decreases with Diatomic O2 Most Vapor

Troposphere height
Clouds

Earth’s Surface

Figure 5-1 Composition of Our Atmosphere

• Troposphere – It is the lower atmosphere in contact with the earth’s surface. In

unpolluted state its gaseous composition is as shown in Table 5-1. Water vapor of 1 –
4 % by volume in this layer may be present as a gas, or in condensed form as clouds,
fog or mist, or in solid form as ice or snow.

• Stratosphere – It is just above the troposphere with no cloud formation here. It has
very little water vapor but contains significantly more ozone (O3). This ozone layer
absorbs significant quantity of ultraviolet (UV) from the sun that passes through it. It
is an important protection provided to the biosphere.

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• Mesosphere – It is the layer above the stratosphere. It consists of less gaseous mass
but no water vapor.

• Thermosphere – It is the upper layer of our atmosphere and is also known as the
heterosphere. The gases present here, oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), hydrogen (H) and
helium (He) are in the atomic state and tend to separate into layers. It contains no
water vapor and ozone.

Table 5-1 Gaseous Composition of Troposphere

Gas % by Volume of Dry Air

Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.0325
Neon 0.0018
Helium 0.0005
Krypton 0.0001
Ozone 0.00002

5.2 Principal Air Pollutants

Air pollutants are substances which, when present in the atmosphere, adversely affect the
health of humans, animals, plants or microbial life, or damage materials, or interfere with
the enjoyment of life or the use of property. They are usually identified as particulate and
gaseous pollutants.

Sources of particulate pollutants usually include combustion processes, industrial

facilities, power generation, motor vehicles, smoking, volcanic ash, forest fires and wind
erosion. Fine particles are considered to be less than 1 µm in size and are usually
formed from combustion processes, whereas large particles are those greater than 1 µm
in size and are usually formed from mechanical processes. In some cases, large particles
may be greater than 100 µm in size.

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• Primary Particulate Pollutants are those produced directly before they have
aggregated with other pollutants.

• Secondary Particulate Pollutants are aggregated masses of the primary particulate

pollutants.

The other part of air pollution is the gaseous pollutants including all kinds of gases which
will produce the adverse effects on our health and environment. A brief account of the
principal air pollutants will be provided in the following section:

• Particulate Matter (PM) in Urban Atmosphere – A typical sample of urban

atmospheric air might contain soot and smoke, silica, clay, decayed animal and
vegetable matter, lint and plant fibers, metallic fragments, mold spores, bacteria,
plant pollens, and other living material. The sizes of these particles may widely
range from less than 0.01 µm to the dimensions of leaves and insects. When
suspended in the air, the mixture is called an aerosol.

• Sulfur Oxides (SOX) – They are gases formed from the combustion of fuels
containing sulfur. When hydrolyzed with water vapor, sulfur oxides can form
sulfuric acidic vapor.

• Carbon Monoxide (CO) – Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels and

tobacco smoking are two significant sources of CO gas. When burning of carbon is
proceeding in an insufficient oxygen environment, CO will be formed instead of
carbon dioxide (CO2) gas.

• Nitrous Oxides (NO and NO2) – They are gases produced by combustion of fuel
with air at high temperatures. NO2 is usually of most concern. However, they are
inter-changeable rather easily.

• Hydrocarbons (HC) – Very tiny reactive particles formed as a result of incomplete

combustion of hydrocarbon fuels.

• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) – A variety of organic chemical species

occur in our atmospheric environment resulting from combustion sources, pesticides,
building materials and finishes, cleaning agents and solvents, and plants and animals.
VOCs are often measured in the atmosphere as non-methane hydrocarbons because
methane is relatively non-reactive in photochemical smog formation.

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• Ozone (O3) – By means of photochemical reaction, the ultraviolet radiation splits the
atmospheric oxygen (O2) into atomic oxygen (O). These atoms are highly reactive
and recombine to form triatomic molecules of ozone (O3), which is a very active
oxidizing gaseous agent and serves as a surrogate for other oxidants.

• Lead (Pb) – The dispersion of lead particles via combustion of fuel with additives, or
from the lead contaminants in water, soil or dust. Lead is one of the heavy metals
appeared in atmospheric air and it can be accumulated in human and animal bodies.

It is usually necessary to consider the other pollutants in addition to these principal

pollutants when an air pollution effect is being considered. For example, without other
chemical factors, ozone alone in air will not be able to form photochemical smog, which
is a Secondary Pollutant leading to eye and throat irritations.

Secondary pollutants are not emitting directly from any source. They are formed in the
atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions involving the primary pollutants such as
Photochemical Smog. It is a secondary air pollutant formed in atmosphere via the
following reactions:

2NO + O2 ←
→ 2NO2 . . . . . . [5-1]

NO2 + UV Radiation ←
→ NO + O . . . . . . [5-2]

O + O2 + VOCs/HC ←
→ O3 + VOCs/HC . . . . . . [5-3]

In the formation of photochemical smog, several primary air pollutants such as nitrous
oxides, ozone, VOCs and HC are involved. The latter two pollutants act roughly as
catalyst and are in the form of solid particles.

5.3 Effects of Air Pollution

It is rather difficult to develop a direct relationship, especially in quantity, between a

specific air pollutant and its effects on humans and the environment. However, some
qualitative assessments of the effects of several air pollutants can be summarized.

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5.3.1 Health Effects on Humans

• Particulate Matter – It includes both solids and liquids. The major health effects
include effects on breathing and respiratory systems, aggravation of existing
respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, alteration of human body’s defense systems
against foreign materials, damage to lung tissue, carcinogenisis and premature
mortality. Persons with chronic obstructive pulmonary, cardiovascular diseases or
influenza, the elderly and the children are the most sensitive.

• Sulfur Oxides – It is a colorless gas with odor. The major health effects include
effects on breathing, respiratory illness, breakdown of lung defenses, aggravation of
the existing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and death. Sensitive persons
include asthmatics and those with chronic lung diseases or cardiovascular diseases.
The elderly and the children will be affected the most.

• Carbon Monoxide – It is a colorless, tasteless and odorless gas at atmospheric

concentration. However, it is toxic and poisonous. The health threat of carbon
monoxide is greatest to those with cardiovascular diseases because it reduces oxygen
delivery to organs and tissues. At elevated concentrations carbon monoxide impairs
visual perception, manual dexterity and mental ability.

• Nitrous Oxides – NO is a reddish-brown highly reactive gas with odor. It plays a

major role in tropospheric ozone formation. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) irritates the
lungs, causes bronchitis and pneumonia, lowers resistance to respiratory infections,
and plays a major role in tropospheric ozone formation.

• Ozone – It is a colorless gas with some odor. It affects healthy adults and children as
well as persons with impaired respiratory systems. Ozone reduces lung function,
usually in association with coughing, sneezing, chest pain and pulmonary congestion.
High concentrations of ozone are frequently associated with eye irritation, although
this may not be caused directly by the ozone itself.

• Lead – The uptake of lead via inhalation or ingestion may occur from food, water,
soil or dust. High lead exposures can cause seizures, metal retardation and
behavioral disorders. Fetuses, infants and children are especially susceptible to small
doses, resulting in central nervous system disorders. Lead uptake may be a factor in
high blood pressure and heart diseases.

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5.3.2 Effects on Plants and Animals and Materials

Different plants and animals have different susceptibilities to air pollutants. For example,
sugar maple can tolerate relatively high concentrations of SO2 alone, but it is susceptible
to damage from exposure to SO2 and O3 together. In addition, it is very difficult to
estimate the dollar value of accelerated deterioration of materials and aesthetic items
such as building or horticultural plantings, or the cost of materials loss. However, the
impacts on plants, animals and materials due to air pollution should never be under
estimated, because they can affect the humans eventually via the ecology cycles.

• Fluorine – It is emitting from aluminum, glass and fertilizer in significant quantities.

It affects human health as well as the growth of plants such as lowering the value of
the crops. Effect will be transferred from plants to animals when the plants
contaminated with fluorine are subsequently eating by animals, which may lead to
poor health and lower survival capability.

• Heavy Metal Particles – They include lead and mercury, which can be concentrated
in plants and subsequently accumulated in specific organs of animals. Lead oxide in
the white paint reacts with hydrogen sulfide in atmosphere to form lead sulfate, so
that white houses have been observed to take on a brownish tint overnight.

• Sulfur and Nitrous Oxides – They react in atmosphere with water vapor to form
acidic compounds. They are the sources of the well-known acid rain and have
produced very large damage to plants. They also attack metal surfaces. The problem
has been particularly important for communication and computer industries.

• VOCs – Particles containing conducting chemicals deposit on insulators on poles

resulting in power leakage from high-voltage electrical wires. Accelerated aging of
synthetics and rubber is resulted because of the exposure to atmospheric oxidants.

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5.4 Sources of Air Pollution

Effects on environment and species are not always easily identifiable, and an observed
effect may not be easily related directly to specific pollutants. In the past few decades,
methods to identify air pollution sources have changed from simple sensory techniques
based on sight, smell, taste and odor to objective techniques that permit quantification of
air quality. The major air pollution sources of today’s community can be identified as the
followings:

• Natural Sources

Volcanic eruptions present a concentrated and localized natural source of all types of
gases and particles. Human activities may contribute to conditions that increase
pollutants from natural sources such as the cutting down of forest besides a city will
reduce significantly the barrier to strong wind, and hence increases the particles which
are brought into the city by the wind. Due to the various human activities, the
background air pollution of an urban area is many folds higher than that of a rural area.

• Domestic Sources

Domestic sources are the major air pollution in residential areas. The major activities
contribute to the domestic sources of air pollution are cooking, space and water heating,
painting, washing and gardening. Burning of fuels to produce energy for cooking and
heating is the major source. A variety of organic chemical species released into our
atmospheric environment from building materials, paints, cleaning agents and solvents.
The amount of air pollution produced in every house is relatively small but it is actually a
major source by considering the huge number of households in a city.

• Commercial Sources

Commercial sources of air pollution include the public service industries. For example,
almost all solvent, which is a chlorinated hydrocarbon, used in the dry cleaning of clothes
evaporates to the atmosphere and becomes air pollution. Other commercial
establishments and activities releasing air pollutants to the atmosphere include
restaurants, hotels, schools, and printing and painting companies. Burning of fuels to
produce energy for cooking, heating and processing. Many plastics wasted by the
commercial sector including the huge amount of plastic carriages are chlorinated
hydrocarbons, the chlorine released during burning become a source of air pollution.

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• Agricultural Sources

Chicken production for meat is usually operating in very large scale and several hundred
thousand birds are frequently housing at one location. Particles discharged through the
ventilation system usually become a source of air pollution. On the farm itself, exposure
to ammonia particles released from the fertilizer represents chronic health hazards.
Pesticides and insecticides present special air pollution problems because of their
toxicity and persistence. Actually, several agricultural pesticides have been identified to
be airborne pollutants. For example, DDT has already been banned in many countries.

• Industrial Sources

Industrial sources of air pollution are most noticeable because emissions are usually
discharged through tall chimneys. Where a particular industrial contaminant is the major
objectionable pollutant in a community, it may be traced to its origin by knowledge of the
industrial processes being used. In this case, corrective measures are usually easy to
implement.

Gaseous pollutants are one of the major industrial sources of air pollution. NOX are
produced by high-temperature industrial combustion operations. SO2 are obtained by
burning fuels with sulfur contents to obtain energy or heat, which are reacting
subsequently with water vapor to form sulfuric acid. Hydrogen sulfide may be emitted in
rather large quantities from paper plants, natural gas cleaning and processing plants and
synthetic fibers manufacturing plants. CO are released at stationary fuel-burning
installations.

VOCs are released in large quantities from several industrial processes related to the
petroleum and natural gas industries and industries that use their products. VOCs are
also released from paints and cleaning industries, and manufacturing plants for plastics.

Particles can be liquid or solid. The public is most aware of particle emissions because
they are visible. The chemical and physical natures of particles are extremely important
in assessing the significance of the emissions. Metallic oxides release from spray
painting and the coating industries. Asbestos fibers release from the insulation and pipe
industries. Cadmium, lead and mercury from batteries, which are toxic and carcinogenic,
become another major source. The largest industrial particle emissions are ash obtained
from combustion of coal and oil in internal combustion systems.

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• Transportation-related Sources

The transportation sector may be the largest air pollution source of CO, NOX and VOCs
(i.e. essentially HC). The CO and VOCs are usually products of inefficient combustion,
which may be eliminated by burning the fuel to CO2 and H2O by better combustion
processes. Most of the VOCs emissions are from the tailpipe, which can be controlled
with the catalytic reactors. It is necessary to reduce NOX, which is a major contributor to
photochemical smog and acid rain. Production of NOX increases very rapidly with
combustion temperature, therefore modern internal combustion engines have been
redesigned to lower the cylinder temperature such as reducing the compression ratio,
modifying the ignition timing or introducing re-circulation of exhaust gas. Concern also
developed that lead emissions are approaching the limit of acceptability in the
atmosphere for health reason. Use of lead-free gasoline has been mandated in many
countries.

5.5 Air Pollution Standards

Air qualities in Hong Kong are monitored at the Air Quality Monitoring Stations. The
qualities are judged by their compliance with the air quality objectives. An air pollution
index (API) is used to indicate the gross air quality for laymen. For more information
about the monitoring stations and the API can be referred to the EPD website:
(http://www.info.gov.hk/epd/air.html) on API.

5.5.1 Air Quality Objectives (AQOs) in Hong Kong

The overall policy for air quality management in Hong Kong is to achieve as soon as
reasonably practice and to maintain thereafter an acceptable level of air quality to
safeguard the health and well-being of the community. In this regard, Air Quality
Objectives (AQOs) for seven widespread air pollutants were established in 1987 under
the Air Pollution Control Ordinance (APCO) based on international standards as
yardsticks for air quality management, as shown in Table 5-2. They are derived from
scientific analyses of the relationship between pollutant concentrations in the air and the
associated adverse effects of the polluted air on the health of the public. The established
AQOs apply to the whole territory.

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 Pollutant Concentration in Microgrammes Health Effects of Pollutant at
Per Cubic Metre(i) Elevated Ambient Levels
Averaging Time
1 hr 8hrs 24 hrs 3mths 1 yr
(ii) (iii) (iii) (iv) (iv)
Sulphur 800 350 80 Respiratory illness; reduced
Dioxide lung function; morbidity and
mortality rates increase at
higher levels.

Total 260 80 Respirable fraction has

Suspended effects on health.
Particulates

Respirable 180 55 Respiratory illness; reduced

Suspended lung function; cancer risk for
Particulates certain particles; morbidity
(v) and mortality rates increase at
higher levels.
Nitrogen 300 150 80 Respiratory irritation;
Dioxide increased susceptibility
to respiratory infection; lung
development impairment.
Carbon 30,000 10,000 Impairment of coordination
Monoxide deleterious to pregnant
women and those with
heart and circulatory
conditions.
Photo- 240 Eye irritation; cough; reduced
chemical athletic performance;
Oxidants possible chromosome
(as ozone) damage.
(vi)
Lead 1.5 Affects cell and body
processes; likely neuro-
psychological effects,
particularly in children;
likely effects on rates of
incidence of heart attacks,
strokes and hypertension.

Table 5-2 The Air Quality Objectives (AQOs) for Seven Widespread Air
Pollutants in Hong Kong [EPD HKSAR, 2003]

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Note (for Table 5-2):

(i) Measured at 298K (25°C) and 101.325kPa (one atmosphere).

(ii) Not to be exceeded more than three times per year.
(iii) Not to be exceeded more than once per year.
(iv) Arithmetic means.
(v) Respirable suspended particulates means suspended particles in air with a
nominal aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometres or smaller.
(vi) Photochemical oxidants are determined by measurement of ozone only.

Possible ways to achieve and maintain AQOs include preventive measures through
intervention in the planning stage, or enforcement of APCO and its subsidiary legislation
to alleviate excessive emissions. AQOs may be reviewed from time to time to include a
wider range of air pollutants and, if necessary, to tighten the standards taking into
account international developments for better protection of the health and well-being of
the community.

5.5.2 Air Pollution Index (API) in Hong Kong

With reference to the AQOs, Hong Kong is able to develop a system of Air Pollution
Index (API) as shown in Table 5-3. Daily APIs at general stations and roadside stations
are released via media and can be viewed at the web-site:
http://www.epd-asg.gov.hk/eindex.php.

API Corresponding air quality objective levels

25 Air pollution is low – at half of the annual AQOs, or at a quarter of the 1-hour
or 24-hour AQOs level
50 Air pollution is medium – at the annual AQOs, or at half the 1-hour or
24-hour AQOs level
100 Air pollution is high – at the 1-hour or 24-hour AQOs level
200 Air pollution is very high – at 2 times the 1-hour or 24-hour AQOs level
500 Air pollution is severe – at 3-12 times the 1-hour or 24-hour AQOs level

Table 5-3 The Air Pollution Index (API) in Hong Kong [EPD HKSAR, 2003]

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5.6 Basic Concerns of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

ASHRAE Standard 62 (Source: ASHRAE) defines acceptable IAQ as air in which there
are no known contaminants at harmful concentrations as determined by cognizant
authorities and with which a substantial majority (i.e. 80% or more) of the people
exposed do not express dissatisfaction. With acceptable IAQ, occupants will feel
comfortable and their environment is free of bothersome odors and harmful levels of
contaminants. Symptoms such as headaches, nausea, and irritations of the eyes or nose
may be a good reflection that IAQ in a building is poor. Buildings with an unusual
number of occupants having physical problems have come to be described as having sick
building syndrome.

Good IAQ usually costs money, and the economic pressure to save on initial and
operating costs can sometimes cause poor decisions that lead to both human suffering
and even greater money costs. Maintaining good IAQ involves keeping gaseous and
particulate contaminants below some acceptable level in the indoor environment.
Contamination of indoor spaces is usually caused by:

• Human and animal occupancies.

• Release of contaminants in the space from the furnishings and accessories or from
processes taking place inside the space.

• Introduction of contaminated outdoor air.

5.6.1 Common Indoor Contaminants

Most of the indoor contaminants come from outdoor air, with some of them being
generated inside the buildings, for example, radon gas released from the building
materials. However, indoor level of a particular contaminant may be enhanced because
of the indoor activities, for example, CO level may be higher in a building because of the
tobacco smoking of the occupants. In general, the indoor contaminants may be identified
as the followings:

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2): CO2 is an exhaled by-product of human and animal

metabolisms, and therefore CO2 levels are typically higher in occupied spaces than
for outdoor air. In heavily occupied spaces such as auditorium, CO2 levels will often

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 be a major concern. This is not because of any direct serious health risk, but because
CO2 is an easily measurable indicator of the effectiveness of ventilation of the space.
As such, it gives an indirect indication of potentially unacceptable levels of other
more harmful gases. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
recommends a maximum level of 1000 ppm (1.8 g/m3) for continuous CO2 exposure,
specifically for school and residential occupancy, and as a guideline for other
building types.

• Carbon Monoxide (CO): Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels and tobacco

smoking are two significant sources of CO. Buildings with internal or nearby
parking garages and loading docks are more likely to have high levels of CO. HVAC
outdoor air intakes at ground level where heavy street traffic occurs can draw
unacceptable levels of CO into the building’s air system. Improperly vented and
leaking furnaces, chimneys, water heaters, and incinerators are often the source of
difficulty. CO is a toxic gas, with a level near 15 ppm can significantly affect body
chemistry. The reaction of human to CO level varies significantly, and the effects can
be cumulative. Headaches and nausea are common symptoms for those who have
been exposed to CO quantity above their tolerance.

• Sulfur Oxides (SOX): SOX are the result of combustion of fuels containing sulfur
and may enter a building through outdoor air intakes or from leakages in combustion
systems within the building. When hydrolyzed with water, sulfur oxides can form
sulfuric acid, creating problems in the moist mucous membranes that may cause
upper respiratory tract irritation and induce episodic attacks in individuals with
asthmatic tendencies.

• Nitrous Oxides (NOX): NOX (i.e. usually NO and NO2) are produced by
combustion of fuel with air at high temperatures. Ordinarily, these contaminants are
brought in with outdoor air that has been contaminated by internal combustion
engines and industrial effluents, but indoor combustion sources, such as domestic
cookers, frequently contribute significant amounts.

• Radon: Radon, a naturally occurring radioactive gas resulting from the decay of
radium, has received a great deal of attention recently, especially in areas where
concentrations have been found to be very high. Building materials may usually be
its sources. The primary concern with radon is the potential for causing lung cancer.

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• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): A variety of organic chemical species
occur in a typical modern indoor environment, resulting from combustion sources,
pesticides, building materials and finishes, cleaning agents and solvents, and plants
and animals. Fortunately, they usually exist at levels that are below recommended
standards. Some occupants, however, are hypersensitive to particular chemicals, and
for them many indoor environments create problems. Formaldehyde gas, one of the
more common VOCs, is irritating to the eyes and the mucouse membranes. It seems
to have caused a diversity of problems in asthmatic reaction and is considered to be a
potential cancer hazard. Formaldehyde, used in the manufacture of carpets, pressed
board, insulations, textiles, paper products, cosmetics, shampoos, and phenolic
plastics, seems to enter buildings primarily in building products. These products
continue to release formaldehyde for long periods of time, especially during the first
year. Its acceptable limits are in the range of 1 ppm as a time-weighted 8-hour
average.

• Particulate Matters (PM): A typical sample of outdoor air might contain soot and
smoke, silica, clay, decayed animal and vegetable matter, lint and plant fibers,
metallic fragments, mold spores, bacteria, plant pollens, and other living material.
The sizes of these particles may widely range from less than 0.01 µm to the
dimensions of leaves and insects. When suspended in the air, the mixture is called an
aerosol. As outdoor air is brought into an indoor environment, it may be additionally
contaminated by human sources and activities, interior furnishings and equipment,
and pets. Microbial and infectious organisms can persist and even multiply when
indoor conditions are favorable. Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) has been one
of the major problems in maintaining good IAQ, and concern has been heightened by
increased evidence of its role in lung diseases, particularly cancer.

5.7 Control of Air Pollution

The objective in air pollution control is to maintain an atmosphere in which pollutants

have no or at least insignificant impact on human activities. Obviously, the best way to
control air pollution is not to produce the pollutants. For example, non-leaded fuels can
be used to eliminate lead emissions from motor vehicles, and NOX emissions can be
reduced to an insignificant level by redesigning the internal combustion engines to
lowering the cylinder temperature.

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However, other solutions will be required once the air pollutants have been produced.
Use of the air pollution control devices is able to reduce the level of the air pollutants or
to transfer them to some other form of pollution, which can be managed easier. To
disperse the air pollutants, for example, via tall chimneys to the higher atmosphere to
avoid their local concentrations at the near-ground level, may be a possible but less
desirable alternative.

Among the suggested methods to deal with air pollution, some of them may be
particularly suitable to be applied in larger scale and for outdoor purposes. However,
some of them are particularly used to maintain good IAQ in buildings. Some of the
current methods are presented in the following sections.

5.7.1 Source Elimination or Modification

It is usually achieved at the design stage of a process. Source elimination or modification

very often is the most effective method for reducing air pollutants not generated directly
by the human occupants or the necessary activities in the space. Some examples are
provided:

• Use of better fuels for motor vehicles – Uses of lead-free fuel to eliminate lead
emissions, liquefied-natural-gas to replace diesel fuel to reduce particulate emissions
and low-sulfur fuel to reduce the formation of SO2.

• Better design of internal combustion engines – Redesign of the internal

combustion engines to lowering the cylinder temperatures and hence the NOX
formation. A more complete combustion will be obtained with a better-designed
combustion chamber of the internal combustion engine leading to almost no CO
production.

• Better design or retrofitting of a building – In the design or retrofitting of a

building, this method involves specifying exactly what building materials and
furnishings are to be allowed within the building to achieve better IAQ.

• Elimination of undesirable contaminants from an existing building – In an

existing building, it involves finding and removing any undesirable contaminants not
essential to the functions taking place in the building. For example, elimination of
smoking within a building is an acceptable approach to improve IAQ in both public

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 and private buildings. Besides, restriction of the storage of paints, solvents, cleaners,
insecticides, and volatile compounds within a building or near its outdoor air intakes
can often lead to a significant IAQ improvement.

5.7.2 Air Cleaning

Air cleaning has been used for many years to improve the quality of air releasing from a
power plant to the atmosphere, or entering a building via a HVAC system from the
atmosphere. For a building, some outdoor air is necessary to replenish the oxygen
required for breathing and to dilute the carbon dioxide and other wastes produced by the
occupants. Contaminants can be removed from an air stream by absorption, by physical
adsorption, by chemisorption, by catalysis, or by combustion depending on their major
contents: particulate or gases.

• Absorption – Both solid and liquid absorbers may be used to reduce CO2 and CO to
carbon and oxygen. Air washers, whose purpose may be to control temperature and
humidity in buildings, not only remove contaminant gases from an air stream by
absorption, but can remove particulate matter as well.

• Physical Adsorption – The adhesion of molecules to the surface of a solid (the

absorbent), in contrast to absorption, in which the molecules are dissolved into or
react with a substance. Good absorbents must have large surface areas exposed to the
gas being absorbed and therefore typically have porous surfaces. Activated charcoal
is the most widely used adsorbent because of its superior absorbing properties. It is
least effective with the lighter gases such as ammonia and ethylene and most
effective with gases having high molecular mass. The charcoal may be impregnated
with other substances to permit better accommodation of chemically active gases.

• Chemisorption – It is similar to physical adsorption. It differs in that surface

binding in chemisorption is by chemical reaction and therefore only certain pollutant
compounds will react with a given chemisorber. In contract to physical adsorption,
chemisorption improves as temperature increases, does not generate heat (but may
require heat input), is not generally reversible, is helped by the presence of water
vapor, and is a monomolecular layer phenomenon.

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• Catalysis – It is closely related to chemisorption in that chemical reactions occur at
the surface of the catalyst. However, the gaseous pollutant does not react
stoichiometrically with the catalyst itself. The chemical reactions may involve a
breakdown of the contaminant into smaller molecules or it may involve combining
the contaminant gas with the oxygen available in the air stream or with a supplied
chemical. Only a few catalysts appear to be effective for air purification at ambient
temperatures.

• Catalytic Combustion – It permits the burning of the offending gas at temperatures

lower than with unassisted combustion and is widely used in automobiles to reduce
urban air pollution.

In some cases, odor rather than health may be a concern, as it may persist even when the
levels of all known contaminants are reduced to otherwise acceptable levels. In such
cases, odor making or odor counteraction may be last resorts. This involves introducing
a pleasant odor to cover or mask an unpleasant one, or the mixing of two odorous vapors
together so that both odors tend to be diminished.

5.7.3 Air Cleaners/Filters for Particulate Control

With the very wide range of particulate sizes, shapes, and concentrations, it is impossible
to design one type of air particulate cleaner/filter that can be suitable for all applications.
Clean rooms in an electronic assembly process require entirely different particulate
removal systems than an office or a hospital. Air cleaners for particulate contaminants
are covered in more detail in the ASHRAE Systems and Equipment Handbook [Source:
ASHRAE].

The most important characteristics of the aerosol affecting the performance of a

particulate air cleaner include the following criteria of the particles:

• Size and shape;

• Specific gravity;
• Concentration;
• Electrical properties.

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Particulate air cleaners vary widely in size, shape, initial cost, and operating cost. The
major factor influencing their design and selection is the degree of air cleanliness
required. Generally, the cost of the filter system will increase as the size of the particles
to be removed decreases.

The three operating characteristics that can be used to compare various types are:

• Efficiency – Ability to remove particulate matter from an air stream.

• Air-flow Resistance – Pressure drop encountered.

• Dust-holding Capacity – Duration of use before cleaning of the filter.

The mechanisms by which particulate air filters operate include:

• Straining – Particle are larger than the space formed by adjacent filter media and is
stopping there.

• Direct Interception – Particle strikes the filter media surface and is stopping there.

• Inertial Deposition – Big particles are separated from the air stream when it is
slowing down because of its heavy weight.

• Electrical Effect – Particle and filter media are given opposite electric charges,
therefore the particle can be attached to the media.

The following types of particulate air cleaners operating with the above mechanisms are
commonly used:

18
• Fibrous Media Unit Filter (Figure 5-2) is working essentially with the “Straining”
mechanism. For example, the particulate trap used in a diesel taxi. This is a very
efficient method to collect particles from a dirty air flow but disposal of the collected
particles usually becomes another environmental problem.

Fibers Partition with Holes

Dirty Air Flow Clean Air Flow

Particles

Figure 5-2 Fibrous Filter

19
• Electronic Air Cleaner (Figure 5-3) is working with the “Electrical Effect”
mechanism. For example, the electrostatic precipitator used in a clean room.
Efficiency ( η ) of the electrostatic precipitator may be calculated by:

 2uHL 
η = 1 − exp −  . . . . . . [5-4]
 HDU 

Where: D Separation between the two collector plates (m)

H Width of the collector plate (m)
L Length of the collector plate (m)
U Velocity of the dirty air flow supplied to the precipitator (m/s)
[Typically 0.5 to 2.5 m/s]
u Terminal migration velocity of the particle (m/s) [Typically 0.03 to
0.3 m/s]

20% “–” Charged Particles on “+” Charged Plate

Charging Grid Collector Plates

Dirty Air Flow Clean Air Flow

Uncharged Particles
80% “+” Charged Particles on “–” Charged Plate

Figure 5-3 Electrostatic Precipitator

20
• Renewable Media Filter (Figure 5-4) is working with the “Direct Interception”
mechanism. For example, the renewable filter used in the Heating, Ventilation and
Air-conditioning (HVAC) system. The filtering materials can be replaced
periodically. It is very convenient to handle the collected particles with this filter,
which is an advantage. However, it may only be suitable to apply in small systems.
In addition, disposal of the used filtering materials may become another
environmental problem.

Roll of Clean Filtering Materials

Dirty Air Flow Clean Air Flow

Particles Roll of Used Filtering Materials

Figure 5- 4 Renewable Media Filter

21
• Centrifugal Dust Collector (Figure 5-5) is working with the “Inertial Deposition”
mechanism. For example, the dust collector known as “Cyclone” used in a power
plant. The particle-laden gases enter the cyclone tangentially at the top end and spiral
downward along the casing. Particles migrate to the outside of the spiral, where they
slide down the casing to the hopper bottom. The exit for cleaned gases from the
cyclone is vertically upward through the central pipe.

Air Stream with Dust Dust-free Clean Air

Heavier Dust
Heavier Dust Collected Separated by
from Cone Centrifugal Force

Figure 5-5 Centrifugal Dust Collector (Cyclone)

22
• Wet Collector is another kind of dust collector working with the “Inertia Deposition”
mechanism. An improvement has been made to increase the particle sizes using
water droplets, because larger particles can be collected more easily.

• There are also air cleaners working on more than one of the above mechanisms used.

5.7.4 Control of Gaseous Pollutants

There are four fundamental methods to reduce the emissions of undesirable gases:

• Reduction/Elimination - Reduce or eliminate the production of undesirable gases.

For example, reduction or even elimination of NOX from
emissions of a motor vehicle by lowering the
combustion temperature in its cylinder.

• Further Reaction – Induce the undesirable gases to further reacted chemically (i.e.
regeneration) to produce some other less harmful gases. For
example, use of Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) to oxidize
the CO in the emissions from a diesel vehicle into CO2, which
is less harmful.

• Absorption – Remove the undesirable gases from a gas stream by changing them
into liquid. For example, removal of gaseous SO2 from combustion
exhaust gases using a lime/limestone scrubber/absorber (Figure
5-6).

23
 Cleaner Gases

Particulate Control System

Chimney
Combustion Gases

H2 O
Lime/Limestone Spray Tower

Figure 5-6 A Limestone Scrubber for SO2 Removal

In the scrubber, SO2 reacts with the lime (i.e. CaO) or limestone (i.e. CaCO3) to form
sulfite (i.e. CaSO3) which is settled as a gel and collected in the basin of the spray tower,
or sulfate (i.e. CaSO4) which is a stable solid, i.e.

CaO + SO2 ←
→ CaSO3 . . . . . . [5-5]

CaCO3 + SO2 + H2O ←

→ CaSO3 + CO2 + H2O . . . . . . [5-6]

2CaSO3 + O2 ←
→ 2CaSO4 . . . . . . [5-7]

24
• Adsorption – Remove the undesirable gases from a gas stream by collecting them
on a solid surface. For example, selective adsorption of gases is
achieved in beds of solid adsorbent through which the gases are
passed. Efficiency of the adsorption process is dependent on gas
mixture, quality of gas produced, physical and chemical properties
of adsorbent, operation temperature, gas-to-adsorbent volume ratio,
flow rate of gas and bed configuration. Activated carbon, activated
alumina and silica gel are excellent adsorbents for several gases.

5.7.5 Air Quality Control by Dilution

To disperse the air pollutants from a concentrated source to the much larger environment
can be a possible solution in some situations. For example, to disperse the combustion
gases in boilers via tall chimneys to the higher atmosphere to avoid their local
concentrations at the near-ground level becomes a common practice. To disperse the
emissions from motor vehicles to the open atmosphere as rapid as possible may be less
desirable, but still better than to concentrate them at the near-ground level.

5.8 Control of IAQ

In addition to the methods as described in section 5.7, the following methods are
particularly useful for the control of IAQ:

• Use of outdoor air.

• Space air distribution.

25
5.8.1 Use of Outdoor Air

Figure 5-7 is used to help define the various terms involved in the airflow of a typical
HVAC system.

Make-up Outdoor Air, V&M Recirculated Air, V&C Exhaust Air, V&EX = V&R − V&C

Filter Returned Air, V&R

Ex-filtration, V&E
Fan Conditioned Space
Room Exhaust Air, V&RE

Heating Coil C S , N&

C EN Infiltration, V&I

Cooling Coil

Supply Air, V&S = V&C + V&M

C EN – Concentration of Contaminants in Entering Air

C S – Concentration of Contaminants in Conditioned Space
N& – Contaminant Generation Rate in Conditioned Space

Figure 5-7 Transfer of Contaminants in HVAC Ventilation System

26
• Supply air is the air delivered to the conditioned space and used for ventilation,
heating, cooling, humidification, or dehumidification.

• Ventilation air is the portion of supply air (i.e. outdoor air plus any recirculated air)
that has been treated for the purpose of maintaining acceptable IAQ. In Figure 5-7, it
is equal to the supply air.

• Outdoor air is air taken from the external atmosphere and therefore not previously
circulated through the system. Some outdoor air may enter a space by Infiltration
through cracks and interstices and through ceilings, floors, and walls of a space or
building, but generally in air-conditioned buildings most outdoor air is brought into a
space by the supply air. It is usually assumed that outdoor air is free of contaminants
that might cause discomfort or harm to human, but this is not always true. In some
localities where strong contaminant sources exist near a building, the air surrounding
a building may not be free of the contaminants for which there are concerns. Primary
and secondary ambient air quality standards for outdoor air can be referred to
ASHRAE Standard 62 [Source: ASHRAE].

• Recirculated air is that air removed from the conditioned space and intended for
reuse as supply air. It differs from return air only in that some of the return air may be
exhausted or relieved through dampers or by fans.

• Makeup air is outdoor air supplied to replace exhaust air and ex-filtration, which is
air leakage outward through cracks, ceilings, floors, and walls of a building. Some
air may be removed from a space directly by room exhaust, usually with exhaust fans.
There must always be a balance between the amount of air mass entering and the
amount leaving a space as well as between the amount of air mass entering and
leaving the entire air supply system.

The basic equation for contaminant concentration in a space is obtained with the aid of
Fig. 6-7, making a balance on the concentrations entering and leaving the conditioned
space assuming complete mixing, a uniform rate of generation of the contaminant, and
uniform concentration of the contaminant within the space and in the entering air. All
balances should be on a mass basis but if densities are assumed constant, then volume
flow rates may be used. For the steady state case, total flow rate entering or leaving the
conditioned space, V&T , can be estimated from:

27
 V&T = V&S + V&I = V&R + V&E + V&RE . . . . . . [5-8]

Contaminant concentration in the conditioned space is then determined from:

V&T C EN + N& = V&T C S . . . . . . [5-9]

Equation [5-9] can be solved for the concentration level in the conditioned space, Cs, or
for the necessary flow rate, V&T , at which air must enter the space to maintain the desired
concentration level of a contaminant within the space. ASHRAE Standard 62 has
suggested methods and “Ventilation Rate Procedure” to achieve acceptable IAQ. It
prescribes the ventilation rates, as shown in Table 5-2, at which outdoor air must be
delivered to a space and various means to condition that air. It prescribes:

• Outdoor air quality acceptable for ventilation.

• Outdoor air treatment when necessary.

• Ventilation rates for residential, commercial, institutional, vehicular, and industrial

spaces.

• Criteria for variable ventilation when the air volume in the space can be used as a
reservoir to dilute contaminants.

ASHRAE Standard 62 also gives procedures by which the outdoor air can be evaluated
for acceptability. Table 5-4 lists the contaminant concentrations allowed in outdoor air.
IAQ is considered acceptable by the Ventilation Rate Procedure if the required rates of
acceptable outdoor air are provided for the occupied space. Rooms provided with
exhaust air systems, such as toilet rooms and bathrooms, kitchens, and smoking lounges,
may be furnished with makeup air from adjacent occupied spaces, provided the quantity
of air supplied meets the requirements of Table 5-4. Air cleaning may be used to reduce
outdoor air requirements below those given in Table 5-4 and still maintain the indoor
concentration of troublesome contaminants below the levels needed to provide a safe
environment. However, there may be some contaminants that are not appreciably
reduced by the air cleaning systems and that may be the controlling factor in determining
the minimum outdoor air rates required.

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 Application Maximum Outdoor Air Remarks
Occupancy Requirement
Person/ CFM/ CFM/ft2
1000 ft2 Person * CFM/Room
Dry Cleaners 30 30 XXX Dry cleaning processes
may require more air.
Food and Supplementary
Beverage Services smoke-removal may be
required.
Dining Rooms 70 20 XXX Make-up air for hood
Kitchens 20 15 XXX exhaust may require more
Bars/Fast Food 100 20 XXX ventilation air.
Hotels and Motels Supplementary
smoke-removal may be
Lobbies 30 15 XXX required for Casinos.
Conference Rooms 50 20 XXX * CFM/Room is
Casinos 120 30 XXX independent of room size.
Enclosed Parking XXX XXX 1.5
Bedrooms XXX XXX * 30
Bathrooms XXX XXX * 35
Offices Supplementary
smoke-removal may be
Office Spaces 7 20 XXX required.
Reception Areas 60 15 XXX
Conference Rooms 50 20 XXX
Public Spaces Local mechanical exhaust
with no recirculation
Corridors/Utilities XXX XXX 0.05 recommended.
Public Restrooms XXX 50 0.5
Dressing Rooms XXX 50 0.5
Retail Stores

Shopping Areas XXX 0.3 XXX

Warehouses 5 0.05 XXX
Specialty Shops Ventilation to optimize
plant growth may dictate
Supermarkets 8 15 XXX requirements.
Hardware/Drugs 8 15 XXX
Barber/Beauty 25 20 XXX
Florists 8 15 XXX
Sports Higher Values may be
required for humidity
Spectator Areas 150 15 XXX control.
Gymnasium 30 20 XXX Increased ventilation may
Discos 100 25 XXX be required when IC
Bowling Alleys 70 25 XXX engines are operating.
Swimming Pools XXX XXX 0.5

29
 Application Maximum Outdoor Air Remarks
Occupancy Requirement
Person/ CFM/ CFM/ft2
1000ft2 Person * CFM/Room
Theatres Special ventilation will be
needed to eliminate special
Stages 70 15 XXX stage effects.
Lobbies 150 20 XXX
Transportation Ventilation within vehicles
may require special
Vehicles 150 15 XXX consideration.
Platforms/ 100 15 XXX
Waiting Rooms
Workrooms Spaces maintained at
extremely low temperatures
Meat Processing 10 15 XXX are not coved by these
Pharmacy 20 15 XXX requirements.
Printing Rooms XXX XXX 0.5
Schools Special contaminant control
systems may be required for
Classrooms 50 15 XXX processes including
Laboratories 30 20 XXX laboratory animal
Music Rooms 50 15 XXX occupancy.
Libraries 20 15 XXX
Dining Halls 100 15 XXX
Locker Rooms XXX XXX 0.5
Hospitals Special requirements and
pressure relationships may
Patient Rooms 10 25 XXX determine minimum
Operation Rooms 20 30 XXX ventilation rates and filter
efficiency.
Air shall not recirculated
into other spaces.

Table 5-4 Outdoor-air Requirements Suggested for Ventilation [Source: ASHRAE]

30
An appropriate ventilation rate to achieve acceptable indoor air quality has been
established based on a pollution balance [Source: Fanger, 1988]:

 G 
V&M = 10   . . . . . . [5-10]
 (C IA − C OA ) E 

Where: C IA Perceived indoor air quality (decipol)

C OA Perceived outdoor air quality (decipol)
E Ventilation effectiveness factor
G Sensory pollution load in the space (olf)
V&M Outdoor air supply rate (l/s)

In Equation [5-10]:

• 1 olf is the pollution generated by a standard, sedentary, non-smoking person in the

state of comfort.

• 1 decipol is the perceived air quality in a space wherein the pollution source strength
is 1 olf and the ventilation rate of clean outdoor air is 10 l/s:

1 decipol = 0.1 olf/(l/s) . . . . . . [5-11]

• E = 1, when the supplied fresh air mixes completely with the air in the room. If some
of the supplied air does not mix with the room air, then for supply point above, and
exhaust point above or at low level of the occupied zone:

C EX
E= <1 . . . . . . [5-12]
CS

Where: C EX Pollution (contaminant) concentration in the exhaust air (ppm of air)

CS Pollution (contaminant) concentration in the occupied zone in a room
(ppm of air)

31
For a pollution source strength of 1 olf, the percentage of dissatisfied people in a room is
inversely proportional to the specific ventilation rate, i.e. For v& M > 0.32 l/(s-olf):

(
P = 395 exp − 1.83 v& M
0.25
) . . . . . . [5-13]

Where: P Percentage of people dissatisfied (%)

v& M Specific ventilation rate (l/(s-olf)

The percentage of unsatisfied people in a room can also be related to the perceived
indoor air quality in decipol, i.e.

C IA = 112 [ln (P ) − 5.98]

−4
. . . . . . [5-14]

6.8.2 Decay Equation in Ventilated Space

Variation of the pollution concentration in an occupied space (e.g. a room) with

ventilation can be predicted by the Decay Equation as indicated in Figure 5.8.

10 6 V&Pg 
Ct =  + C ven  (1 − e −n ) + C O e −n . . . . . . [5-15]
 V&ven 

Where: CO Initial concentration of pollution in the space under consideration

(ppm of air)
Ct Concentration of pollution in the space under consideration at any
instant (ppm of air)
C ven Pollution concentration of the outdoor air admitted into the space
under consideration via ventilation (ppm of air)
n Number of air changes in the space under consideration due to
ventilation

V&ven Rate of outdoor air admitted into the space under consideration via

ventilation (m3/[s-person])

V&Pg
Rate of pollution generated (e.g. by breathing of occupants) in the
space under consideration (m3/[s-person])

32
 Figure 5.8 Pollutants Involved in A Ventilated Room

According to Figure 5.8 V&Pg will enhance the pollution concentration level of the

space under consideration. The ventilated air, V&ven , may enhance or reduce the pollution

concentration level of the space depends on its flow rate and pollution concentration
level.

The Decay Equation [5-15] may be simplified due to the following conditions:

• V&Pg = 0, if there is no pollution generation in the space (e.g. the space (a room) is

not occupied).

• C ven = 0, if the entering air is totally free from pollution.

• C O = 0, if the space has no initial pollution.

Number of air changes “n” due to ventilation to the space under consideration is
highly dependent on the ventilation of outdoor air and volume of the space, and can be
determined from:

E V&FA t
n= . . . . . . [5-16]
VSA

33
Where: E Effectiveness factor of the ventilation system
t Time period under consideration (s)
V&FA Minimum rate of fresh air supplied to a person in the space under

consideration (m3/s-person) [usually = V&ven ]

VSA Minimum volume (in space) allowed for a person in the space under
consideration (m3/person)

5.8.3 Space Air Distribution

In some cases, such as where contaminants exist in an industrial building, it is desirable

to minimize mixing of air within the occupied zone. This can be accomplished to some
degree by displacement ventilation, where air only slightly lower in temperature than the
desired occupied space temperature is supplied at low velocity from outlets near floor
level. A vertical temperature gradient exists in the occupied zone, and good design of the
system should hold the temperature difference below 3 °C. Where contaminant sources
can be localized, the offending gas can be removed from the conditioned space before it
spreads into the occupied zone. This involves control of the local air motion by the
creation of pressure differentials, by exhaust fans, or by careful location of inlet diffusers
and air return inlets.

5.9 References

• J. Glynn Henry and Gary W. Heinke, “Environmental Science and Engineering”, 2nd
edition, Prentice-Hall, 1996.

• NSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, “Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality”,

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, 1989.

34