Lecture 4Section 7.4 The Exponential Function Section 7.

Arbitrary Powers; Other Bases

Jiwen He

1 Definition and Properties of the Exp Function

1.1 Definition of the Exp Function
Number e

Definition 1. The number e is defined by

ln e = 1

i.e., the unique number at which ln x = 1.

Remark
Let L(x) = ln x and E(x) = ex for x rational. Then

L ◦ E(x) = ln ex = x ln e = x,

i.e., E(x) is the inverse of L(x).

ex : Inverse of ln x

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Definition 2. The exp function E(x) = ex is the inverse of the log function
L(x) = ln x:
L ◦ E(x) = ln ex = x, ∀x.

Properties
• ln x is the inverse of ex : ∀x > 0, E ◦ L = eln x = x.

• ∀x > 0, y = ln x ⇔ ey = x.

• graph(ex ) is the reflection of graph(ln x) by line y = x.

• range(E) = domain(L) = (0, ∞), domain(E) = range(L) = (−∞, ∞).

• lim ex = 0 ⇔ lim ln x = −∞, lim ex = ∞ ⇔ lim ln x =

x→−∞ x→0+ x→∞ x→∞
∞.

1.2 Properties of the Exp Function

Algebraic Property
Lemma 3. • ex+y = ex · ey .
1
• e−x = .
ex
ex
• ex−y = .
ey
r
• erx = (ex ) , ∀r rational.

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Proof

ln ex+y = x + y = ln ex + ln ey = ln (ex · ey ) .
Since ln x is one-to-one, then

ex+y = ex · ey .

1
1 = e0 = ex+(−x) = ex · e−x ⇒ e−x = .
ex
1 ex
ex−y = ex+(−y) = ex · e−y = ex · y
= y.
e e
m m
z }| { z }|
x + · · · + x
{
mx m
• For r = m ∈ N, e = e = e · · · ex = (ex ) .
x

n
 1 n 1 1
• For r = n1 , n ∈ N and n 6= 0, ex = e n x = e n x ⇒ e n x = (ex ) n .
m
rx
• For r rational, let r = mn , m, n ∈ N and n 6= 0. Then e = enx =
 1 m  1
m m
r
enx = (ex ) n = (ex ) n = (ex ) .

Derivatives Z
d x
Lemma 4. • e = ex ⇒ ex dx = ex + C.
dx
dm x
• e = ex > 0 ⇒ E(x) = ex is concave up, increasing, and positive.
dxm

Proof
Since E(x) = ex is the inverse of L(x) = ln x, then with y = ex ,

d x 1 1 1
e = E 0 (x) = 0 = = 1 = y = ex .
dx L (y) (ln y)0 y

First, for m = 1, it is true. Next, assume that it is true for k, then

dk+1 x
 k 
d d x d x
k+1
e = k
e = (e ) = ex .
dx dx dx dx

By the axiom of induction, it is true for all positive integer m.

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1.3 Another Definition of the Exp Function
xk
P∞
ex : as the series k=0 k!

Definition 5. (Section 11.5)

∞
X xk x2 x3
ex = =1+x+ + + ···
k! 2! 3!
k=0
n
!
X xk
= lim , ∀x ∈ R.
n→∞ k!
k=0

(k! = 1 · 2 · · · k)

Number e
∞ n
!
X 1 1 1 1 X 1
• e= =1+ + + + · · · = lim .
k! 1 1·2 1·2·3 n→∞ k!
k=0 k=0

• e ≈ 2.71828182845904523536 . . .

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 ex
Limit: limx→∞ xn
Theorem 6.
ex
lim = ∞, ∀n ∈ N.
x→∞ xn

Proof. • Recall that

∞
X xk x x2 x3
ex = =1+ + + + ··· .
k! 1 1·2 1·2·3
k=0

• For large x > 0,

xp ex xp−n
ex > ⇒ > .
p! xn p!
ex
• For p > n, lim xp−n = ∞, then lim = ∞.
x→∞ x→∞ xn

Quiz
Quiz

1. domain of ln 1 + x2 :


(a) x > 1, (b) x > −1, (c) any x.
p

2. domain of ln x 4 + x2 : (a) x 6= 0, (b) x > 0, (c) any x.

2 Differentiation and Graphing

2.1 Chain Rule
Differentiation: Chain Rule
d u du
Lemma 7. e = eu .
dx dx

Proof
By the chain rule,
d u d u du du
e = (e ) = eu
dx du dx dx
d kx
Examples 8. • e = ekx · k = kekx .
dx
√
d √x √ d √ √ 1 e x
• e =e x· x=e x· √ y= √
dx dx 2 x 2 x
d −x2 2 d 2 2
= e−x −x2 = e−x (−2x) = −2xe−x .


• e
dx dx

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Examples: Chain Rule
d 4 ln x
Examples 9. • e .
dx
d sin 2x
• e .
dx
d
ln cos e2x .


•
dx
Solution
Simplify it before the differentiation:

4 d 4 ln x d 4
e4 ln x = eln x = x4 ⇒ e = x = 4x3 .
dx dx
By the chain rule,
d sin 2x d
e = esin 2x sin 2x = esin 2x · 2 cos 2x
dx dx
By the chain rule,
d 1
d 2x
ln cos e2x = · − sin e2x · e = −2e2x tan e2x .


dx cos e2x dx

2.2 Graphing
x2
Graph of f (x) = e− 2

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 x2
Example 10. Let f (x) = e− 2 . Determine the symmetry of graph and
asymptotes. On what intervals does f increase? Decrease? Find the extrem
values of f .Determine the concavity and inflection points.
Solution

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 (−x)2 x2 (−x)2
Since f (−x) = e− 2 = e− 2 = f (x) and lim e− 2 = 0, the graph is
x→±∞
symmetry w.r.t. the y-axis, and the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
x2 x2
• We have f 0 (x) = e− 2 (−x) = −xe− 2 .
• Thus f ↑ on (−∞, 0) and ↓ on (0, ∞).
• At x = 0, f 0 (x) = 0. Thus f (0) = e0 = 1
is the (only) local and absolute maximum.
x2 x2 x2 x2
• From f 0 (x) = −xe− 2 , we have f 00 (x) = −e− 2 + x2 e− 2 = (x2 − 1)e− 2 .
• At x = ±1, f 00 (x) = 0. Then, the graph is concave up on (−∞, −1) and
(1, ∞); the graph is concave down on (−1, 1).
1
• The points (±1, f (±1)) = (±1, e− 2 )
are points of inflection.

Quiz (cont.)
Quiz (cont.)
d 1 1 1
3. (ln |x|) =? : (a) , (b) , (c) − .
dx x |x| x
Z
4. x−1 dx =? : (a) ln x + C, (b) ln |x| + C, (c) x−1 + C.

3 Integration
3.1 u-Substitution
Integration: u-Substitution
Theorem 11. Z
eg(x) g 0 (x) dx = eg(x) + C.

Proof.
Let u = g(x), thus du = g 0 (x)dx, then
Z Z
g(x) 0
e g (x) dx = eu du = eu + C = eg(x) + C.

Z
x2 2
Example 12. Calculate xe− 2 dx. Let u = − x2 , thus du = −xdx, then
Z Z
x2 x2
xe− 2 dx = − eu du = −eu + C = −e− 2 + C.

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4 Arbitrary Powers
4.1 Arbitrary Powers
Arbitrary Powers: f (x) = xr
Definition 13. For z irrational, we define xz = ez ln x , x > 0.

Properties (r and s real numbers)

• For x > 0, xr = er ln x .
xr s
• xr+s = xr · xs , xr−s = , xrs = (xr )
xs
xr+1
Z
d r
• x = rxr−1 , ⇒ xr dx = + C, for r 6= −1.
dx r+1

d
3x d 3x ln(x2 +1) 2 d

x2 + 1 = e3x ln(x +1) 3x ln(x2 + 1)


Example 14. = e
dx 2 dx  dx
3x ln(x2 +1) 6x 2
=e + 3 ln(x + 1)
x2 + 1

4.2 Other Bases

Other Bases: f (x) = px , p > 0
Definition 15. For p > 0, the function

f (x) = px = ex ln p

is called the exp function with base p.

Properties
Z
d x 1 x
p = px ln p ⇒ px dx = p + C, for p > 0, p 6= 1
dx ln p

Other Bases: f (x) = logp x, p > 0

Definition 16. For p > 0, the function
ln x
f (x) = logp x =
ln p
is called the log function with base p.

Properties
d 1
logp x = .
dx x ln p

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Outline

Contents
1 Definition and Properties 1
1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Another Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Differentiation 5
2.1 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Integration 8
3.1 u-Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Arbitrary Powers 9
4.1 Arbitrary Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Other Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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